Physics Aviation

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MAINTENANCE
HANDBOOK
For EASA Part 66 Module Exams
Module 2:
PHYSICS
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Published by AeroChapter
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 Matter 1
Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
CHAPTER 2 Scalar and Vector Quantities 19
CHAPTER 3 Mechanics 25
Statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Mechanical Advantage, Velocity Ratio and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Momentum, Energy and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Gyroscopic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
CHAPTER 4 Centre of Gravity 59
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CHAPTER 5 Strength of Materials 61

Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Hooke’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
CHAPTER 6 Fluid Mechanics 69

Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Relative Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
CHAPTER 7 Fluid Dynamics 75

Bernoulli’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
CHAPTER 8 Thermodynamics 79
Laws of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Engine Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Latent Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
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CHAPTER 9 Optics 93
Fibre Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
CHAPTER 10 Wave Motion 113
CHAPTER 11 Sound 115
v
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1.1 Phase change from solid to gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

FIGURE 1.2 Phase change from gas to solid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
FIGURE 1.3 Types of phase changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
FIGURE 1.4 Phase changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
FIGURE 1.4A Periodic table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
FIGURE 1.5 Structure of an atom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
FIGURE 1.6 Carbon atom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
FIGURE 1.7 Atom shell structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
FIGURE 1.8 Electron configuration table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
FIGURE 1.9 Valence electrons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
FIGURE 1.10 Hydrogen atom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
FIGURE 1.11 Helium atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
FIGURE 1.12 Silicon atom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
FIGURE 1.13 Germanium atom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
FIGURE 1.14 Isotopes of carbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
FIGURE 1.15 Noble gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
FIGURE 1.16 Water molecule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
FIGURE 1.17 Current flow through conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
FIGURE 1.18 Negative flow through conductor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
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FIGURE 2.1 Scalar quantities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

FIGURE 2.2 Scalar quantity time scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
FIGURE 2.3 Vector quantities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
FIGURE 2.4 Graphical representation of vector quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
FIGURE 2.5 Graphical representation of resultant force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
FIGURE 2.6 Vector quantity space diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
FIGURE 2.7 Example for two vector quantities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
FIGURE 2.8 Vector diagram representing the forces in the above
example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
FIGURE 2.9 Example for more than two vector quantities. . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
FIGURE 2.10 Vector diagram representing the forces in the above
example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
FIGURE 2.11 Examples for addition of vector quantities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
FIGURE 3.1 Example for forces produced by an airplane. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
FIGURE 3.2 Moment of force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
FIGURE 3.3 Force applied through the pivot point (a). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
FIGURE 3.4 Force applied through the pivot point (b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
FIGURE 3.5 Force applied at an inclined angle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
FIGURE 3.6 Clockwise moment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
FIGURE 3.7 Anti-clockwise moment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
FIGURE 3.8 A beam in equilibrium of rotation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
FIGURE 3.9 A beam in equilibrium of translation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
FIGURE 3.10 Example of equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
FIGURE 3.11 Example of force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
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FIGURE 3.12 Example of pivot point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

FIGURE 3.13 Example of torque (1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
FIGURE 3.16 Couple. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
FIGURE 3.17 Arrangement shown to calculate couple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
FIGURE 3.18 Example for linear motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
FIGURE 3.19 Vector diagram to calculate liner motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
FIGURE 3.20 Velocity-time diagram to calculate the distance. . . . . . . . . . . . 39
FIGURE 3.21 Representation of angular distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
FIGURE 3.22 Centripetal force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
FIGURE 3.23 Centrifugal force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
FIGURE 3.24 Lift force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
FIGURE 3.25 Rotation of a piston in an engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
FIGURE 3.26 Simple harmonic motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
FIGURE 3.27 Inertia during take-off. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
FIGURE 3.28 Inertia during landing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
FIGURE 3.29 Mechanical advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
FIGURE 3.30 Velocity ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
FIGURE 3.31 Momentum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
FIGURE 3.32 Energy changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
FIGURE 3.33 Friction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
FIGURE 3.34 Inclined friction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
FIGURE 3.35 Rolling friction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
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FIGURE 3.36 Gyroscope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

FIGURE 3.37 Radius of gyration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
FIGURE 4.1 Location of centre of gravity for common shapes. . . . . . . . . . 59
FIGURE 4.2 Aircraft C of G location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
FIGURE 5.1 Density of materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
FIGURE 5.2 Direction of forces for shear and compressional stresses. . . . 62
FIGURE 5.3 Measurement ratio for strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
FIGURE 5.4 Hooke’s law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
FIGURE 5.5 Graph for plain carbon steel of load against extension. . . . . . 64
FIGURE 5.6 Young’s modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
FIGURE 5.7 Tension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
FIGURE 5.8 Compression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
FIGURE 5.9 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
FIGURE 5.10 A beam resting on two supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
FIGURE 5.11 An engine rotating a propeller shaft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
FIGURE 6.1 Bramah’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
FIGURE 6.2 The mercury barometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
FIGURE 6.3 Piezometer tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
FIGURE 6.4 The manometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
FIGURE 6.5 The hydrometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
FIGURE 7.1 The Venturi tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
FIGURE 8.1 Ways of heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
FIGURE 8.2 A system and its boundary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
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FIGURE 8.3 Boyle’s law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

FIGURE 8.4 Charles’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
FIGURE 8.5 The constant volume cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
FIGURE 8.6 The constant pressure cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
FIGURE 8.7 The heat engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
FIGURE 8.8 The heat pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
FIGURE 8.9 Speed of sound against temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
FIGURE 9.1 Nature of light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
FIGURE 9.2 The electromagnetic spectrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
FIGURE 9.3 Colour combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
FIGURE 9.4 Light dispersion in glass prism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
FIGURE 9.5 Angle of incidence and reflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
FIGURE 9.6 Reflection of light on concave mirror. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
FIGURE 9.7 Reflection of light on convex mirror. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
FIGURE 9.8 Refraction of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
FIGURE 9.9 Concave lens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
FIGURE 9.10 Convex lens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
FIGURE 9.11 Elements of optical fibre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
FIGURE 9.12 Single mode optical fibre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
FIGURE 9.13 Multi-mode step index optical fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
FIGURE 9.14 Travel of light in monomode fibre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
FIGURE 9.15 Wavelength for LEDs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
FIGURE 9.16 Wavelength for laser diodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
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FIGURE 9.17 Sensor coupling arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

FIGURE 9.18 2 x 1 coupler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
FIGURE 9.19 Star coupler combination of fibers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
FIGURE 9.20 Fibre optic splitter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
FIGURE 9.21 The FOG (Fibre Optic Gyro). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
FIGURE 10.1 Graph representing wave motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
FIGURE 11.1 Harmonic waveforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
FIGURE 11.2 The Doppler effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
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CHAPTER
1 Matter
The relevance of physics is all around us. Computers, lasers, telecommunications,

nuclear power and space travel are among the many applications of physics. There
are sophisticated experiments on fundamental particles of matter, exotic new theories
on the nature of matter or the whole universe. In this universe, everything is made of
matter, including the air we breathe, the sand beneath our feet and the heavenly bodies
in the sky above.
States of Matter
Matter exists in four states, called solid, liquid, gas and plasma. However, in this study we
restrict attention to only the three states of solid, liquid and gas. Substances made of
matter take any of these three forms, but adding or removing energy can readily change
the state. For example, when enough heat energy is removed from water, a liquid state,
it becomes ice, a solid state, and when enough heat energy is added to water, it becomes
steam, a gaseous state.
Solid: Solid materials are formed from densely packed particles called molecules. These
molecules are strongly attracted to each other, and held together in a stable pattern.
Molecules do not move around freely in solids, but vibrate in their fixed positions.
With an increase in temperature, these molecules vibrate faster and gain kinetic energy.
Solid particles expand a little when heated, but not by as much as for liquids and gases.
Liquid: Materials in a liquid state have a definite volume at any given temperature,
but do not conform to a definite shape. Molecules in liquid substances move rapidly in
all directions, and frequently collide with each other. With an increase in temperature,
these molecules move faster, and gain kinetic energy. Liquids expand when heated and
contract when cooled. They flow freely but are not as fluid as gases. Like solids, liquids
are not compressible.
1
Ma tte r
Gas: Materials in a gaseous state have molecules widely spread, and scattered across
the volume wherein the gas is contained. In gases, the molecules move freely in all
directions, and frequently collide with each other and with the walls of any container.
When heated, the molecules move faster and gain kinetic energy. They also expand
when heated and contract when cooled. However, they have no surface, and neither
shape nor volume is fixed. Gases are highly compressible.
Phase Changes of Matter

Matter can change from one state/phase to another at a specific temperature and sur-
rounding pressure. However, the temperature is usually the determining factor in any
phase change, because pressure is typically the atmospheric pressure.
When heat is continuously applied to solid matter, it may change its state and go
from solid to liquid, and then to gas (Fig. 1.1). There are some exceptions where the
matter will go directly from a solid to a gas.
Solid Liquid Gas
add heat add heat

© AeroChapter
FIGURE 1.1 Phase change from solid to gas
When a gas is continuously cooled, it may change its state and transit from gas to
liquid, and then to solid (Fig. 1.2).
There are some exceptions where the material will go directly from a gas to a solid.
Gas Liquid Solid
remove remove
heat heat
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 1.2 Phase change from gas to solid
2
Matter
Types of Phase Changes

Name Start from... Change to...
Melting or Fusion Solid Liquid
Boiling or Vaporization Liquid Gas
Condensation Gas Liquid
Freezing or Solidification Liquid Solid
Sublimation Solid Gas (skip liquid phase)
Deposition Gas Solid (skip liquid phase)

© AeroChapter
FIGURE 1.3 Types of phase changes
Melting: Melting is a phase transition in which a solid substance changes into a liquid
substance. When heated, the temperature of the particles in solid matter rises. As the
temperature rises, the particles vibrate very rapidly and gain kinetic energy. Once the
temperature reaches a threshold value called a melting point, the internal ordered struc-
ture of the particles breaks up and the solid starts to melt into a liquid. Each material
has a set melting point at normal air pressure. At high altitudes, where the air pressure
is low, the melting point is also low.
Freezing or Solidification: Freezing is a phase transition in which a liquid substance
turns into a solid substance. When a substance is cooled, the particles release heat
energy. Once the temperature drops to a threshold value called the freezing point, the
liquid turns into a solid. For example, volcanic red hot lava erupts in liquid form, and
begins to solidify into solid rock once it meets the earth’s surface.
Boiling or Vaporisation: When a liquid is heated, the particles gain kinetic energy,
move faster and become further apart. When the temperature reaches a threshold value
called a boiling point, the particles break free from one another and the liquid turns
into gas. The boiling point of a substance is always the same.
Condensation: A phase transition in which gas turns into liquid upon cooling is called
condensation. A familiar example is condensation, when water vapour begins to turn
into liquid water droplets as the temperature drops.
Evaporation: Evaporation is a phase change in which liquid turns into gas below its
boiling point. This occurs when some particles in a liquid that have enough energy
break free from the rest, to enter a gaseous state.
3
Ma tte r
Gas
Condensation
Vaporization
Boiling or
Sublimation
Deposition
Liquid
Solidification
Freezing or
Melting or
Fusion
add remove
heat heat
Solid
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 1.4 Phase changes
Elements
Elements are the fundamental substances of all matter, and cannot be broken down by
any physical or chemical means. Elements may exist in the form of atoms or molecules.
As will be described soon, molecules are made up of atoms, and atoms are made up of
various sub-atomic particles such as electrons, protons or neutrons.
As of April 2011, scientists had discovered or created 118 elements. All the ele-
ments are arranged according to their atomic number on a chart called the Periodic
Table of Elements (Fig. 1.4A). The first 92 elements (Hydrogen, Helium, Gold, Silver,
Carbon and so on) listed in the periodic table were found in nature, and the rest
(Dubnium, Fermium and so on) were created in laboratories. Some elements such as
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen make up all living organisms.
A particular element will have only one kind of atom and the number of protons
in that atom defines the type of element. For example, an atom having 6 protons, 6
neutrons and 6 electrons will always make up an element called carbon and possess the
properties associated with the element carbon, whereas an atom having 1 proton and
1 electron will always make up an element called hydrogen and have the properties
associated with the element hydrogen.
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 2 K
L
1 Atomic # 2 M
N
O
P
1 H Symbol He Q
Hydrogen Name Metals Nonmetals Helium
1.008 N Weight C Solid Pnictogens Chalcogens Halogens 4.0026 G
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 K
1 2 Lanthanoids 3 4 5 6 7 8 L
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 M
N
Hg Liquid (Lanthanides) O
P
Other
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne Q
metals
metals
metals
Metalloids
Lithium Beryllium L Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
6.94 H Gas
Transition
K 9.0122 E Actinoids 10.81 M 12.011 N 14.007 N 15.999 N 18.998 N 20.180 G
nonmetals
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 K
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 L
Noble gases
Alkali metals
11 1 12 2 (Actinides) 13 3 14 4 15 5 16 6 17 7 18 8 M
N
Alkaline earth
O
Post-transition
Rf Unknown P
3 Na Mg K E A T P M N G Al Si P S Cl Ar Q
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
22.990 K 24.305 E 26.982 P 28.085 M 30.974 N 32.06 N 35.45 N 39.948 G
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 K
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 L
19 8 20 8 21 9 22 10 23 11 24 13 25 13 26 14 27 15 28 16 29 18 30 18 31 18 32 18 33 18 34 18 35 18 36 18 M
1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N
O
P
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Q
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39.098 K 40.078 E 44.956 T 47.867 T 50.942 T 51.996 T 54.938 T 55.845 T 58.933 T 58.693 T 63.546 T 65.38 T 69.723 P 72.630 M 74.922 M 78.971 N 79.904 N 83.798 G
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 K
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 L
37 18 38 18 39 18 40 18 41 18 42 18 43 18 44 18 45 18 46 18 47 18 48 18 49 18 50 18 51 18 52 18 53 18 54 18 M
8 8 9 10 12 13 13 15 16 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 N
1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 O
P
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Q
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
85.468 K 87.62 E 88.906 T 91.224 T 92.906 T 95.95 T (98) T 101.07 T 102.91 T 106.42 T 107.87 T 112.41 T 114.82 P 118.71 P 121.76 M 127.60 M 126.90 N 131.29 G
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 K
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 L
55 18 56 18 72 18 73 18 74 18 75 18 76 18 77 18 78 18 79 18 80 18 81 18 82 18 83 18 84 18 85 18 86 18 M
18 18 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 N
8 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 O
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 P
6 Cs Ba 57–71 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Q
Caesium Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
132.91 K 137.33 E 178.49 T 180.95 T 183.84 T 186.21 T 190.23 T 192.22 T 195.08 T 196.97 T 200.59 T 204.38 P 207.2 P 208.98 P (209) P (210) M (222) G
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 K
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 L
87 18 88 18 104 18 105 18 106 18 107 18 108 18 109 18 110 18 111 18 112 18 113 18 114 18 115 18 116 18 117 18 118 18 M
32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 N
18 18 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 O
8 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 P
7 Fr Ra1 2 89–103 Rf 2 Db 2 Sg 2 Bh 2
Hs 2
Mt 2 Ds 1 Rg 1 Cn 2 Nh 3
Fl 4 Mc 5 Lv 6 Ts 7 Og 8 Q
Francium Radium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
(223) K (226) E (267) T (268) T (269) T (270) T (277) T (278) (281) (282) (285) T (286) (289) P (290) (293) (294) (294)
For elements with no stable isotopes, the mass number of the isotope with the longest half-life is in parentheses.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
57 18 58 18 59 18 60 18 61 18 62 18 63 18 64 18 65 18 66 18 67 18 68 18 69 18 70 18 71 18
18 19 21 22 23 24 25 25 27 28 29 30 31 32 32
9 9 8 8 8 8 8 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 9
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
6 La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
138.91 L 140.12 L 140.91 L 144.24 L (145) L 150.36 L 151.96 L 157.25 L 158.93 L 162.50 L 164.93 L 167.26 L 168.93 L 173.05 L 174.97 L
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
89 18 90 18 91 18 92 18 93 18 94 18 95 18 96 18 97 18 98 18 99 18 100 18 101 18 102 18 103 18
32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
18 18 20 21 22 24 25 25 27 28 29 30 31 32 32
9 10 9 9 9 8 8 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
7 Ac Th 2 Pa 2
U Np Pu 2
Am Cm Bk 2 Cf 2
Es 2
Fm Md No 2 Lr 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
(227) A 232.04 A 231.04 A 238.03 A (237) A (244) A (243) A (247) A (247) A (251) A (252) A (257) A (258) A (259) A (266) A
Design Copyright © 2017 Michael Dayah (michael@dayah.com). For a fully interactive version with orbitals, isotopes, compounds, and free printouts, visit http://www.ptable.com/
FIGURE 1.4A Periodic table

