Effect of Ambient Temperature

and Humidity on Combustion

Yan Chang and Emissions of a Spark-
Walter E. Lay Automotive Laboratory,
University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, MI 48109
Assisted Compression Ignition
e-mail: yanchang@umich.edu

Brandon Mendrea
Engine
Robert Bosch LLC, Spark-assisted compression ignition (SACI) offers more practical combustion phasing

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Farmington Hills, MI 48331
Jeff Sterniak
Robert Bosch LLC,
Farmington Hills, MI 48331
Stanislav V. Bohac
Walter E. Lay Automotive Laboratory,
University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, MI 48109
control and a lower pressure rise rate than homogeneous charge compression ignition
(HCCI) combustion and improved thermal efficiency and lower NOx emissions than spark
ignition (SI) combustion. Any practical passenger car engine, including one that uses
SACI in part of its operating range, must be robust to changes in ambient conditions.
This study investigates the effects of ambient temperature and humidity on stoichiometric
SACI combustion and emissions. It is shown that at the medium speed and load SACI test
point selected for this study, increasing ambient air temperature from 20  C to 41  C
advances combustion phasing, increases maximum pressure rise rate, causes a larger
fraction of the charge to be consumed by auto-ignition (and a smaller fraction by flame
propagation), and increases NOx. Increasing ambient humidity from 32% to 60% retards
combustion phasing, reduces maximum pressure rise rate, increases coefficient of varia-
tion (COV) of indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP), reduces NOx, and increases
brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC). These results show that successful implementa-
tion of SACI combustion in real-world driving requires a control strategy that compen-
sates for changes in ambient temperature and humidity. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4034966]

Introduction thoroughly investigated. An exception is a recent study by Men-

Increasing fuel economy and emissions requirements motivate
the development of advanced combustion strategies. Using dilute
mixtures and elevated compression ratios, homogeneous charge
compression ignition (HCCI) engines benefit from reduced throt-
tling losses, higher ratio of specific heats, and reduced combustion
temperatures and can thus achieve better efficiencies and lower
engine-out emissions than conventional spark-ignited gasoline
engines [1,2]. Despite these benefits, the timing of the auto-
ignition event and therefore the combustion phasing are more dif-
ficult to control in an HCCI engine. The operating range is also
more limited, constrained at low loads by bulk gas quenching and
at high loads by in-cylinder pressure limits [3].
Spark-assisted compression ignition (SACI) offers a more prac-
tical and direct method of controlling combustion phasing and
provides a means of extending the high load limit of HCCI while
maintaining high thermal efficiency [4]. SACI combustion first
consumes a portion of charge by a spark-ignited flame; then, an
auto-ignition event consumes the rest of the charge. SACI bridges
the gap between dilute, unthrottled HCCI combustion, and stoichi-
ometric part-throttle spark ignition (SI) operation [5]. Also, SACI
offers the potential for smooth combustion mode transitions
during transient engine operation due to the hybrid nature of
SACI [6].
Several studies have investigated the effects of temperature and
humidity on SI engine combustion and emissions [7–13] and even
their effect on aggregate emissions at the traffic level [14]. The
effects of temperature and humidity on HCCI engine combustion
and emission have also been investigated [15–18]. The impact of
ambient conditions on SACI combustion, however, has not been
Contributed by the Combustion and Fuels Committee of ASME for publication in
the JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING FOR GAS TURBINES AND POWER. Manuscript received July
19, 2016; final manuscript received August 29, 