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ATOMS
An atom is the smallest possible particle of an element that has same chemical prop-
erties characteristic of that element. Everything in the universe, including all living
things, is made up of atoms.
Atomic Structure
A typical atom is composed of a nucleus in the centre surrounded by a cloud of elec-
trons orbiting the nucleus. The dense nucleus consists of subatomic particles called
protons and neutrons (Fig. 1.5). The nucleus is positively (+) charged and has most
of the mass of an atom.
By definition, an atom has no overall electrical charge because there is always
an equal number of negatively (–) charged electrons to neutralise the positively (+)
charged protons in the nucleus. Overall, a typical atom will have an equal number of
protons and electrons. Neutrons are electrically neutral, with no charge, either positive
or negative.
Electron
Neutron
Nucleus
Proton
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 1.5 Structure of an atom
Subatomic Particles
Proton: The proton is a subatomic particle that resides within the nucleus of an atom.
The number of protons in the nucleus defines the atomic number of an element as
outlined in the periodic table of elements. The proton has a positive electrical charge,
equal and opposite to the charge of a single electron. The number of protons in the
atoms of a particular element is always the same, whereas the number of neutrons
6
Matter
may vary. When this occurs, the different forms of the element are called isotopes. The
mass of a proton is approximately 1,836 times that of an electron.
Electron: An electron is a subatomic particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom.
Negatively charged electrons form a cloud around the nucleus and are attracted to
the positively charged protons in the nucleus. The charge of an electron is equal and
opposite to that of a positively charged proton. Electrons are very light particles and
move at an appreciable fraction of the speed of light. The electron has a very small
mass compared to a proton. As mentioned already, the mass of a proton is about 2000
times that of an electron. Electrons orbit the nucleus within spherical shells of various
radii, representing energy levels. The larger the spherical shell, the higher the energy
contained in the orbiting electrons.
Neutron: A neutron is a subatomic particle that resides within the nucleus of an atom.
Neutrons are electrically neutral and carry no charge. The mass of a neutron is slightly
larger than that of a proton.
Atomic Number
The atomic number is a unique identification number of an element, and is the num-
ber of protons in the nucleus of an element’s atom. Since the numbers of protons and
electrons are equal, the atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons. The
atomic number of an element will never change. For example, all hydrogen atoms will
have only 1 proton, with atomic number of 1 and all carbon atoms will have only 6
protons, with atomic number always of 6.
Atomic Mass
The total mass of protons, neutrons and electrons in a single atom when it is at rest is
called atomic mass.
Mass number 12
Atomic number 6
C
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 1.6 Carbon atom
Electron Configuration
The following rules of the Bohr and Bury Scheme specify the distribution of electrons
in various orbits (Fig. 1.7). The shells are lettered from the innermost to outwards from
K to Q.
7
Ma tte r
1. The maximum number of electrons that can occupy a given orbit is given by a
formula 2n2, where n = orbit number.
For example the 3rd shell ‘M’ can contain
2 × n2 = 2 × 32
= 18 electrons
2. The outermost orbit can have a maximum of 8 electrons, and the next inner
orbit from the outermost (the penultimate) can have a maximum of 18 elec-
trons, if permissible, in accordance with rule 1.
3. It is not always necessary to fill up an orbit completely before starting the next
higher orbit.
Shell Identification Letter
N
2 8 18 32
Maximum Number
of Electrons
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 1.7 Atom shell structure
ELEMENT SYMBOL ATOMIC ORBITS

NUMBER
(Maximum possible number of electrons
on each shell is listed in brackets)
K L M N O P Q
(2) (8) (18) (32) (50) (72) (8)
Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 2
Boron B 5 2 3
Oxygen O 8 2 6
Sodium Na 11 2 8 1
Aluminium Al 13 2 8 3
Silicon Si 14 2 8 4
Copper Cu 29 2 8 18 1
Germanium Ge 32 2 8 18 4
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 1.8 Electron configuration table
8
Matter
Valence Electrons
The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons (Fig. 1.9).
They determine the reactivity of an atom and how they can bond with other atoms. An
atom having 8 valence electrons, i.e. a full outermost shell, is called a stable atom, and
will not react or bond with other atoms.
L
Valance
K electrons
4 Number of
electrons
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 1.9 Valence electrons
Exceptions to the rules are Hydrogen (H) and Helium (He). The hydrogen atom
has only one proton and one electron as shown in the following figure. Hydrogen
atoms are highly reactive (Fig. 1.10). Two hydrogen atoms bond with one oxygen atom
to form a molecule H20 called water.
Electron
Nucleus
Proton
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 1.10 Hydrogen atom
9
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Helium is a noble gas even though it has two electrons and two protons as shown
in Fig. 1.11.
2 Electrons
Nucleus
2 Protons
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 1.11 Helium atom
Atoms of Silicon (Si) (Fig. 1.12) and Germanium (Ge) (Fig. 1.13) have 4 valence
electrons. These elements are used for the manufacture of transistors.
M
K Electrons
4 Number of
electrons
FIGURE 1.12 Silicon atom
© AeroChapter
Electrons
18
4 Number of
electrons
FIGURE 1.13 Germanium atom
© AeroChapter
10
Matter
Isotopes
The atoms of two or more forms of an element having same atomic number but dif-
ferent atomic mass numbers are called isotopes. In other words, the atoms of isotopes
will have an equal number of protons (Fig. 1.14) but differing numbers of neutrons.
For example, isotopes of a Carbon element consist of 6 protons but varying numbers
(6, 7 or 8) of neutrons. And these isotopes are named Carbon-12, Carbon-13 and
Carbon-14 respectively. The chemical properties of different isotopes of an element are
identical, but their difference is in nuclear stability.
6 Electrons 6 Electrons 6 Electrons
6 Neutrons 7 Neutrons 8 Neutrons
6 Protons 6 Protons 6 Protons
12 13 14
C (Carbon - 12) C (Carbon - 13) C (Carbon - 14)
Proton - 6 Proton - 6 Proton - 6
Neutron - 6 Neutron - 7 Neutron - 8
Atomic weight - 6P + 6N = 12 Atomic weight - 6P + 7N = 13 Atomic weight - 6P + 8N = 14
FIGURE 1.14 Isotopes of carbon

© AeroChapter
Ions
In their natural state atoms are electrically neutral, because negatively charged elec-
trons neutralise the positively charged protons, both being present in equal numbers.
However, an atom can become positively or negatively charged if it gains or loses
electrons.
When an atom gives up an electron, it becomes positively charged and is called
a positive ion. When it gains an electron it becomes negatively charged and is called a
negative ion.
Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are loosely tied to the nucleus and are
free to move from one atom to another. This movement happens randomly, but by
applying an electrical external force (a battery or DC generator), they can be made to
move in one direction. This flow of electrons from one atom to another in one direc-
tion is called electrical current.
11
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Noble Gases/Inert Gases

The elements with stable atoms (complete valence) are called noble gases. They are a
family of non-reactive gases found in group 18 of the periodic table of elements. They
are helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon (Fig. 1.15).
2 8 8
He Ne Ar
Noble Gases
Kr Xe Re
8 8 8
Electrons on valence shell is 8, except for He, which has 2.

© AeroChapter
FIGURE 1.15 Noble gases
At standard temperature and pressure, all noble gases are monatomic: a monatomic
gas is one whose atoms never bind with another atom, and always remain as single
atoms. For example, if you take oxygen O2 or nitrogen N2, they exist in the form of
two atoms joined together, whereas noble gases like neon (Ne) or argon (Ar), remain
as a single atom.
Noble gases are less likely to react chemically with other gases, since their outer-
most or valence electron shell is complete. Except for helium (with 2 atoms on the
valence shell, the maximum possible), all other noble gas atoms have 8 electrons in the
outermost shell.
• Helium, the most common noble gas, makes up about 1/4 of all atoms in the
universe.
• Argon is another of the most common noble gases here on Earth, making up 1%
of our atmosphere. Argon gas is used in light bulbs, where it provides an inert
atmosphere for the electrified tungsten filament.
• Neon gas is used to illuminate signs that we call neon lights.
• Krypton is used for lasers.
12
Matter
There are other elements besides noble gases which can also attain a stable condi-
tion by gaining, losing or sharing electrons. To summarise:
• An atom is the smallest particle of an element.
• An atom consists of protons, neutrons and electrons.
• The nucleus is the core of an atom where protons and neutrons reside.
• The nucleus is positively (+) charged.
• Protons are positively (+) charged.
• Neutrons have no electrical charge.
• Electrons are negatively (−) charged.
• Protons and neutrons have nearly same amount of mass.
• The mass of proton is approximately 1836 times that of an electron.
• In an atom, the number of protons = number of neutrons = the atomic number.
• The atomic mass = number of protons + number of neutrons.
MOLECULES
Molecules are formed when two or more atoms join together chemically. The atoms,
which make up a molecule, can be from a single element or from two or more different
elements. For example, two atoms of hydrogen form a hydrogen molecule denoted
by H2, and on the other hand three atoms, two from hydrogen and one from oxygen,
form a water molecule, denoted by H2O (Fig. 1.16).
O
Electrons
2
8
H
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 1.16 Water molecule
13
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Compounds
A compound is a substance formed when atoms of two or more different elements join
together chemically. The smallest unit of a compound is called a molecule. The molecules
formed by two or more different elements are the molecules of the compound. When
different elements are joined, the atoms lose the properties from their original elements,
and gain different properties from the elements they are composed of. Compounds
always contain the same ratio of component atoms within their molecules, and can be
separated only by chemical means -- not by physical means. Thus, all compounds are
made up of molecules, but not all molecules are part of compounds. The splitting of a
chemical compound is called analysis and the formation of a compound from simpler
compounds or elements is called synthesis. A list of familiar compounds is given below.
• Water (H2O)
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Mixtures
Mixtures are made when different elements or compounds are physically intermingled,
but not joined together chemically. Air is a mixture of gases that is about 78% pure ele-
mental nitrogen and 21% pure elemental oxygen. Mixtures can be separated into their
original components by physical means, and often retain many of the properties of the
original components. For example, a mixture of iron and sulphur is formed when you
physically mix sulphur (S) powder and iron (Fe) filings. This new mixture will retain
the original properties of both iron and sulphur. The use of a magnet, which attracts
the iron filings and leaves the sulphur behind, can separate the mixture into its original
iron and sulphur components. When the mixture of iron and sulphur is heated in a
test tube, they react together and form a new compound called iron sulphide (FeS).
This new compound will have neither the properties of iron nor sulphur and cannot
be separated by physical means.
Molecular Forces
Cohesive force: The intermolecular attraction between molecules of the same substance
is called a cohesive force.
Adhesive force: The attraction between the molecules of different substances is called
an adhesive force.
14
Matter
Chemical Equation
This is a symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in the form of symbols and
formulae, wherein the reactant entities are on the left hand side and the product enti-
ties on the right hand side.
Example
Chemical combination of two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom forms a water
molecule. The chemical equation for this reaction is below.
H2 + O → H2O
The subscript number denotes the number of atoms of the same element entering into
the chemical reaction. In the above equation, the number 2 as in H2 indicates that the
two hydrogen (H) atoms of a hydrogen molecule H2. This, plus a single oxygen atom
O are needed to form a water molecule H2O. The atomic mass is the mass of an atom
whereas the molecular mass is the mass of all the atoms that form a molecule. Thus the
atomic mass of an oxygen (O2) molecule is 16 and its molecular mass is 32 (16 × 2).
Balancing chemical equations: These equations have to be balanced, so that during
the chemical reaction there are no atoms lost or gained. Thus the number of atoms of
each element on the left side should be equal to the corresponding number on the right
side. For example, when we add two molecules of hydrogen (2H2) and one molecule
of oxygen (O2) we get two molecules of water (2H2O).
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Conductors
Materials that permit electrons to flow freely from molecule to molecule are called
conductors. The outermost electrons in the atoms of a conductor are so loosely bound
that they float in the space between atoms. These free electrons can be induced by an
external electrical force (voltage) and made to move in a particular direction. When a
voltage is applied to one end of the conductor, electrons start to flow in the same direc-
tion and the current flows in the opposite direction, as shown in Fig. 1.17.
15
Ma tte r
Current flow
– voltage – – – – – + voltage
– – – – –
Electron flow © AeroChapter
FIGURE 1.17 Current flow through conductor
When there is no voltage difference across the conductor, the electrons do not flow
and there is no current, as shown in Fig. 1.18.
Electrons
no current – – – – – no voltage
– – – – –
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 1.18 Negative flow through conductor
The degree of conductivity depends on various factors, such as length, thickness,

temperature and the type of material. For instance, glass is a good insulator at room
temperature, but becomes a conductor when heated to high temperature. The follow-
ing are a few examples for good conductors.
• Silver
• Copper
• Gold
• Aluminium
• Iron
• Steel
• Brass
• Bronze
• Mercury
• Graphite
• Dirty water
• Concrete
16
Matter
Insulators
Materials that are highly resistive to electron flow are called insulators. In insulators,
electrons are tightly bound to their atoms and have very little freedom to move around.
Due to the restricted movement of electrons, current does not flow through insulators.
The following are a few examples of good insulators.
• Rubber
• Glass
• Oil
• Asphalt
• Fiberglass
• Porcelain
• Ceramic
• Quartz
• (Dry) cotton
• (Dry) paper
• (Dry) wood
• Plastic
• Air
• Diamond
• Pure water
Semiconductors
There are some elements that behave like a conductor and an insulator depending
on the prevailing physical condition. These elements are called semiconductors. Typical
semiconductors like carbon, silicon and germanium have a unique electron structure
in which each has four electrons in its outer orbit. These four electrons form a perfect
covalent bond with four adjacent atoms and thus form a crystal lattice. The crystalline
form of carbon is diamond.
In their pure state, semiconductors behave like insulators. However, electron move-
ment can be achieved by heating. As the temperature rises, the outer electrons have
17
Ma tte r
higher energy, are able to leave their orbits, and start to float. Then by the application
of voltage, electrons can be made to flow in one direction. This is known as intrinsic
conduction.
In turn, the resulting flow of current heats up the structure, and increases conduc-
tion. If this process is allowed to continue, it eventually breaks down. The process is
known as thermal runaway.
Doping: The procedure of intentionally introducing a tiny amount of impurities (in
the form of different atoms) to an extremely pure semiconductor is called doping.
Doping improves the conductivity of a semiconductor.
Examples of two types of impurities are explained below.
• N-type: Arsenic can be introduced into silicon to improve its conductivity.

Silicon has 4 valence electrons and arsenic has 5 valence electrons. When mixed,
the fifth electron of the arsenic has nothing to bind to and so it will float as a
free electron. Likewise, adding a tiny amount of arsenic creates many free elec-
trons. These free electrons allow the current to flow. Since negatively charged
extra electrons are floating, they are known as n-type semiconductors. Thus, pentav-
alent impurities, having 5 valence electrons, can produce n-type semiconductors
when mixed with material having 4 valence electrons, such as silicon.
• P-type: Boron or gallium is the dopant in p-type semiconductors. They have
only 3 valence electrons. When mixed into silicon they form a hole in the elec-
tron structure. This missing electron creates the effect of a positive charge, and
is called a p-type semiconductor. Thus trivalent impurities with 3 valence electrons
can produce p-type semiconductors when mixed with material having 4 valence
electrons, like silicon.
18
Scalar and
CHAPTER
2 Vector Quantities
Scalar and vector quantities are the two types of measurement tools in physics. A
numerical quantity can be either scalar or vector. Consider a car going down the road
at a speed of 50km/h and having a velocity of 50km/h in the northeast direction. Here
we refer the speed as a scalar quantity and the velocity, with a directional aspect, as a
vector quantity.
Scalar Quantities
A scalar quantity has only magnitude (Fig. 2.1) and can be represented by the length of a
straight line. Some examples of scalars are time, mass, temperature and speed.
Volume
Scalar Quantities
length, area, volume
speed
mass, density
pressure
temperature
energy entropy
work power
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 2.1 Scalar quantities
19
Sca la r a n d Vec to r Q u an t i t i e s
In Fig. 2.2, a time interval of 30 seconds is represented as a straight line with equal
parts.
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
1 Division = 3 Seconds
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 2.2 Scalar quantity time scale
Vector quantities
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction (Fig. 2.3). When carrying out any
mathematical operation on a vector quantity, you must consider both the magnitude
and the direction. Some examples are force, acceleration, lift, drag, thrust and velocity.
Y
OCIT
VEL
Vector Quantities
displacement, direction
velocity
acceleration
moment
force
lift, drag, thrust
weight
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 2.3 Vector quantities
Vector quantities are often graphically represented as in Fig. 2.4 by placing a small
arrow over the quantity, or by writing the quantity in a bold style. It is also common to
indicate a vector by drawing an arrow whose length is proportional to the magnitude
of the vector and whose direction specifies the vector orientation.
20
S cal ar and Ve ct or Quant i t i e s
B
de
tu
ni
ag
M AB
A 45º
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 2.4 Graphical representation of vector quantities
As illustrated in Fig. 2.5, the magnitude (length) and direction (angle) are meas-
ured using the scale and the protractor, respectively. The resultant represents the single
force that replaces the original force, with the same body effect.
R (Resultant Force)
F4
F3
F5
F2
F1
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 2.5 Graphical representation of resultant force
In Fig. 2.6, a force of 5N is a vector quantity. In the vector line, the length repre-
sents magnitude and the angle represents direction, along with sense.
Vector line (1cm = 1N)

FORCE
5N (MAGNITUDE)
DIRECTION
(Angle)
30º
ARROW (Sense)
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 2.6 Vector quantity space diagram
21
Two vector quantities

In the case of two vector quantities, accurate graphical representation helps in reaching
conclusions. If two forces are applied to a body in any direction, draw a vector diagram
with the data provided in order to find the force and direction on the body. Any scale
can be used in the diagram. A resultant single force that can hold the original force is
known as equilibrant. It has equal magnitude and the opposite sense. The final vector
diagram for two vector quantities should be in a closed triangle form known as a triangle
of forces.
Example
As shown in Fig. 2.7, two forces are acting on a freely moving body. Find in which
direction and with what force the body will move.
10N
Body
20N
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 2.7 Example for two vector quantities
To solve this problem, first draw a vector diagram representing the forces (Fig. 2.8).
Start from any point and add the vectors, starting each new vector from the point
reached by the sum of the previous vectors. (Scale: 1cm = 2N).
End
Point
(R)
ltant
Resu 10N
Start 20N
Point © AeroChapter
FIGURE 2.8 Vector diagram representing the forces in the above example
The resultant force has magnitude equal to the distance represented by R (meas-
ured using the drawing scale) and direction represented by the angle between the vec-
tor lines 20N and R (measured using a protractor).
22
S cal ar and Ve ct or Quant i t i e s
Another way of finding the Resultant force is by the use of trigonometry, based on
Pythagoras’ theorem.
More than two vector quantities

The same vector diagram rules are followed in the case of handling more than two
forces. Such diagrams should be drawn accurately, and the vectors may be added in
any order.
Example
A body is subjected to the forces as shown in Fig. 2.9. Determine the direction in
which the body likely to move.
4N 6N
10N 10N
2N
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 2.9 Example for more than two vector quantities
Draw a vector diagram (Fig. 2.10) (Scale 1cm = 2N).
5cm = 10N
1cm = 2N 2cm = 4N
Resultant R
3cm = 6N
Start point 5cm = 10N © AeroChapter
FIGURE 2.10 Vector diagram representing the forces in the above example
23
• R = 2.3 cm × 2N = 4.6 N (distance measured using drawing scale)

• Angle a = 79o (Angle measured using protector)
Thus, the body will move with the force of 4.6N in the direction of E79N.
Addition of vector quantities

When adding vector quantities, the directions have to be taken into account. The
result of adding vectors together is called the resultant. Some examples are stated in
Fig. 2.11.
5 5 10
+ =
5 –5
+ = 0
5 10 15
+ =
5 –10 –5
+ =
5 –15 –10
+ =
10 –5 5
+ =
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 2.11 Examples for addition of vector quantities
24
CHAPTER
3 Mechanics
Mechanics is a study of equilibrium or the behaviour of physical bodies, and their effect
on the environment. The practical application of this subject relates to the design, con-
struction and operation of machines. This branch of physical science can be divided
into statics, dynamics and kinematics.
STATICS
This is a branch of mechanics that is concerned with a simpler, stationary form of struc-
tural analysis. Its methods are essential for many branches of engineering, which are based
upon the various consequences of forces. While an exact subject, statics can be used to
acquire an approximate answer quickly to ensure rigidity of any structure or machine.
Force
Force is a quantitative form of energy which can cause an object to change its physical
form, and its state of rest or motion. A force can make a body:
• accelerate
• decelerate
• change direction
• move from its state of rest
• bring its motion to a stop
• change its shape
Thus, if there is no force applied, a moving body will keep on moving in a straight
line at the same speed, or the body at rest will remain at rest. On the other hand, if
there is a force applied to a body, its velocity, expressed as a vector, will move continu-
ously in the direction of the force.
25
Me c h a n ic s
Units of force: The unit of force in the SI measuring system is the Newton (N). A
Newton is the force required to accelerate 1kilogram (1kg) of mass to 1 meter per sec-
ond per second (1m/s2). Thus 1N is equivalent to 1kg-m/s2.
Net force: Force is a vector quantity and so it has magnitude and direction. When a
body is subjected to two or more forces, the net force is the resultant of all the forces.
For example, suppose an airplane is moving forward with the force of 1000N and
encounters a drag force of 400N (Fig. 3.1). The net force produced by the airplane is
1000N – 400N = 600N.
400 N 1000 N
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.1 Example for forces produced by an airplane
Moment of Force
A force applied on a pivoted object at a certain distance from the pivot point can pro-
duce a rotational effect. The turning effect of force is called the moment of force (Fig. 3.2).
Force
Perpendicular distance
Pivot © AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.2 Moment of force
Recalling that the Applied Force is a vector, the magnitude of the moment of force
is determined by the following equation.
Moment of Force = Applied Force × Perpendicular distance between the
pivot point and the Applied Force,
i.e. Moment (Nm) = Force (N) × Distance (m). Comment
26
M e chani cs
Force applied through the pivot point: A force applied through the pivot will not
produce a turning effect. Thus there is a moment is zero, because the distance between
the force and the pivot point is zero.
Moment = Force × Distance (in this case the distance is zero) = 0
Force
Lever
Pivot
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.3 Force applied through the pivot point (a)
Lever
Line of action
of the Force
FIGURE 3.4 Force applied through the pivot point (b)
Force applied at an inclined angle: When a force acts at an angle (Fig. 3.5), the turn-
ing effect is reduced because the perpendicular distance is reduced.
Moment = Force (line of action (b)) × Distance (Perpendicular to line of force (a))
Force
Lever
Lin
per e
of t of ac
dist pendic 90º he
forc tion
the ance b ular e (b
)
Pivot line pivot a etwee
of a nd n
ctio the
n (a
)
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.5 Force applied at an inclined angle
27
Me c h a n ic s
Clockwise moment: In Fig. 3.6, force applied on a lever produces a turning effect in
the clockwise direction. This is known as a clockwise moment.
Force
Lever
FIGURE 3.6 Clockwise moment
Anti-clockwise moment: In Fig. 3.7, force applied on a lever produces a turning effect
in the anti-clockwise direction. This is known as an anti-clockwise moment or counter clock-
wise moment.
Lever
Force
FIGURE 3.7 Anti-clockwise moment
Equilibrium
An object is said to be in a state of equilibrium when it is at rest, or moving at a con-
stant velocity. The total moment and the net force should both be equal to zero. This
means that the sum of all clockwise moments, and the sum of all force vectors acting
on the object should both be equal to zero. An object can be in an equilibrium state in
two common types of motion, namely:
1. Rotational Motion
2. Translational Motion
28
M e chani cs
Equilibrium of rotation
Rotational motion occurs when a body revolves around an axis. An object is said to be
in rotational equilibrium when the sum of all the external torques acting on it equals
zero. In rotational equilibrium, an object is either not moving or moving at a constant
angular velocity. This means that the total angular velocity is zero. A spinning bicycle
wheel experiences rotational motion.
F1 × a = F2 × b
F1a = F2b
F1 F2
a b
Beam
Anti-Clockwise Clockwise
Moment Moment
Pivot
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.8 A beam in equilibrium of rotation
Equilibrium of translation
Translational motion occurs when a body moves from one point to another. An object
is said to be in translational equilibrium when the sum of all the external forces acting
on it equals zero. When a body moves from point A to point B, it experiences trans-
lational motion. For example if a car is moving at a constant velocity, that is, moving
with a constant speed in a fixed direction, it is said to be in translational equilibrium.
In other words, there is no acceleration and the total forces add up to zero.
• Downward force = 10 + 20 = 30N
• The upward reaction force at the pivot = 30N
• Downward force 30N = Upward force 30N
29
Me c h a n ic s
1m
2m
10N 20N
Pivot
Reaction Force
10N + 20N = 30N © AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.9 A beam in equilibrium of translation
Example of equilibrium
5m 25m
Pivot
50,000N 10,000N
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.10 Example of equilibrium
• Clockwise moment = 25m × 10,000N = 250,000Nm

• Anti-Clockwise moment = 5m × 50,000N = 250,000Nm
• Total moment = Clockwise moment – Anti clockwise moment
= 250,000 – 250,000
= 0 (beam is in equilibrium of rotation)
30
M e chani cs
Though the beam is in equilibrium of rotation, it can still move up and down
(translation). The forces acting downward must be balanced with the upward reaction
force to achieve moment of translation.
• Downward force = 50,000 + 10,000 = 60,000N
• Upward reaction force at pivot = 60,000N
• The net force = 60,000 – 60,000 = 0
Because the net force is zero, the body will be at a full state of equilibrium.
Example of force
To find the force (F) required to balance the beam, equate the sum of clockwise
moments to the sum of anti-clockwise moments.
5N 3N 2m F
PIVOT
2m 2m
4m 8m
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.11 Example of force
Clockwise moments = Anti-clockwise moments

(2N × 2m) + (FN × 8m) = (3N × 2m) + (5N × 4m)
4 + 8F = 6 + 20 8F = 26 – 4
F = 22/8 = 2.75N
31
Me c h a n ic s
Example of pivot point

To find the pivot location that will balance the beam, follow the steps as shown below.
50N 10N 10N
1m 1m
6m
70N
7m
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.12 Example of pivot point
Sum of Clockwise moments = Sum of Anti-clockwise moments

(10N* (6 − X)) = (10* (X − 6)) + (50* (X − 1)
10(6 − X) = 10(X − 6) + 50(X − 1)
10* 6 – 10X = 10X – 60 + 50X – 50
60 – 10X = 60X – 110
60 + 110 = 60X + 10X
170 = 70X
X = 170/70 = 2.42m
The pivot location is 2.42m from the point A. This is the point through which the
total force appears to act and is called the centre of gravity.
Torque
Torque is an angular form of force that tends to produce a turning moment. Torque
(T) is measured in Newton metres (Nm).
Torque (T) = Force (F) × Perpendicular Distance (L)
32
M e chani cs
Example 1
T=F×L
P
w
T
F
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.13 Example of torque (1)
Example 2
T=F×L
= F × 0 (perpendicular distance between force and pivot is zero)
=0
L
© AeroChapter
33
Me c h a n ic s
Example 3
T = F × L Cos a
T
F
a
p
© AeroChapter
Couple
In mechanics, a couple can be defined as an arrangement of forces that produces only
a resultant moment, but no resultant force. An example is two parallel forces with
the same magnitude acting in opposite directions, thus producing only a rotational
moment, but no net translation force (up and down) moment (Fig. 3.16).
–F
d
F
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.16 Couple
In this arrangement (shown in Fig. 3.17), the forces act at an equal distance from
the pivot point, causing the beam only to rotate about the pivot without sideways
movement.
34
M e chani cs
Applied Force
Pivot + d
Applied Force
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.17 Arrangement shown to calculate couple
The torque = Force (P) × Distance (d)

This arrangement is called a couple and the resultant moment of a couple is called
a torque.
KINEMATICS
Kinematics is a branch of classical mechanics that deals with the study of motion. It
aims to provide a description of the spatial position of bodies, their velocities and their
acceleration rates.
The following symbols will appear in this topic when we use them to denote vari-
ous quantities in kinematics.
• s = distance [m]
• t = time in seconds [s]
• u = original velocity [m/s]
• v = final velocity [m/s]
• a = acceleration [m/s2]
35
Me c h a n ic s
Linear motion
Linear motion, or as sometimes called rectilinear motion, helps us to understand the differ-
ence between speed and velocity. It is in a form of straight line with speed and velocity
being stated as scalar and vector quantities, respectively. Speed is defined as the rate at
which an object travels, whereas velocity is specified by both the speed of the object
along with the direction of travel. The speed is a constant only if the distance travelled
in each time interval remains the same.
For instance, consider a body moving from A to B in t seconds, as shown in
Fig. 3.18.
B
Displacement (x)
Distance (s)
A © AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.18 Example for linear motion
Average speed is measured using the formula given below.

Distance travelled
Average speed =
Time taken
s
= m∙s
t
Average velocity is measured using the formula given below.
Displacement
Average velocity =
Time taken
x
= m∙s
t
36
M e chani cs
Example
A helicopter travelled from point A to B in 25 minutes. First it started travelling for 30
km in an eastward direction, and then turned 90o to the left and continued its journey
due north for another 40 km.
Find the average speed and velocity for the whole journey.
First draw a vector diagram (shown in Fig. 3.19) based on the data provided and
calculate the parameters using the preceding formulae.
B
40 km
θ
A
30 km
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.19 Vector diagram to calculate liner motion
Distance travelled
Average speed =
Time taken
70 × 1000
= m∙s
25 × 60
= 46.67 m∙s
The total displacement is calculated using Pythagoras method.
Total displacement = ∙402 + 302

= ∙1600 + 900
= 50 km
37
Me c h a n ic s
Displacement
Average velocity =
Time taken
50 × 1000
= m∙s
25 × 60
= 33.33 m∙s
Opposite
Since tanθ =
Adjacent
40
=
30
= 1.33
Therefore θ = 53.5° (using tangent table)
So, the average speed = 46.67m/s and the average velocity = 33.33m/s at a bearing
of 53.5o N of E.
Acceleration
A rate of change of velocity of an object is known as acceleration. It is measured using
the formula given below.
Change of velocity m∙s
Acceleration =
Time s
(Final velocity − Initial velocity)
= m∙s2
Time
(v − u)
= m∙s2
t
The formula for distance (s) can be derived using the velocity-time diagram shown in
Fig. 3.20.
38
M e chani cs
Velocity
Constant
acceleration
Time
t
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.20 Velocity-time diagram to calculate the distance
1
s= (u + v) t
2
Example
An aircraft needs a speed of 60 m/s in order to take off. It starts from rest and acceler-
ates at a constant rate for 28 seconds before becoming airborne. Find the acceleration
rate and the required take-off distance.
(v − u)
a= m∙s2
t
(60 − 0)
= m∙s2
28
= 2.14 m∙s2
1
s= (v + u) t
2
1
= (0 + 60) 28
2
= 840 m
So, the rate of acceleration = 2.14m/s2 and the distance required to take-off = 840m.
39
Me c h a n ic s
Free Falling Objects

An object is said to be in a state of free fall when it falls only under the influence of
gravitational force. Initially it accelerates while falling and gradually falls with constant
velocity and zero acceleration when it hits the bottom. Such objects do not encounter
air resistance. But in such cases, the object is considered as falling in a vacuum at the
velocity rate of 9.81m/s, which is stated as gravitational acceleration (g). Another comment:
The kinematic equations for free falling objects are stated below.
(v − u)
a= m∙s2
t
v = u + at
1
s = (v + u) t
2
1
s = ut + at2
2
v − u = 2as
2 2
Example
After an explosive has been fired in an aircraft, an ejector seat is projected vertically
upwards at an initial velocity of 38m/s. Find the maximum height that the seat will
reach from the aircraft and the time taken to reach this height.
Since there is no data regarding the air resistance, substitute ‘g’ for ‘a’ in the formula
during calculation, with the deceleration rate of -9.81 m/s2.
v2 − u2 = 2gs
v2 − u2
s=
2g
02 − 382
=
2 × (−9.81)
= 73.60 m
(v − u)
g=
t
(v − u)
t=
g
(0 − (−38))
=
−9.81
= 3.87 seconds
So, the seat reaches the height of 73.60 m in 3.87 seconds.
40
M e chani cs
Rotational Movement
A body is said to be in a spin, if the rotational axis passes through its centre of mass.
When a body moves in a rotational movement or circular motion, its angular distance
u is measured in radians, as shown in Fig. 3.21.
arc length = radius
1 radian
radius
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.21 Representation of angular distance
In order to derive the factors, a circle is cut into a number of wedges, considering
that a spinning body would move through a number of such wedges. The follow-
ing formulae are used to calculate the various parameters of an object in rotational
movement.
Area of a circle = πr2 (π ≏ 3.1415)

Circumference of a circle = 2πr (π ≏ 3.1415)
θ radians
Angular velocity (ω) = ∙
t second ∙
meter
Linear velocity (v) = ωr ∙ second ∙
ω2 − ω1 radians
Angular Acceleration (α) =
t ∙
second2 ∙
meter
Linear Acceleration (a) = αr ∙ second ∙ 2
41
Me c h a n ic s
Example
A propeller with a diameter of 3.6m is spinning at a rate of 2.670 rpm. Calculate the
linear velocity of the propeller tip.
To determine the linear velocity, first we need to find out the angular velocity and
proceed as shown below.
2π
Angular velocity (ω) = 2670 ×
60
= 279.60 radians∙second
Linear velocity (v) = ωr
= 279.60 × ∙3.6
2∙
= 279.60 × 1.8
= 503.28 m∙s
Forces of Circular Motion

Centripetal force: Centripetal force keeps an object moving along the circumference
of a circle at a uniform speed. It is a real force acting on a rotating object, without the
influence of friction or gravity (Fig. 3.22), thus keeping the object from flying out-
wards from its circular orbit.
Or
bit
A
xis
Ve
lo
cit
y
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.22 Centripetal force
42
M e chani cs
Centrifugal force: The centrifugal force is an inertia of motion and is a tendency of an

object to fly away from the centre of curvature (Fig. 3.23). The object becomes resist-
ant to the force thus moving in a curved path.
Or
bit
al A
et
rip e
xis
t
n c
Ce for
al
ug
t rif e
n c
Ce for
Ve
lo
cit
y © AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.23 Centrifugal force
When an aircraft is directed from a straight line, the front wheels turn towards the
centre creating a frictional force in that direction, thus resulting in circular motion.
But, the pilot controls the aircraft by using lift force, which is defined as the sum of all
forces that makes an object to move perpendicular to the direction of flow, as shown
in Fig. 3.24.
Vertical
component
Lift
Centrifugal Horizontal component

force Centripetal force
Weight
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.24 Lift force
43
Me c h a n ic s
The unit of centripetal and centrifugal forces is the Newton and the formula for
both of them is given below.
mv2
mω2r (or) =
t
m = mass
ω = angular velocity
r = radius
v = linear velocity
Periodic Motion
In physics, a regular and repeated motion at equal time intervals is known as periodic
motion. Periodic motions that occur in irregular paths are known as forced periodic motions.
The period of time an object takes to get back to where it started is called the time period
of the motion. And the number of cycles that are completed in one second is called the
frequency of the motion.
The rotation of a piston in an engine is an example of periodic motion as shown
in Fig. 3.25.
d
g ro
nectin
Con
Cr
Cylinder
an
L1 L2
k
Distance (d )
Crankshaft
Piston angle
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.25 Rotation of a piston in an engine
According to Newton’s Law of Inertia, an object in motion will continue to move

in a straight line at constant velocity unless an external force is applied to it. An exter-
nal force has to be applied in order to convert the path of the object from a straight line
into periodic motion. For example, when a planet orbits around the sun, the gravita-
tional attractive force is a centripetal force preventing the planet from flying out into
space, and keeping it in an orbiting periodic motion.
Simple harmonic motion

When an object moves back and forth around an equilibrium position, there is a restor-
ing force always pointing back towards that position. When the size of that restoring
44
M e chani cs
force is proportional to the distance from the equilibrium position, the motion is
known as simple harmonic motion.
In this type of motion, the acceleration is always directed towards a fixed point in
the path of the object.
A vertically oscillating mass on a spring is an example of simple harmonic motion
in which a body of mass (m) is attached to a bottom end with a spring. The top end of
the spring is supported at a point Q, as shown in Fig. 3.26. The more you stretch the
spring, the greater the force trying to pull it back to where it started.
Q Q
Free Spring
length stiffness
(l1) (k )
Extension
(l2 – l1)
Mass (m)
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.26 Simple harmonic motion
The formulae for the period of the motion and its frequency is given below.
T = 2π ∙m∙k
1
F=
T
T = time period of motion (seconds)
m = mass (kg)
k = spring stiffness (Newton/metre)
f = frequency (Hz)
Vibration
Vibration is periodic back and forth motion of the particles in an elastic body that
occurs when any physical system is displaced from its equilibrium state. These vibrat-
ing particles tend to restore equilibrium by possessing kinetic energy.
The slower the vibrational frequency, the lower the sound pitch and vice versa.
These types of vibration are known as harmonics. They are used in music production
and start with the fundamental frequency level, then increase gradually.
45
Me c h a n ic s
Resonance occurs when the vibration frequency coincides with the natural frequency
of the object. When this happens, the vibrations will grow in amplitude resulting in
extreme vibration and excessive noise. Thus care should be taken at the design stage of
the machinery itself.
Types of vibrations
The two categories of vibrations are free (or natural) and forced vibrations. The objects
are not under the influence of any external force in free vibrations, whereas they are in
the case of forced vibrations.
Causes of vibrations
Vibration in aircraft structures is commonly due to rotating structures including the
following systems.
• Engines (piston or jet)
• Aircraft wheels
• Rotor blades
• Flying control systems and other aerodynamic loads
Effects of vibrations
Vibration should be avoided, as it is a form of energy waste, resulting in:
• Damage to structure and machineries
• Wear in rotating assembly systems
• Rises in noise levels
• Irregular vibrations
• Failure of components
Monitoring and control of vibrations

In aircraft structures, vibration monitoring equipment is fitted, that filters out the fre-
quencies and indicates the source and level of vibration to the pilot. All rotating com-
ponents should be statically and dynamically balanced in order to keep the vibration
within control levels. Some form of damping is used to reduce vibration in non-rotat-
ing systems.
46
M e chani cs
DYNAMICS
The branch of classical mechanics that is concerned with the motion of objects in rela-
tion to force, mass, torque, momentum and energy is known as dynamics.
Newton’s Laws
Sir Isaac Newton’s three laws of motion are summarised below.
1. A particle remains at rest with constant velocity without an external force acting
on it.
2. An object with a greater mass requires a larger force to accelerate it and vice
versa. This is stated as F = ma, where ‘m’ is mass and ‘a’ is acceleration.
3. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Mass
Mass is defined as the amount of matter confined within a body. Its unit in the SI
system is kilogram (kg), but larger quantities are quoted as tonnes (1 tonne = 1000kg). A
mass of an object remains constant irrespective of its state and location. For example,
a solid of 4kg mass remains the same 4kg, when it has been melted into liquid form or
even if it is in gaseous state.
Weight
Weight is the gravitational force on an object and its SI unit is Newton. It varies with
any changes in distance. For example, the weight of a body on the moon becomes
approximately one-sixth of that experienced on earth.
The formula to determine the weight of an object is w = mg, where ‘g’ is gravita-
tional acceleration (9.81m/s2 on the earth’s surface).
There is another phenomenon called as weightlessness, which occurs when there is
no supporting force on your body. For instance, astronauts who are orbiting the earth
experience a weightless sensation.
47
Me c h a n ic s
Inertia
This is defined as the resistance of an object to any change in its current state of
motion. In other words, the speed and direction makes an object to accelerate or decel-
erate, which the body resists. Thus a body at rest will remain in its position until an
external force is applied to it. The larger the mass of the body, the greater the inertia.
For example, in an aircraft, the body of a passenger is being pushed back during
take-off (accelerating aircraft) (Fig. 3.27) and thrown forward during landing (deceler-
ating aircraft). During cruising, the passenger experiences the same speed as the aircraft.
Take-off: During takeoff, the engines have to develop enough thrust in order to over-
come inertia. Initially, there is a drag component will be minimal, but which will
increase as the aircraft gathers speed.
Acceleration
Drag (D )
Thrust (T )
Inertia Force (ma )
Take-off © AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.27 Inertia during take-off
During takeoff, the total forward forces must be greater than the backward forces
(T > D + ma).
Landing: During landing, the aircraft experiences a considerable amount of inertia
(Fig. 3.28). In addition, other factors including aerodynamic drag, reverse thrust and
wheel brakes bring the aircraft down to a complete stop.
Brakes (B )
Acceleration
Reverse Thrust (TR )
Inertia Force
(ma )
Drag (D )
Landing © AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.28 Inertia during landing
48
M e chani cs
The total forward forces have to be reduced gradually to zero during landing.
Based on the equation ma = B + Tr + D, all other forces must be greater than the
inertia force ma.
MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE, VELOCITY RATIO AND

EFFICIENCY
Mechanical Advantage
A machine can move a relatively large force by expending a relatively small amount of
energy. The resistive force to be overcome is called load and the force applied to over-
come the load is called effort (Fig. 3.29). The ratio of resistance overcome to the effort
applied is called as mechanical advantage (MA).
Effort (E )
Load (L)
Lever
Effort arm
Pivot
Resistance arm
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.29 Mechanical advantage
Load (L)
Mechanical Advantage (MA) =
Effort Applied (E)
For heavy loads, the effort to overcome friction is usually less than is required to move
the whole load. The greater the mechanical advantage ratio, the greater the load that
can be moved. When the force ratio and the distance ratio are equal, then this is called
the ideal mechanical advantage (IMA). The ratio of resistance force overcome to the
effort expended is called the actual mechanical advantage (AMA).
The lever system shown in the above picture is used for lifting applications. When
designing a machine, the input displacement of the point where the effort is applied
should be greater than the corresponding output displacement of the load, in order to
indicate a high MA.
49
Me c h a n ic s
Velocity Ratio
The ratio of distance travelled by the point where effort is applied to the corresponding
distance travelled by the load is known as the velocity ratio (VR). This input and output
movements occur over the same time and frictional force is involved. The VR remains
constant for all loads in any one particular machine (Fig. 3.30).
Load (L)
Distance Distance
moved moved
by load by effort
Pivot
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.30 Velocity ratio
Distance moved by load (Ld)

Velocity of load =
Time taken (T)
Distance moved by effort (Ed)
Velocity of effort =
Time taken (T)
Distance moved by effort (Ed)
Velocity ratio (VR) =
Distance moved by load (Ld)
Efficiency
The ratio of useful output work to the total input work is known as efficiency (η).
Output = L × Ld
Input = E × Ed
Output
Efficiency (η) =
Input
Mechanical advantage (MA)
= × 100%
Velocity ratio (VR)
50
M e chani cs
The lost energy from the machine is gained by the surroundings, resulting in lower
work output than the input. This commonly occurs due to the effect of friction. The
efficiency can never be 100% in case of real machines, since frictionless systems do
not exist. Even though the efficiencies may be less than 100%, most machines are very
useful for lifting heavy loads by the application of smaller effort.
MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND POWER

Momentum
Momentum (p) is a property of motion possessed by a body, and its unit is Newton seconds
(Ns) or kilogram metre per seconds (kgm/s). In terms of an equation, it is the product of the
body mass and its velocity.
p=m×v
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m/s)
The value of momentum can be the same for a larger body with less velocity and
a smaller body with higher velocity. But if the two bodies have the same momentum,
each body will possess a different amount of kinetic energy. (Kinetic energy will be
discussed soon).
Example
Calculate the momentum of a car of mass 2000kg travelling at a velocity of 13m/s.
p=m×v
= 2000 × 13
= 26000 kgm/s
According to Newton’s second law of motion, the rate of change of momentum of

a body is proportional to the resultant force acting it and takes place in the direction of
the force. For example, a body of mass (m) moving at an initial velocity (u) will change
its velocity (final velocity ‘v’), when a constant force (F) is applied on it for a period of
time (t) (Fig. 3.31).
51
Me c h a n ic s
Initial Final
velocity velocity
Force
Mass Mass
applied
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.31 Momentum
Initial momentum = mu
Final momentum = mv
Change in momentum = mv − mu
mv − mu
Rate of change of momentum =
t
According to Newton’s second law,
mv − mu
F=
t
F=m ∙v −t u∙
F = ma
a = acceleration (m/s2)
The change in momentum is called the impulse of a force. And in case of a collision, the
total momentum before impact is equal to the total momentum after impact.
Energy
In physics, the capacity to do work is known as energy and its unit is Joule (J). According
to the principal of conservation, energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, but can
only be changed from one form to another. It exists in several forms such as chemical
energy, physical, heat, nuclear, kinetic, potential, and electrical energy, and so on. As
far as aviation is concerned, kinetic energy and potential energy are the two major
forms.
52
M e chani cs
Kinetic Energy: This is simply defined as the energy of motion. Vibrational energy,
rotational energy and translational energy are the various forms of kinetic energy.
1 2
Kinetic Energy (KE) = mv
2
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m/s2)
Potential Energy: This is defined as an inherent energy of an object due to its position.
In other words, it is a form of stored energy of an object.
Potential Energy (PE) = m × g × h
m = mass (kg)
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81m/s2 on the earth’s surface)
h = height (m)
The potential energy is zero at the lowest point of the swing as the gravitational
energy is minimum. But the velocity is at the maximum level resulting in maximum
kinetic energy. The changes in both forms of energy are shown in Fig. 3.32.
PE = mgh
(maximum
PE = mgh potential energy)
KE = 12 mv2
(maximum
kinetic energy) © AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.32 Energy changes
Power
The rate of doing work is known as power and its unit is the Watt. The formulae for
power are shown below.
Work done (W)
Power (P) =
Time taken
Power (P) = Force × Speed
53
Me c h a n ic s
FRICTION
Friction occurs when two surfaces rub together and is involved in any form of motion.
It is a force that acts in an opposite direction to movement. It happens mainly with
solid objects, but there is still some resistance to motion in both liquids and gases.
Motion
Applied
force (P) Mass
(m)
Friction (F )
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.33 Friction
Ff = µw
µ = coefficient of friction
w = weight of the assembly
The lower the value of µ the lower are the frictional forces involved. Some systems
are specifically designed to increase the frictional force, by increasing the roughness of
the surface. For example, high coefficients of friction are required for brakes and tyres,
whereas in equipment such as bearings and pistons, friction is reduced using lubrica-
tion, very smooth surfaces, or by other means. Friction produces heat energy, which
may affect performance or lead to damage to components.
Inclined Friction
Motion
ss
Ma
(m)
Applied
force (P)
os θ
Wc
Weight
(W )
Friction (F ) in θ
Ws
θ
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.34 Inclined friction
Ff = µ × Wcosθ
54
M e chani cs
Rolling Friction
A vehicle will move only if there is friction between the wheels and its resting surface.
In Fig. 3.35, the wheel is being pulled in the direction of the applied force. The fric-
tional force must act in an opposite direction in order for the wheel to rotate clockwise.
Ro
tat
io
n
Applied
force (P)
r
Friction (F ) © AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.35 Rolling friction
Laws of Friction
• The frictional force is proportional and perpendicular to the normal force.
• The sliding force is independent of the contact surface, as long as the forces
remain constant.
• The coefficient of static friction is slightly greater than the coefficient of kinetic
friction.
• Kinetic friction is independent of speed.
• Friction depends upon the nature of the contact surfaces.
GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES
A gyroscope is a spinning mass that operates on the rigidity of space. It tends to remain
in its position while spinning. In aircraft instruments, gyroscopes are applied in find-
ing attitude, compass and turn coordinates. A pilot should have a sound knowledge
and understanding of these instruments by undergoing regular training.
55
Me c h a n ic s
A pivoted frame on which the gyros are mounted is called as a gimbal. The swivel axis
is fixed relative to the ground. The axis perpendicular to the ground is the pitch axis.
The axis that can roll in any direction is the roll axis. The stationary rotating mass that
will retain its original spin axis orientation is called the rotor (Fig. 3.36).
Gyroscope
frame
Rotor
Spin axis
Gimbal
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.36 Gyroscope
Properties of Gyroscope
Rigidity and precession are the two basic properties of a gyroscope.
Rigidity: This property is also called as gyroscopic inertia. The spin axis of the gyro wheel
tends to remain in a fixed direction in space, if no force is applied to it. This property
is known as rigidity. For example, rigidity prevents a bicycle from falling over while
riding it. The larger the distance, the greater the rigidity, with constant spinning speed.
The factors relating to the amount of rigidity are mass of the rotor, speed of the
rotor and radius of gyration or moment of inertia of the rotor. The radius of gyration
is defined as the distance from the axis of rotation to a point where the total body mass
is supposed to be concentrated, in order to give the same moment of inertia as the
original object (Fig. 3.37).
56
M e chani cs
Cylinder
r2
r1
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 3.37 Radius of gyration
The radius of gyration for a hollow cylinder is

r12 + r22
K=
2
The radius of gyration for a solid cylinder is
r2
K=∙
2
r1 = radius of the cylinder
r2 = distance to the outer diameter
Precession: The spin axis tends to turn at a right angle to the direction of an applied
force. For example, a spinning toy top resists gravity in order to change the direction
of its axis. The precession rate in a gyro is directly proportional to strength of the force
and inversely proportional to rpm and moment of inertia.
The factors influencing the precession rate are strength of the applied force, and
the direction, rotor speed and moment of inertia of the rotor. The greater the strength
of the applied force, the greater the precession rate. The higher the speed and moment
of inertia, the less the precession.
According to Sperry’s rule of precession, the precession is dependent on the direc-
tion of rotation of the mass and the axis of the torque that is applied to the material.
Aircraft Gyro Systems

Originally, gyros were driven by air through the instrument by an engine driven vac-
uum pump at a controlled pressure. Air coming from the aircraft cabin entered the
57
Me c h a n ic s
sealed instrument through a filter. These days, mechanical gyros that are driven by
an electric motor are being used. Magnetic type and induction type systems are used
in DC motor and AC motors, respectively. Low friction bearings are engaged for the
rotor and gimbal pivot points.
The types of gyros and the systems that are used in aircraft are explained below.
Free gyros: A free gyro moves in all three axial directions and has its spin axis pointed
infinitely far away from away. This position remains the same irrespective of any move-
ment, and thus has never been used in aircraft applications.
Tied gyros: A tied gyro, also known as an earth gyro (derived from the electrical term
earthed) is fitted to an aircraft horizon so that any gravity switches ensure that the spin
axis remains vertical with reference to the earth.
Displacement gyros: A displacement gyro should be able to sense pitch and roll atti-
tude changes by a two degree of freedom gyro mounted with its vertical spin axis. It is
follows the tied gyro principles. If the gyro is mounted in an instrument with its hori-
zontal spin axis, it can be used to inform directional reference to the pilot.
Rate gyros: A gyro with a single degree of freedom that is restrained by springs or a
torsion bar is known as a rate gyro. This instrument is used to sense angular displace-
ment, and is very helpful in autopilot and INS systems (Inertial Navigation Systems).
Horizontal and Vertical gyros: A horizontal gyro at the poles has maximum drift
without any apparent movement in the vertical plane (known as topple effect). Whereas
when it is at the equator, it has maximum topple effect and no drift. A vertical gyro
at the poles shows no topple effect and drift, whereas when it is at the equator, it has
maximum topple and no drift.
The vertical gyro must be kept vertical in the aircraft and the horizontal must
remain horizontal at all times. The two systems are fitted to counteract drift and top-
ple, respectively.
58
CHAPTER
4 Centre of Gravity
The point where all the body mass appears to be concentrated, from the viewpoint of
gravitational effects, is called as the centre of gravity, whereas the centroid is the centre of
area. However, in a body of uniform density throughout, the centres of gravity and
mass will be the same. A body must have a volume in order to possess a centre of grav-
ity. The location of the centres of gravity for common shapes is shown in (Fig. 4.1).
Sphere
Rectangular Prism
Cone
L
Cylinder
L /4
0.5L
L
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 4.1 Location of centre of gravity for common shapes
59
Ce n tr e o f G r a v ity
In aircraft, the centre of gravity lies at a point in the middle of the fuselage. It is at
the intersection point of three imaginary axes (longitudinal, lateral and vertical) and
depends on the fuel state and loading of the aircraft. The total mass of the aircraft is
used to determine the longitudinal centre of gravity and the vertical position is rarely
considered. Fig. 4.2 shows the centre of gravity location in an aircraft.
Lateral Axis
Lateral Axis
Vertical Axis
Longitudinal Axis Centre of Gravity
Vertical Axis
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 4.2 Aircraft C of G location
As you can see, the straight imaginary lines running through the centre of gravity
are all at right angles to each other. The longitudinal line runs from nose to tail, the
lateral one runs parallel to the one from wing tip to wing tip and the vertical line runs
vertically through the other two lines.
60
Strength of
CHAPTER
5 Materials
The material strength describes the behaviour of solid objects when subjected to stresses
and strains. When a force is applied to an object, it causes internal tension, compres-
sion, shear or torsion. Once enough is known about the material, its potential for
deformation or stability can be calculated, in order to assess its load capacity, which is the
amount of various forms of stress it can withstand before breaking down. This can then
be compared to some measure of strength. The response level of a material to a force
depends on the size and direction of the force and the overall time period of action. If
the applied force is small, the material behaves elastically and eventually returns to its
original shape. If the force is large, then the material changes its shape permanently.
When a material changes shape either elastically or permanently, it is called strain.
Density
The strength of a material depends on its density, which is defined as the amount of
matter that can be packed into a specified volume. The formula is given below.
mass kg
Density (ρ) =
volume m3
Because many materials expand upon being heated, the density of an object will
change depending on the volume of the body resulting from a temperature change. It
is important to use less densely structured materials in aircraft in order to enable them
to become and remain airborne. Aluminium and its alloys are widely used in aircraft
manufacturing, since they are light and strong. The table below shows the density of
some common materials.
61
Str e n g th o f M a te r i al s
Density
Material
(Kg/m3)
Aluminium 2640
Brass 8550
Granite 2690
Glass 2580
Pure Gold 19290
Cast Iron 7210
Lead 11340
Steel 7870
Tungsten 19300
Mercury 13600
Water 1000
Air (at 15°C) 1.225
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 5.1 Density of materials
STRESS
When a force is applied to a material, then the material is said to be in a state of stress.
The intensity of stress depends on the magnitude and direction of the applied force.
Stress is measured as force per unit area, and its SI unit is Pascal (Pa). A Pascal is defined
as 1 Newton per square metre (N/m2). The formula is given below.
Applied force N
Stress =
Cross sectional area m2
The area for compressive stresses is measured at right angles to the direction of
force, and the area for shear stresses is measured at adjacent faces, as shown in Fig. 5.2.
Shear stress Compressional stress
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 5.2 Direction of forces for shear and compressional stresses
62
S t r e ngt h of M a t e ri al s
STRAIN
The distortion of shape that occurs when a body is under stress is called strain. It is usu-
ally very small, and is dimensionless. A DTI (Dial Test Indicator) is used to measure
the amount of strain. The measurement ratio for strain is given in Fig. 5.3.
Change in length
Stain =
Original length
L
Layers or
Plates
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 5.3 Measurement ratio for strain
The shear strain is measured by using the following ratio.

x
Shear Stain =
L
x = relative movement between the layers
L = perpendicular distance between the surfaces
HOOKE’S LAW
Robert Hooke was the first to state the connection between load and extension or
compression. According to his law, the force needed to extend or compress a spring is
directly proportional to the amount of extension or compression, as long as stiffness is
a constant factor. In other words, it takes twice as much force to stretch a spring twice
as far (Fig. 5.4).
Fspring = −kx
63
Unstretched
spring
2x
2F
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 5.4 Hooke’s law
The graphical representation in (Fig. 5.5) shows a straight line graph up to a limit
of proportionality, after which the line starts to curve, when the change in no longer
proportional to the load, which begins to occur after the elastic limit, the point at which
the material stops being elastic. If the elastic limit is exceeded, the material will never
return to its original length.
Ultimate Strength
Load
Limit of Metal Fails

Proportionality
Extension
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 5.5 Graph for plain carbon steel of load against extension
A tensile force can be applied in order to establish the elastic limit of a metal using a
test piece. The values are recorded at regular intervals until the test piece fails at its final
load bearing limit. The data is then represented in a graph called a load-extension graph or
a stress-strain graph. Many metals will not show a constant of proportionality because the
straight line starts curving from the beginning, without any obvious elastic limit point.
64
YOUNG’S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Young’s modulus is a mechanical property of elastic solid materials. It is used to describe
the relationship between stress and strain in a material (Fig. 5.6). The prediction of
elongation or compression of a material can be carried out as long as the stress is less
than the yield strength of that material.
Strain
∆L/L
∆L
Stress (P)
P
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 5.6 Young’s modulus
Stress
E=
Strain
E = Young’s modulus (N/m2)
TENSION
The force that tends to stretch a material is called as a tensile force and the material is
said to be in tension. Ties are the structures that are designed to take tensile load. Aircraft
designers are keen on tensile loads as metals and design techniques can manage these
load types. The concept of tension is shown in Fig. 5.7.
Tensile Load
Force
Force
Bearing
Block © AeroChapter
FIGURE 5.7 Tension
65
COMPRESSION
The force that tends to compress a material is called as a compressive force and the struc-
tures that are designed to withstand compression are called struts. Aircraft designers are
not as keen on compressive loads since the necessary cross-section tends to make the
structure heavy. The concept of compression is shown in Fig. 5.8.
Compression Load
Force
Force
Bearing
Block © AeroChapter
FIGURE 5.8 Compression
SHEAR
If the forces applied to a material tend to slide one face of the material over an adjacent
face, then the material is said to be in shear (Fig. 5.9).
Unstrained Shear
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 5.9 Shear
In an aircraft structure, most load bearing members are subjected to a combination
of tensile, compressive and shear forces. A structure is called a beam when it is subjected
to all these forces, and the middle part of the beam is called a shear web. The diagram in
Fig. 5.10 shows a beam resting on two supports. A perpendicular force on a beam will
create a shear force at the point of application. A beam tends to bend in the middle and
create complex stresses around this area.
Load
Shear Shear
Beam
Support Support
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 5.10 A beam resting on two supports
66
In a flying aircraft, a compressive force is on the top surface, a tensile force is at the
bottom and a shear force is in the middle. When on the ground, the wing will bow
due to its own weight. In this case, the compressive and tensile forces will be reversed,
but the shear web will still be in a state of shear. The flanges are designed to withstand
compressive and tensile forces, while the web is designed to withstand shear forces.
TORSION
Torsion is a form of shear stress, mainly experienced by round shafts used for driving
other components in circular motion. For torsion to exist, the shaft must have the ten-
dency to twist. The propeller shafts, helicopter drive shafts, and torque tubes in flying
control systems are some of the systems that experience torsion.
Fig. 5.11 shows a propeller shaft being rotated by the engine. The propeller resists
this rotation since it has to work against the air to produce thrust, resulting in torsion.
Shafts are usually designed to withstand torsion.
Aerodynamic drag
Shaft rotated
by the engine
Engine
Propeller shaft
Propeller © AeroChapter
FIGURE 5.11 An engine rotating a propeller shaft
67
CHAPTER
6 Fluid Mechanics
Fluid mechanics is the branch of mechanics that deals with the properties of fluids in
various states, and their reaction to forces acting upon them.
PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area and its SI unit is the Pascal (Pa). But the
imperial unit, psi is commonly used in aircraft engineering. The formula is given below.
Force N
Pressure =
Area m2
Both liquids and gases behave in a similar way with the ability to flow and occupy
any shape. Adiabatic compression is the name to the technique when air is compressed
quickly in order to raise the temperature. And isothermal compression is the name for the
technique when a gas is compressed slowly in order to maintain a constant temperature.
Bulk Modulus
All materials have a bulk modulus (K), which is defined as a value related to the pressure
increase required in order to decrease volume by a certain factor.
The bulk modulus of water (Kwater) is higher than that of air (Kair). Thus, water will
change its volume slightly when pressure is applied, whereas air will change volume
readily.
Properties of Fluids
• The pressure exerted at a point within a fluid is the same in all directions.
• The pressure exerted by a fluid is at right angles to the contact surface with
another material.
69
Fluid M e c h a n ic s
• The pressure is felt throughout the fluid without any loss.

• Gases are compressible whereas liquids are almost incompressible. But a liquid
will compress a little, depending on its bulk modulus.
Fluid Systems
Hydraulic systems are used in aircraft to retract landing gear, and to operate flaps and
power steering by the transmission of fluid pressure. The Bramah press is a hydraulic press-
ing machine, which was invented by Joseph Bramah. The system is shown in Fig. 6.1.
Small Force ‘f’ Large Force ‘F’
Piston
Seals Small
Large movement
movement
Cylinder
Small Piston ‘x ’ Large Piston ‘y ’

© AeroChapter
FIGURE 6.1 Bramah’s law
This principle is used in hydraulic lifting jacks. It consists of two linked cylinders
connected together by a pipe. Each cylinder has a close fitting piston that provides a
leak proof piston and cylinder arrangement. For practical reasons, the liquid in the sys-
tem is considered incompressible, and behaves like a gas only at very high temperatures.
As the small piston ‘x’ is moved in, the fluid is pressurised, and is the pressure being
felt throughout the fluid and cylinder. However, the force exerted by piston ‘y’ is larger
than the applied force at cylinder ‘x’, due to the larger area in cylinder ‘y’. So, a com-
paratively small force on the small piston can be used produce a much larger force on
the large piston. But the movement of the large piston will be small when compared to
the movement of the smaller one.
Pressure due to Depth

As far as aircraft are concerned, the relationship between pressure and depth is of little
concern. When considering atmospheric depth, the air column reaching up to the atmos-
pheric limit creates a downward pressure of approximately 101.3 kN/m2 at sea level, and
as altitude increases the air column above becomes sparser, and exerts less pressure.
70
F l ui d M e chani cs
When considering liquids, the pressure created due to depth is more obvious. This
becomes a problem for divers and submarines, since they have to withstand considera-
ble pressure limits in order to avoid being crushed by the water.
Absolute Pressure
The pressure measured upon an absolute vacuum is known as absolute pressure, whereas
another common pressure measurement is gauge pressure, which is relative to ambient
atmospheric pressure. A reading of gauge pressure may be converted to absolute pres-
sure by using the following simple formula.
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
The Mercury Barometer

The mercury barometer is an instrument used for measuring pressure by showing the
height of a column of mercury that is contained in a glass of 1m long (Fig. 6.2). By
immersing the glass laying down on its side in a mercury container, it completely fills
with mercury. The mercury falls a little from the sealed top-end, leaving a vacuum.
The height of the mercury depends on the atmospheric pressure and provides a direct
measurement of it. The resulting accurate readings can be used for forecasting weather
and calibrating pitot static instruments. The standard atmospheric pressure at sea level
is 29.9 inches of mercury.
Vacuum
Glass Tube
h
Atmospheric
Pressure Mercury (Hg)
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 6.2 The mercury barometer
71
The formula for calculating pressure (P) using mercury barometer readings is given
below.
Pressure = ρgh
ρ = density of the fluid (kg/m3)

g = gravitational acceleration (9.81m/s2)
h = height of the liquid (m)
The Piezometer
The piezometer is an instrument which is used to determine pressure. It can either
act as a device that is used to measure liquid pressure in a system by measuring the
height to which a liquid column rises against gravity, or as a device which measures the
pressure of groundwater accurately at a specific point. It consists of a tube vertically
inserted into a container carrying the liquid under pressure (Fig. 6.3). The liquid rises
up the tube until the pressure due to its height. This level is equal to the pressure in the
pipe and thus indicates the pressure level in the vessel. The piezometer can only be used
for liquids, and the height of the tube must be very long for liquids with low density.
Piezometer Tube
h Liquid
Pipeline
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 6.3 Piezometer tube
The Manometer
The manometer is an instrument that uses a column of liquid to measure pressure,
although the term is often used to refer to any pressure-measuring instrument. In
order to overcome the problems associated with the piezometer, this instrument has a
72
F l ui d M e chani cs
U-shaped tube attached to a pipe carrying fluid under pressure (Fig. 6.4). The pressure
of the fluid in the pipe forces the liquid around the U-tube until the height produces
a pressure which equals the pipe pressure. For gases, the pressure at ‘x’ is considered
as the pressure used to measure the pressure of the liquid column in the pipe. This
instrument is widely used in wind tunnel testing structures like aerofoils and airframes.
h
ρ kg/m3
y
Pipe Full of Gas
or Liquid
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 6.4 The manometer
BUOYANCY
Buoyancy is defined as an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of
an immersed object. The weight of the sinking body is greater than the upward thrust
exerted on it and vice-versa in the case of a floating body. Once the body has stabilised
floating on the water surface, the resultant force on the body will be zero. This is called
as the principle of floatation, which states that a floating body displaces its own weight
of fluid. The concept applies to bodies in air as well. For example, a flying balloon
displaces its own volume of air and experiences an up-thrust equal to the displaced air
weight. The gas in the balloon can be made less dense by using a gas of lower density
like helium, or by heating up the air inside the balloon to make it expand and become
less dense, as in the case of hot air balloons.
If a body is placed in water, it will either float or sink. Either way, it will experience
an up-thrust equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. This is known as Archimedes
Principle.
73
RELATIVE DENSITY
The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a given reference material is
known as relative density or specific gravity. It is often used when making comparisons, and
is represented using the formula below.
Density of substance
Relative density =
Density of water
The density of pure water is 1000 kg/m3.
Hydrometer
A hydrometer is an instrument that provides a direct reading of relative density of
liquids (Fig. 6.5). It consists of a weighted sealed glass tube calibrated to give a direct
reading. When the hydrometer is placed in the liquid, it floats upright, and from the
immersed volume, a reading can be taken on its scale at the settled graduation level. The
greater the liquid density, the smaller is the displaced volume. With low density liquids,
a larger volume has to be displaced and the hydrometer will sit lower in the liquid.
Graduations
Liquid Level
Sealed Glass
Container
Weighted
End
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 6.5 The hydrometer
74
CHAPTER
7 Fluid Dynamics
Fluid dynamics is a study that deals with the flow of fluids. Its sub-disciplines include
aerodynamics (study of gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (study of water in motion).
Viscosity
Viscosity of a fluid is defined as an internal frictional force present between each layer
of molecules as they slide over one another. The higher the viscosity the more the fluid
tends to act in a slow manner. This is an important property of engine and hydraulic
system oils. Fluids with low viscosity may be prone to leaks and may not provide fric-
tion protection.
The viscosity depends on the temperature, since the molecules tend to expand with
any rise in temperature. The change in viscosity with a rise in temperature is called a
viscosity index.
The higher the temperature, the lower the viscosity, and vice-versa.
The viscosity of liquids is higher than that of gases, due to greater molecular free-
dom in gases.
Fluid Flow
Fluid flow is measured in units of cubic metres per second. The rate of flow (Q) is
defined as the volume passing by per second and its representation is shown below.
Q = av m3/s
a = cross-sectional area (m2)

v = velocity (m/s)
75
Fluid Dy n a m ic s
The two main forms of fluid flow are described below.

Laminar flow: This is a flow in which all the molecules travel in parallel layers, with-
out any interchange between the layers. Each layer has a drag effect over the adjacent
layers so that a velocity gradient is produced across the flow. This flow type is more
efficient and is preferred in both aerodynamics and hydrodynamics.
Turbulent flow: In this form, the fluid flow is swirling with a complete interchange
between the layers. It creates a complete random motion, in which the particle move-
ment is unpredictable.
Compressibility
A measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to pres-
sure change is known as compressibility. In liquids, this is obvious only under very high
pressures. So, liquids are usually considered incompressible whereas gases are easily
compressed. When a body moves through air at low speeds, the compression level is
minimal. But as the speed of sound (762mph at sea level) is approached, the effect of
compressibility gains more importance, and must be considered.
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy are the three main types of energy
associated with fluid flow.
Pressure energy: This is of higher value in aircraft hydraulic systems.
mp
Pressure energy = (Joules)
ρ
m = mass (kg)
p = pressure (Nm2 or Pa)
ρ = density of the fluid (kg/m3)
Kinetic energy: This is the energy stored in a moving body.
1 2
Kinetic energy = mv (Joules)
2
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity of the fluid (m/s)
76
F l ui d D ynam i cs
Potential energy: This is the energy which is possessed by a body by virtue of its posi-
tion in a force field.
Potential energy = mgh (Joules)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
h = height (m)
The total energy level of a fluid flow remains constant unless work is done when
the fluid moves from one point to another. Bernoulli’s equation is a statement of an
energy conservation principle appropriate for flowing fluids. The qualitative behaviour
of lowering fluid pressure in regions where the flow velocity is increased is known as
the Bernoulli Effect.
Based on the above energy equations, the following Bernoulli’s equation is derived.
1 2
p+ ρv + ρgh = constant
2
The Venturi Tube

This is a practical application of Bernoulli’s equation, used for measuring the quality
of liquid flow in a pipeline. The tube has a reduction in cross sectional area from the
mouth of the tube to the throat. The gradual increase in cross section from the throat
to the outlet avoids turbulence. For measuring, manometer tubes are positioned at the
mouth and throat. As the fluid flows through the venturi, the reading on the manome-
ter tube is less than the pressure reading. The manometer tubes are replaced by U-tubes
in the case of gases. The Venturi tube diagram is shown in Fig. 7.1.
Manometers
Lower Pressure Level
Diverging Duct
Fluid Flow
Throat
Mouth
Converging Duct © AeroChapter
FIGURE 7.1 The Venturi tube
The same principle is applicable to the theory of lift on an aerofoil at an aircraft

wing. The greater velocity across the upper surface produces a decrease in pressure and
subsequent lift.
77
CHAPTER
8 Thermodynamics
A branch of physics that is concerned with temperature and heat and their relation to
energy and work is known as thermodynamics.
Temperature
An objective measurement of the extent of hotness or coldness is known as tempera-
ture. Kinetic energy increases with any increase in temperature. The effect of increased
molecular kinetic energy can only be measured using a thermometer. This instrument
consists of a bulb, blown at the end of a glass tube. This bulb is filled with mercury or
coloured alcohol and the other end is sealed. Since liquids expand more than solids,
heating the bulb causes the liquid inside to increase its molecular activity. This results
in expansion and the liquid height rises up the bore which allows us to read the value
of temperature.
The standardised scale of degrees used in thermometers is Celsius. Under normal
conditions, ice melts at 0oC and pure water boils at 100oC, both under standard atmos-
pheric pressure of 760mm of mercury. The Fahrenheit scale is also used in some cases,
in which the fixed points are based on the freezing and boiling points of water at 32oF
and 212oF, respectively. The lowest possible temperature is −273.15oC, which is known
as absolute zero. Each division in the Kelvin scale is same as in the Celsius scale, but starts
at zero, so that 0oC equals 273K and 100oC equals 373K.
The conversions between the scales may be carried out by using the following
equations.
5
□°C = (□°F − 32) ×
9
□°F = ∙95 × □°C∙ + 32

K = □°C − 273
79
Th e r m o d y n a m ic s
Heat
Heat is defined as energy in transit, something which can only exist in the case of
inequality between energy levels. When heat flows from a hotter body to a colder one,
there is a decreased energy level of the hotter body, and vice-versa. This heat flow con-
tinues until a state of energy equilibrium is reached.
Specific heat capacity: This is defined as the amount of heat required to raise 1kg
of a substance by 1oC, and is represented using the symbol ‘c’. The amounts of heat
needed to increase the temperature of 1kg of water, or 1kg of steel, are quite different.
Similarly, copper requires less heat energy to reach a required temperature than does
aluminium.
In the case of gases, two values of specific heat capacity are considered, since the
absorbed heat depends on existing conditions at that time, i.e. whether at constant
pressure (cp) or at constant volume (cv).
For air, cp = 1kJ/kgoC & cv = 0.72kJ/kgoC
For oxygen, cp = 0.92kJ/kgoC & cv = 0.66kJ/kgoC

Heat transfer: Heat transfer takes place in three ways: by conduction, convection or
radiation (Fig. 8.1). Most heat flows takes place through a combination of these three
methods.
Conduction is a process by which heat is transmitted through collision of molecules.
It is associated with substances whose molecules are tightly packed together. Heat
increases the vibration which is transmitted to adjacent molecules by direct contact.
The more closely packed the molecules, the better the conduction. Solids are better
heat conductors than liquids or gases.
Convection is a process by which heat is transferred as a result of molecular move-
ment of gas. If these molecules come in contact with colder bodies, they emit heat
energy by conduction.
Radiation is a process of energy transmission or emission in the form of waves
through empty space. No contact between bodies is required for radiation to occur.
The earth receives heat energy through empty space by radiation from the sun. The
energy is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic waves travelling at 299,800 km/s
in empty space.
80
T he r m odynam i cs
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 8.1 Ways of heat transfer
Thermodynamic System
A system is defined as a collection of matter within prescribed and identifiable bound-
aries. It can be a person, an aircraft or a gas container. For an aircraft, inputs include
fuel, air, oxygen, oils and greases, water, food and so on. The outputs include heat,
noise, gases, waste materials, and so on.
Boundary
System
Surroundings
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 8.2 A system and its boundary
A closed system does not allow any transfer process to occur across its boundary.
This type of system occurs with the closed piston and cylinder arrangement as shown
in Fig. 8.2. The gas already possesses some intrinsic energy before any heat is exchanged
in the system. Also, no mass movement occurs into and out of the cylinder.
81
Heat of Combustion
The process of energy release as heat when a compound undergoes complete combus-
tion with oxygen under standard conditions is known as the heat of combustion. A bomb
calorimeter apparatus is used to determine the heat of combustion of a fuel.
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
The laws of thermodynamics define fundamental physical quantities such as tempera-
ture, energy and entropy that describe thermodynamic systems.
The First Law of Thermodynamics

This law states that the difference between the sum of heat flows into a closed system,
and the work flowing from the system, is equal to the increase in the internal energy
of the system.
∆U = Q – W
∆U = change in internal energy

Q = heat added to the system
W = work done by the system
The Second Law of Thermodynamics

This law states that in every natural thermodynamic process, the sum of the entropies
of all participating bodies is increased. It is impossible for a heat engine to produce
network in a complete cycle if it exchanges heat only with bodies at a single fixed
temperature.
∆S ≥ 0
∆S = change in entropy
GASES
A gas is a substance that takes up the shape and volume of the container into which it
is placed. It is made up of molecules which move about freely, and at different speeds
82
in straight lines. These molecules are at constant random motion, and this aspect of
gaseous behaviour is important in designing internal combustion engines.
Laws of Gases
The gas laws were developed to explain how, for all gases, the interactions between
pressure, volume and temperature can be ascertained to a good approximation.
Boyle’s law: Robert Boyle stated that the pressure exerted by a gas held at a constant
temperature varies inversely with the volume of the gas. That means, for a fixed mass
of gas at constant temperature, the volume is inversely proportional to the pressure,
which is stated as a formula below.
1
Pα
v
PV = constant
P = pressure
V = volume
Thus the pressure is increased with any decrease in volume, and vice-versa. This
relationship allows the calculation of pressure and volume under new conditions, as
shown in Fig. 8.3.
(a) P1 (b) P2
T1 Constant T2 Constant
V1 V2 © AeroChapter
FIGURE 8.3 Boyle’s law
83
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 = pressure at piston position 1

P2 = pressure at piston position 2
V1 = volume at piston position 1
V2 = volume at piston position 2
Charles’s law: Jacques Charles studied the relationship between the volume and tem-
perature of a gas at constant pressure. He noted that for an ideal gas at constant pres-
sure, the volume is directly proportional to its temperature.
VαT
T = temperature
As shown in Fig. 8.4, if heat is applied to the cylinder, the piston must be moved
out in order to maintain constant pressure. Similarly if the temperature is lowered, the
piston must be moved in to maintain its original pressure.
(a) P1 Constant (b) P2 Constant
T2
T1
Heat
V1
V2 © AeroChapter
FIGURE 8.4 Charles’s law
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
T1 = temperature at piston position 1

T2 = temperature at piston position 2
84
Boyle’s law and Charles’s law together are called the combined gas laws. For these laws
to be applicable, a fixed mass of gas must be allowed to expand at constant temperature
and constant pressure according to Boyle’s law and Charles’s law, respectively. This is
the ideal gas rule or the characteristic gas equation, which is represented as shown below.
PV
= mR
T1
PV = mRT
m = mass of the gas (kg)
R = gas constant
Expansion of Gases
A gas requires additional heat to produce any temperature rise, if the volume is kept
constant. The reason for this is that the energy output of the expanding gas must be
balanced by additional energy input in the form of heat. The amount of expansion
differs with specific heat values, under the two following conditions only.
• The gas is kept at a constant volume without being allowed to expand.
• The gas is kept at a constant pressure whilst the gas is allowed to expand.
The two specific heat capacities are specific heat at constant volume (cy) and spe-
cific heat at constant pressure (cp).
ENGINE CYCLES
A fluid experiences a thermodynamic cycle when it undergoes a series of processes
and returns to its original state. For example, an internal combustion engine operates
on a cycle by compressing a gas in a cylinder and creates high pressure by igniting it.
Then the gas is allowed to expand against a piston, which is driven forward. The cycle
resumes with the gas once again being compressed.
The rapid compression of air in order to raise the temperature is known as adiabatic
compression. The compression of a gas, made slowly in order to maintain a constant
temperature, is known as isothermal compression.
The expansion of a gas without any exchange of heat energy is known as adiabatic
expansion. And the expansion of gas under constant temperature is known as isothermal
expansion.
85
The Constant Volume Cycle

In petrol and gas engines, a sudden rise in temperature occurs as the gas is ignited with
little or no movement of the piston at the top centre position of its cycle. And a sudden
fall in pressure and heat loss occurs with little or no movement of the piston at the
bottom centre position of its cycle. Since the exchange of heat takes place while the gas
volume remains unchanged in both cases, the cycle is known as a constant volume cycle or
an Otto cycle , illustrated in Fig. 8.5.
Pressure
Constant Volume Process
P (N/m) 3 Adiabatic Process
pv δ = constant
2
4
1 Volume V
v2 v1 (m 3)
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 8.5 The constant volume cycle
The Constant Pressure Cycle

This cycle is also known as a Brayton cycle. In gas turbine engines, the heat supply and
heat rejection processes occur at constant pressure. As illustrated in Fig. 8.6, the work
input to the compressor occurs from the turbine in between 1 and 2. The heat is sup-
plied from the heater between 2 and 3. The work output from the turbine occurs in
the form of thrust in between 3 and 4.
Pressure
P (N/m2)
2 3
P2
pv γ = constant
P1
1 4
Volume V
(m 3)
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 8.6 The constant pressure cycle
86
For both the constant volume and the constant pressure cycles, air (an ideal gas) is
the working substance for an ideal cycle, while g is constant and equal to 1.4.
The Air Standard Cycle

This is a true thermodynamic cycle, in which the working fluid is considered to be a
fixed air mass that undergoes a full cycle. Heat is added at constant volume in order to
produce the rise in pressure at the combustion stage. At the other end, heat is extracted
from the air, enabling it to return to its original condition before the cycle is repeated.
The Heat Engine

This is a system which operates on a complete cycle and develops a network output
from a supply of heat, as shown in Fig. 8.7.
Hot Reservoir
Heat Supplied Q1
Heat
Network output
Engine
Heat Rejected Q2
Cold Reservoir
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 8.7 The heat engine
The following equation follows from the first law of thermodynamics.
Q1 – Q2 = W
(Q1 – Q2) = net heat supplied

W = net work done
87
Then it follows that

Q1 > W
The thermal efficiency (η) must always be less than 1, according to the formula derived
below.
W
h=
Q1
Q1 − Q2
=
Q1
Q2
=1−
Q1
The Heat Pump

This system operates on a cycle that works in the reverse direction to that of the heat
engine, as shown in Fig. 8.8.
Hot Reservoir
Heat Rejected Q1
Heat
Work input
Pump
Heat Supplied Q2
Cold Reservoir
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 8.8 The heat pump
The following equation comes from the first law of thermodynamics.

Q1 = Q2 + W
Then the following equation follows.
W−0
88
Heat pumps are used in the heating of buildings, with an evaporator placed in
the air outside the building and a condenser being placed inside the building. The
heat pump transfers heat from the medium outside to inside the building with the
condenser. Some electronic equipment on military aircraft have to be heated at alti-
tude in order to maintain a good working temperature. These items use a heat pump
system, automatically cooling or heating, depending on the temperature of the bay for
electronics.
LATENT HEAT
When the addition of heat to a body does not cause any rise in temperature, it is called
latent heat. In this case, heat energy is used to produce a change of state by weakening
molecular bonds. When the substance changes from a solid to a liquid state, then latent
heat of fusion is said to occur. And the latent heat of vaporization occurs when the latent
heat required for a change from liquid to vapour state.
Required latent heat to change from solid to liquid = Lf × m

Required latent heat to change from liquid to vapour = Lv × m
Lf = the latent heat of fusion

Lv = the latent heat of vaporization
m = mass of the substance
When heat is supplied to a body, the temperature is expected to rise and this sen-
sible act is known as sensible heat.
Q = C × m × ∆t (Joules)
Q = sensible heat
C = specific heat capacity of the substance
∆t = temperature change
Water
Water is the best example since it can experience all three states of matter. Water at
100°C requires 2,257kJ of heat energy to become a steam and hence Lv is 2,257kJ.
89
The density of water increases until it reaches 4°C and thereafter becomes less
dense as it expands. The same phenomenon causes water pipes to burst in frosty,
near-freezing conditions. The water forms a crystal lattice structure during the freezing
process, becoming less dense. But the freezing point of water can be lowered by adding
anti-freeze substances like ethanol, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol or other methanol
based solutions, thus preventing crystal lattice formation in car radiators. These sub-
stances are usually highly inflammable. The more of the anti-freeze mixture is added,
the lower the freezing temperature.
The boiling process of water can be divided into the following three phases.
Nucleate boiling: During this phase, bubbles are formed from specific points of the
heated area and rise to the water surface.
Transition boiling: In this phase, tiny bubbles stop rising and the liquid starts to
become unstable.
Film boiling: The water becomes turbulent in this stage when the heated surface is so
hot that a thin vapour layer occurs between the heated surface and the actual water.
The process whereby a substance changes from a solid to a gas, or from a gas to a
solid without passing through the liquid stage is called sublimation.
ATMOSPHERE
The earth is surrounded by air, a mixture of gases, and the whole body of air is called
the atmosphere. Its pressure, density and temperature depends highly upon altitude,
along with the geographical location around the world. The air is made up of approx-
imately 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 1% of other gases. The speed of sound at sea
level is related to the temperature as shown in Fig. 8.9.
Altitude ICAO Temperature Speed of

(feet) (degrees C) Sound (m/s)
0 15 340
7,600 0 331
10,000 –5 329
20,000 –25 316
30,000 –44 303
40,000 –56 295
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 8.9 Speed of sound against temperature
90
Standard atmosphere
Standard atmosphere is an atmospheric model that is used to calculate the changes in
the temperature, pressure, density and viscosity of the earth’s atmosphere. It allows
standardisation and calibration of engines, apart from taking the speed of sound into
consideration. Instruments such as pitot static operated instruments can be calibrated
using the parameter values for the standard atmosphere.
The ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) standard atmosphere or ISA
(International Standard Atmosphere) deals with pressure, temperature, density and vis-
cosity of the atmosphere, with average values observed at a latitude of 40oN. The
air is assumed to be dry and the temperature and pressure at sea level are 15oC and
101.325kPa, respectively. The acceleration due to gravity has the uniform value of
9.81m/sec2 at sea level.
The following figure graphically represents the level of dependence of the various
parameters upon altitude. It also shows the different layers of atmosphere, which is
helpful in making assessments for different sizes of aircraft.
Any additional pressure in a system, relative to atmospheric pressure, is known as
gauge pressure. The absolute pressure is gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure and is a
part of a zero-reference trinity.
The density can vary depending on the temperature and the relative humidity.
Density will increase with any drop in temperature, and will decrease with any rise in
relative humidity.
Other atmospheric standards are STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure), NTP
(Normal Temperature and Pressure) and SATP (Standard Ambient Temperature and
Pressure).
Dew
Heat transfer can occur due to radiation when the air cools down, resulting in heat
loss from the earth to the surrounding atmosphere. At the same time, the air is often
saturated with moisture and will condense out to form small water droplets on any
cool surfaces, and this wetness is known as dew, which can be found on parked aircraft.
The temperature at which there is enough water vapour present to saturate the air is
called the dew point.
91
Frost
A deposit of minute ice crystals formed when water vapour condenses at a temperature
below the freezing point (0oC) is known as frost. It forms a white soft crystalline layer,
covers the surface, and is known as hoarfrost or ground frost.
Fog
Fog is formed by small water droplets suspended in the air, ranging between 1 and 10
microns in diameter. These are often confused with low lying clouds. According to the
international definition, fog occurs when visibility is reduced to 180m or less. When
smoke particles combine with fog, the result is smog, which can also carry chemical
waste particles.
Mist
The droplets of mist are up to 1 micron in size, with visibility remaining above 1.5
miles.
All weather related deposits must be removed from aircraft before flight.
92
CHAPTER
9 Optics
Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behaviour and properties of light
and its interactions with matter, including the construction of instruments that detect
it. Light consists of electromagnetic waves that are made up of electric and magnetic
fields that travel through space. They vibrate at right angles to each other and to the
direction of motion.
Fig. 9.1 shows the nature of light with vertical axis ‘y’, horizontal axis ‘x’ and the
horizontal axis going into the page as ‘z’. The magnetic field oscillates at right angles
to the electric field and to the wave direction. And the electric field oscillates at right
angles to the magnetic field and the wave direction.
Y
Magnetic Field
Z
Wave
direction
X of travel
Wavelength Electric Field © AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.1 Nature of light
Electromagnetic spectrum
Light waves are a part of electromagnetic radiation, including x-rays, ultraviolet rays,
infrared rays and radio waves. These are all produced by changes to the orbits of elec-
trons inside atoms. The range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation is
known as the electromagnetic spectrum.
93
O p tic s
Some of the common properties of radiation are:

• The waves travel through space at the light speed of approximately 186,000
miles per second.
• They follow the equation “Velocity (v) = Frequency (f ) × Wavelength (g)”.
• They carry energy from one place to another.
Fig. 9.2 shows the various forms of the electromagnetic spectrum. The spectrum wave-
form is not proportional to its length throughout.
Wavelength (metres)
Radio Microwave Infrared Visible Ultraviolet X-Ray Gamma Ray
103 10–2 10–5 10–6 10–8 10–10 10–12
Frequency (Hz)
104 108 1012 1015 1016 1018 1020
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.2 The electromagnetic spectrum
Visible light occurs in the spectrum range between 400nm-700nm, the range vis-
ible to the human eye, which experiences a whole range of colours known as the visible
spectrum.
Colours
An object appears coloured depending on the absorption and reflection of certain
frequencies. The use of optical glass filters will filter out certain wavelengths of various
colours and will allow the passage of required wavelengths associated with that colour.
For example, a red filter allows light with longer wavelengths associated with red to
pass through. Some colours may be experienced by scattering of light from surfaces.
Red, green and blue are known as light primary colours. Red, orange, yellow, green,
blue and violet are the easily identifiable colours within the visible spectrum.
94
Opt i cs
As the frequency gradually changes across the range, the colours blend into each
other without any clear boundaries. Black is the absence of any light and white is the
combination of all the colours in the visible spectrum.
The colours that are not in the visible spectrum can be formed by combining the
colours in the spectrum range. For example, red and blue when mixed together form
purple. Some of the colour combinations are shown Fig. 9.3.
Red
Magenta Yellow
White
Blue Green
Cyan
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.3 Colour combinations
Dispersion
The property by which light is spread out based on its colour as it passes through an
object by the refraction process is known as dispersion. The light energy when shared
among the wavelengths in the spectrum results in various colour formation.
Sir Isaac Newton was the first to carry out this study of dispersion using a triangu-
lar prism. As shown in Fig. 9.4, if white light falls onto the prism it will split into the
colours of the spectrum.
95
O p tic s
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
White Light
Blue
Indigo
Violet
Glass Prism
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.4 Light dispersion in glass prism
This phenomenon occurs when sunlight falls on water droplets while raining,
resulting in the formation of a rainbow.
Reflection
The change in direction of a light wave when it bounces off a boundary is known as
reflection, which is often achieved using mirrors. The ray of light known as the incident ray
is reflected by the mirror. The perpendicular line to the mirror at the point the incident
ray strikes is called as the normal (Fig. 9.5).
Incident Normal Reflected

Ray Ray
Angle of
Angle of
Reflection
Incidence
Plane Mirror © AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.5 Angle of incidence and reflection
The two laws of reflection are as follows.

1. The angle of incidence ‘i’ is equal to the angle of reflection ‘r’.
2. The reflected ray lies in the same plane as the incident ray and the normal at the
point of incidence.
96
Opt i cs
Based on these laws, the images formed by reflection are easily observed by flat or
curved mirrors. The two types of curved mirrors are explained below.
Concave mirror: This has an inwardly curved surface that is shaped towards the mid-
dle and away from the observer (Fig. 9.6).
Reflection of light on concave mirror
Principal axis
C F
Focal
length
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.6 Reflection of light on concave mirror
Convex mirror: This has an outward curving surface where the centre is shaped out
towards the observer (Fig. 9.7).
Principal axis F C
Focal
length
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.7 Reflection of light on convex mirror
Point ‘C’ refers to the centre of curvature and point ‘F’ is the principal focal point. In the
case of a concave mirror, the focal point is the point where rays parallel to the principal
97
O p tic s
axis reflect and converge to a point. And in case of a convex mirror, they appear to
diverge from this point.
Refraction
The change in direction of the light rays when they move from one medium to another
is known as refraction (Fig. 9.8). The amount of change depends on the density of the
medium. The higher the density, the greater the refraction effect.
Incident ray Normal

Angle of
incidence
90º
Boundary Substance 1
Substance 2
Angle of
refraction
Refracted ray
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.8 Refraction of light
The incident light ray is bent towards the normal when it enters an optically more
dense medium at an angle. Thus, the angle of refraction ‘r’ is less than the angle of
incidence ‘i’ as the light ray moves from air to glass.
The absolute refractive index ‘n’ of a substance is also called the index of refraction of
a substance when a ray passes into it from a vacuum, and is defined as
Velocity of light in a vacuum

h=
Velocity of light in the substance
The absolute refractive indices of a vacuum (nvacuum) and of water (nwater) are 1 and
1.33 respectively. In a vacuum, light travels at approximately 300,000km/s, whereas in
glass the velocity is around 200,000km/s. The refractive index depends highly on the
wavelength of light.
98
Opt i cs
The two laws of refraction are as follows.

1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence are
all in the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refrac-
tion at the boundary of the two substances is always constant. This law is known
as Snell’s law, and is formulated below.
Sine of angle of incidence (Sin θ1)

= Constant (C)
Sine of angle of refraction (Sin θ2)
Lenses
Lenses are the most important components in many optical instruments. Concave and
convex lenses are the two basic types, and are explained below.
Concave lens: These are diverging lenses that are thinnest at its centre, causing the
light to spread out once received (Fig. 9.9).
Optical axis
Parallel rays of light
Focal point
F Optical centre O
(Principal Focus) Principal axis
f
Focal length (OF)
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.9 Concave lens
99
O p tic s
Convex lens: These are converging lenses that are thickest at its centre, causing the
light to bend inwards (Fig. 9.10).
Optical axis
Parallel rays of light
Focal
point
Principal axis Optical centre O F
(Principal Focus)
f
Focal length (OF)
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.10 Convex lens
Point ‘O’ refers to the optical centre and point ‘F’ is the principal focal point. The dis-
tance between the focal point and the optical centre is known as the focal length ‘f ’. The
ability of the lens to converge or diverge light rays can be calculated using the formula
below.
1
Power =
f
The focal length is positive for a convex lens and negative for a concave lens. The
linear magnification ‘m’ is calculated using the following formula.
Height of image
m=
Height of object
FIBRE OPTICS
Light can travel in air and water, but these types of transmission are limited because
there needs to be a line of sight between transmitter and receiver. Transmission cables
known as fibre optic cables are made up of light transmitting materials. Since the power
loss is greater while using glass cables, silica glass cables are in use nowadays.
100
Opt i cs
Elements of Optical Fibre

The core material, cladding and outer covering are the three basic elements of an
optical fibre (Fig. 9.11).
Core material: This is a very thin and flexible strand of solid glass rod made from sil-
ica. The silica has to be free from any impurities to produce remarkably pure and clear
cables for better light transmission. Its diameter can be as small as 0.05mm, though
some systems use thicker cores. In aircraft systems, glass is used as a core material
whereas plastic cores are widely used in communication systems.
Cladding: An outer cladding of a less dense silica glass reflects light rays. As these rays
travel along the fibre core, they reflect from side to side off the cladding. The fibres
with plastic core materials have plastic cladding and will exhibit high losses.
Outer covering: The whole system is encased in a plastic coating which prevents any
external dust and moisture from attacking the glass. The following figure shows the
parts of a simple fibre optic cable.
Outer Jacket
Strength
Member
Cladding
Coating
Core © AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.11 Elements of optical fibre
In the case of fibre optic telephone line systems, analogue electrical signals are con-
verted to digital electrical signals, which are then converted into pulses of light. This
light signal is transmitted down the fibre optic and received at the other end. At the
reception end, it is converted back to an electrical signal by a converter.
Fibre Optic Light Transmission

This is a method of transmitting information from one place to another by sending
light pulses through an optical fibre. The modulated electromagnetic carrier waves,
formed by the light, carry information. A mode is a set of waves for a particular fibre
101
O p tic s
geometry and core/cladding interface condition. Optical fibres are either single mode
or multi-mode fibres.
Single mode optical fibre: An optical fibre is designed to carry light directly down the
fibre. Laser diodes are commonly used to send light into the fibre. In this setup, the
waves have the same mode but different frequencies as shown in Fig. 9.12. Thus the
waves are distributed in space in the same way, and give us a single ray of light. Single
mode fibres having minimum dispersion as light can only propagate at small angles
to the axis. These types of fibres can be used in systems with large bandwidths. They
require greater precision in fabrication and the core diameter is of the same order as the
wavelength of the light source.
Cladding Core Light ray
Source
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.12 Single mode optical fibre
Multi-mode optical fibre: The fibres have a uniform refractive index, allowing all
energised light paths to travel at the same speed. These types are commonly used for
short distance communication systems and LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes). The larger
core diameter of multimode fibres make it easier to send light into the fibre and to
provide easy connection. The diameter of the core is typically around 100µm with
operating wavelengths of 1µm. Usually, the pulse broadening effect is tolerable for
current data bus rates of 50Mbits/s on aircraft installations.
The fibres can either be step index or graded index silica fibres. In the step index
fibres, there is a step change in the refractive index at the core/cladding surface Fig. 9.13.
Cladding Core Light rays
Source
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.13 Multi-mode step index optical fibre
102
Opt i cs
The refractive index of the graded index fibre varies across the core of the fibre.
Monomode fibres have a small plastic core radius, which permits the light to travel
along only one path in the fibre; see Fig. 9.14.
Light ray
Source
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.14 Travel of light in monomode fibre
Advantages of Fibre Optics

• Used for the high speed data transmission using light.
• Resistant to electromagnetic interference from radio, electrical systems and
other weather anomalies like lightning strikes.
• Transmits data at very high frequencies with lower power losses.
• Used for the multiplexing of a large number of signals in one cable over greater
distances.
• Provides improved safety when operating in hazardous areas.
• Reduced earth loop problems.
• Provides a high degree of data security since the light signals are confined within
the fibre by total internal reflection.
• Resistant to chemicals.
• Less maintenance when compared to twisted or coaxial cables.
• Lighter and easy to use.
• Great insulators and can be connected between systems of different electrical
potential.
The Decibel
The decibel is a measure of the level of sound intensity, which can be used to express the
power gain of an amplifier and to express the attenuation of a circuit which reduces
the power of the signal. The symbol for decibel is ‘dB’. The bel is a measure of sound
103
O p tic s
or signal power, and is the ratio of the logarithms (to the base 10) of two values. The
decibel is one tenth of a bel.
Io
Power changes = log10 (bels)
Ii
Io
Gain = 10 log10 (decibels)
Ii
Ii = input power
Io = output power
Here, ‘dBA’ stands for deciBels absolute, which are agreed noise curves for weight-
ing noise meters to meet particular needs. This curve approximates to the human ear.
‘EPNdB’ stands for Equivalent Perceived Noise decibel, which is similar to per-
ceived noise decibel and is the comparison of one noise level to another as perceived
by a normal listener.
‘dBm’ means decibels relevant to 1mW, which is the standard power level in fibre
optics.
Attenuation
A signal loss, causing a decrease in light intensity as it travels along the fibre, is known
as attenuation. The units of attenuation are decibels per kilometre (dB/km). The causes
of attenuation are described as follows.
Absorption loss: The absorption of wavelengths of light by the material’s atoms is
caused by extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the core, and by intrinsic absorp-
tion by the basic constituents of the core material. Impurities like the OH ion in water
must be kept to a minimum within the core material, since it is impossible to eliminate
moisture completely.
Scattering loss: This happens as a result of impurities and faults. It is a consequence
of microscopic variations in density, composition, structural irregularities and manu-
facturing defects of the material. Any light that is less than the critical angle can escape
from the core and is lost. At relatively large photon energy levels, loss is determined by
Rayleigh scatter, which refers to the scattering of light off of the air molecules, and can be
extended to scattering from particles up to about one tenth of the wavelength of light.
104
Opt i cs
Reflection loss: Fresnel reflection losses occur due to reflected light at connections and
splicing points. They create more problems when light leaves the end of a fibre, and
can be reduced if that end has an anti-reflective coating.
Radiation loss: Radiation or bending losses occur at any bend in the optical fibre. For
example in a single mode fibre, the radiation loss is negligible for bend radii greater
than 1mm, but substantial loss occurs for bend radii less than 0.5mm.
Un-intercepted light loss: This occurs when some of the light from the source does
not fall on the fibre. The most common reason is having a larger diameter of the light
source than the diameter of the fibre. This form of light loss also arises when the fibre
is not aligned properly with the light source.
Windows: The losses of lowest wavelength are known as windows, and occur at 82nm,
1300nm and 1550nm. Wet fibre has a high impurity level and is known as a single
window fibre, whereas dry fibre is known as multi-window fibre.
Non-confinement loss: This occurs when the light enters the fibre at a large angle to
the centre line of the fibre.
Micro-bend loss: This occurs when the micro-bends shrink due to temperature
change after the outer layers shrink in length, causing the core to bend within the cable
structure.
Light Sources
The commonly used light sources are LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) and ILDs
(Injection Laser Diodes). Fibre optic cable acts as a channel for transmitting light that
represents data.
LEDs: These diodes are capable of sending signals with power of between 0.1 and
10mW into the fibre. But limitations arise due to its rise time and chromatic disper-
sion. This occurs due to the varying levels of refractive indices of the core material with
the optical wavelength (Fig. 9.15). Thus the spectral components of a given mode
travel at different speeds. For digital transmissions below 50Mbps, LEDs require less
complex drive circuitry and require no thermal or optical power stabilisation.
105
O p tic s
Relative Intensity 0
800 850 900
Wavelength (nm)
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.15 Wavelength for LEDs
Laser diodes: These diodes can provide higher power, particularly with low-duty
cycles having outputs between 1 and 100mW. They offer a higher electrical to optical
efficiency due to better coupling characteristics than LEDs. The spectral output width
is narrower in the case of laser diodes, as shown in Fig. 9.16. The rise time is faster and
the chromatic dispersion is less.
1
Relative Intensity
0
848 850 852
Wavelength (nm)
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.16 Wavelength for laser diodes
Detectors
The PIN (P – material; I – intrinsic; N – material) diodes and avalanche photodiodes
are used in the detection of the optical signal at the receiver. Silicon is used as the main
fabrication material in the region of 0.8-0.9µm.
106
Opt i cs
PIN diode: This is a diode with a wide intrinsic semiconductor region between a
p-type semiconductor material and an n-type semiconductor region. It has a typical
responsivity of 0.65Amps/Watt at 0.8µm. The thermal noise of the resistor and ampli-
fier dominates in the case of PIN diodes.
Avalanche photodiode: This employs avalanche action to provide current gain, creat-
ing higher detector responsivity. The gain can be high but produces additional noise,
which in turn determines the sensitivity of the photo-detector and receiver system. The
detector noise dominates in the case of avalanche diodes.
Sensors
Sensors are used for monitoring parameters such as temperature, pressure and so on,
where optical fibre systems are used as part of a transducer system. Various arrange-
ment methods of sensors is shown in Fig. 9.17.
Active
Concentrator
Fibre Optic Connection to
Aircraft Systems/
Sensor Bus Bar
Transducer
Head
Single Sensor System Space Multiplexed System
T-Coupler
Single Fibre Distributed System Linear T-Coupled System
Star Coupler
Star Coupled System © AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.17 Sensor coupling arrangements
The fibre optic system can be of any shape that can accommodate wiring looms
within the aircraft structure. The light travels in one or both directions depending on
the system. In some systems, the cable may be formed onto a loop to allow light to
107
O p tic s
enter the sensor. The bending losses are used to sense the pressure. Active sensors may
be optically or battery powered.
Couplers
The metal devices that are used to join three or more fibre optic cables together are
known as couplers. A simple 2x1 coupler is shown Fig. 9.18.
Input 1
Coupler
Output
Input 2
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.18 2 x 1 coupler
They are constructed by fusing cables together to effectively melt for cladding. As
the light gets to the fused section, it becomes dispersed, and some will move through
the other core. For connecting more fibres to form a larger diameter, a mixing rod is
used.
Types of couplers
• Star coupler: This is used to combine optical power from two or more input
ports and to distributes it to various outer ports and vice versa (Fig. 9.19). A
reflective star coupler is where a signal applied to any port acts at all the other ports.
A transmissive star coupler is where a signal applied to any input port acts at all the
output ports.
Coupler
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.19 Star coupler combination of fibers
108
Opt i cs
• T-coupler: In this, one input is shared between two outputs.

• Fibre optic splitter: This is a device which extracts a portion of an optical signal
and diverts it to a different end from that of the remaining signal: see Fig. 9.20.
Output 1
Input
Splitter
Output 2
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.20 Fibre optic splitter
Properties of couplers
• The size of couplers can range from 1 × 2 to 32 × 32.
• The coupling tolerance is usually between 1% and 5%.
• Directional loss or cross-talk is caused by backscatter in the coupler.
• Insertion loss is based on the splitting ratio and coupling loss, and can occur
anytime when there is a connection in a fibre optic cable.
Fibre Optic Systems

Extrinsic and intrinsic systems are the two main fibre optic systems.
Extrinsic or hybrid system: In this system, the data is impressed onto the light beam
while in the black box. This light beam travels down the fibre optic with the data
impressed on it, which is then used by other units in the system. The fibre optic cables
that are used on aircraft are called LRUs (Line Replacement Units). The data received
at a LRU is transduced into an electric signal and then converted into digital data using
an LED/Laser.
Intrinsic or all-fibre system: In this system, the data is impressed onto the light beam
while it is in the optical fibre. The black box is a power source and data detection unit.
109
O p tic s
The Fog (Fibre optic gyro)

A FOG is a laser operated fibre optic gyroscope, which is used to provide rate of turn
data for navigational purposes. It works under a passive intrinsic fibre optic principle
in which the light beam is placed into the optical fibre and the phase is modified by the
fibre movement. A simplified FOG is shown in Fig. 9.21.
Black box
Light A
Cable
Fibre coil
Light B
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 9.21 The FOG (Fibre Optic Gyro)
The fibre optic cable is arranged as a large number of loops in a coil. Each beam
will get to its destination in the black box without any phase shift, when the coil is
held. And if it rotates, then each beam will experience a phase shift, and the subsequent
interference is noted by a detector which registers the rotation rate of the coil.
FOGs are fitted to Boeing B777s and some other aircraft for greater stability,
higher reliability and resolution.
Testing Fibre Optics

Usually all the elements in a fibre optic system are tested by the manufacturing com-
pany. Before releasing to the industry, several tests are carried out including thorough
visual inspection and test runs to measure workability.
In the visible light test, each end of the cable is disconnected and a flashlight is shone
at one end, to verify continuity when the light is received at the other end.
A mode filter is used as an alternative to using a long fibre that may cause loss over
some distance of the cable. This is a fibre coil, which is fitted at the light end, and
allows light in the cladding to escape without affecting the light in the core.
110
Opt i cs
Light source and power meter test

This involves a light output using an LED or laser light source with a power meter
attached at the other end. The amount of light reaching the power meter can be pre-
cisely recorded when the light source is supplied. The actual testing procedure is given
below.
• Check the AMM and meter operating guidelines from the manufacturer.
• Select the light source meter and power meter.
• Calibrate the power meter against the light source to 0dBr.
• Ensure the aircraft system power is turned off.
• Disconnect the aircraft fibre optic cable at both ends.
• Connect to the light source and power meter.
• Select the wavelength on the light source box and turn it on.
This test can only provide a measure of overall performance of the system.
The OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer)

This is used to check the characteristics of the fibre optic core including the attenua-
tion rate and any fault lies on the cable. It sends the pulsed light rays down the core and
checks for any reflected waves that are sent back to the instrument. The distance to a
reflection interface and other discontinuities are determined by measuring the time it
takes for the light wave pulse to travel to the discontinuity and back. Based on all this
data, the OTDR detects the insertion losses caused by connectors, couplers, splices and
defects within the core.
111
CHAPTER
10 Wave Motion
The movement of a distortion in material, where the individual elements of the mate-
rial move back-and-forth, up-and-down, or in a cyclic pattern, is known as wave motion.
For example, when still water is disturbed by the fall of a stone, we can see water waves
moving out in circles from where the stone was dropped. The pressure energy is the
one that is travelling from one moving part to the other part of the water, forming a
ripple. The different types of waves related to this topic are stated below.
• Water waves are also known as mechanical waves.
• Sound waves are transmitted by vibrating particles of the medium involved.
• The oscillation of electric and magnetic fields occurs in the case of electromagnetic
waves.
• A wave is known as a transverse wave when the particles of water move up and
down in a perpendicular direction along the line the wave travels.
• Stationary or standing waves occur in tightly stretched wires between two points.
When the wires are caused to vibrate, the waves cross each other along the wire
forming a stationary wave pattern.
Fig. 10.1 shows the different terms associated with the wave formation, with their
brief description below.
Amplitude Crest
(a)
Trough
Wavelength, λ
Direction of motion
© AeroChapter
FIGURE 10.1 Graph representing wave motion
113
Wa ve M o tio n
v=fg
• The linear distance between successive crests is known as wavelength, represented

as g.
• The number of complete wave cycles generated in one second is known as fre-
quency (f), and its unit is Hertz (Hz).
• The height of the crest from the undisturbed position is known as the amplitude.
• The distance moved by a crest in one second is known as speed (v).
• A point on the wave is known as a trough, if the displacement of the medium at
that point is at a minimum.
• A point along a standing wave where the wave has minimum amplitude is called
a node.
• A point along the medium that undergo maximum displacement during each
vibrational cycle of the standing wave is called an antinode.
• Interference or superposition occurs at points where two or more waves meet.
• The phase of the wave is defined as the distance between the first zero-crossing
and the point in space which is defined as the origin. Waves are said to be in phase,
when two waves with the same frequency have the same phase. Waves with the
same frequency but different phases are said to be out of phase.
The greater the amplitude, the greater the energy carried. But the wave intensity is
calculated from both frequency and amplitude. Some in-flight entertainment systems
are built in with electronic equipment that detects noise vibrations from the engines
and produces destructive interference patterns to reduce the noise.
114
CHAPTER
11 Sound
The energy that is produced when an object vibrates, also causing vibration of the
surrounding air particles, is known as sound energy. Sound waves or acoustic waves are
known as compression and rarefaction when occurring in high pressure and low pres-
sure regions, respectively.
The molecules gather together forming the regions of compression, producing
high pitched sounds, and tend to move apart forming regions of rarefaction, produc-
ing low pitched sounds.
The speed of sound depends on the medium through which the sound travels. It is
greater in solids than in liquids and gases, because the vibration is much easier to trans-
mit with materials having closely packed molecules. For aeronautical purposes, the
speed of sound in air at sea level is 340m/s at 15oC. This level decreases with increasing
altitude as the temperature drops.
Harmonics
When an elastic structure is deformed and released, it vibrates about a mean position.
The sounds which are produced if the vibration frequencies fall in the audible fre-
quency range are called harmonics.
A harmonic series is a sequence of frequencies that start with the fundamental
frequency, which is equivalent to plucking an open string on a musical instrument.
Fig. 11.1 shows the plotted graphs of harmonic sound waveforms.
115
So u n d
(a) (c)
First harmonic Third harmonic

(b) (d)
Second harmonic
Combined wave form

© AeroChapter
FIGURE 11.1 Harmonic waveforms
Beat Frequencies
Interference between two sounds with the same amplitude but different frequencies
is known as a beat. Beat frequencies are low and are calculated by subtracting the two
original waveform frequencies from each other at specific places. The beat frequency is
calculated using the formula below.
fbeat = f2 – f1
Thus the beat pattern is obtained by adding the amplitude of the two original
waveforms at regular intervals. Thus, any change in one of the waveforms will alter the
beat frequency.
The Doppler Effect

The change in frequency, which occurs when the source that is emitting sound waves
experiences movement, is known as the Doppler Effect. Fig. 11.2 explains the Doppler
Effect or Doppler shift.
116
S ound
V V=0 V V=0
Stationary sound source Moving sound source

© AeroChapter
FIGURE 11.2 The Doppler effect
The diagram shows that a stationary sound source emits sound waves in all direc-
tions at the same speed and frequency, whereas with a moving sound source, the sound
waves moving in the same direction become closer together, displaying smaller wave-
length and greater frequency. This is the reason for the increase in the pitch of the
sound as any vehicle approaches and vice versa.
117

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AIRCRAFT

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CHAPTER 2 Scalar and Vector Quantities 19

CHAPTER 4 Centre of Gravity 59

CHAPTER 5 Strength of Materials 61

CHAPTER 6 Fluid Mechanics 69

CHAPTER 7 Fluid Dynamics 75

CHAPTER 10 Wave Motion 113

CHAPTER 11 Sound 115

FIGURE 1.1 Phase change from solid to gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

FIGURE 2.1 Scalar quantities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

FIGURE 3.12 Example of pivot point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

FIGURE 3.36 Gyroscope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

FIGURE 8.3 Boyle’s law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

FIGURE 9.17 Sensor coupling arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

The relevance of physics is all around us. Computers, lasers, telecommunications,

Phase Changes of Matter

Solid Liquid Gas

add heat add heat

Gas Liquid Solid

Types of Phase Changes

Boiling or Vaporization Liquid Gas

Condensation Gas Liquid

Freezing or Solidification Liquid Solid

Sublimation Solid Gas (skip liquid phase)

Deposition Gas Solid (skip liquid phase)

FIGURE 1.4 Phase changes

FIGURE 1.4A Periodic table

FIGURE 1.6 Carbon atom

ELEMENT SYMBOL ATOMIC ORBITS

6 Electrons 6 Electrons 6 Electrons

6 Neutrons 7 Neutrons 8 Neutrons

6 Protons 6 Protons 6 Protons

FIGURE 1.14 Isotopes of carbon

Noble Gases/Inert Gases

Electrons on valence shell is 8, except for He, which has 2.

FIGURE 1.16 Water molecule

Electron flow © AeroChapter

FIGURE 1.17 Current flow through conductor

FIGURE 1.18 Negative flow through conductor

The degree of conductivity depends on various factors, such as length, thickness,

• N-type: Arsenic can be introduced into silicon to improve its conductivity.

FIGURE 2.5 Graphical representation of resultant force

Vector line (1cm = 1N)

Two vector quantities

More than two vector quantities

FIGURE 2.9 Example for more than two vector quantities

Draw a vector diagram (Fig. 2.10) (Scale 1cm = 2N).

Start point 5cm = 10N © AeroChapter

• R = 2.3 cm × 2N = 4.6 N (distance measured using drawing scale)

Addition of vector quantities

FIGURE 2.11 Examples for addition of vector quantities

FIGURE 3.2 Moment of force

FIGURE 3.3 Force applied through the pivot point (a)

FIGURE 3.4 Force applied through the pivot point (b)

FIGURE 3.5 Force applied at an inclined angle

FIGURE 3.6 Clockwise moment

FIGURE 3.7 Anti-clockwise moment

FIGURE 3.8 A beam in equilibrium of rotation

FIGURE 3.9 A beam in equilibrium of translation

FIGURE 3.10 Example of equilibrium

• Clockwise moment = 25m × 10,000N = 250,000Nm

Clockwise moments = Anti-clockwise moments

Example of pivot point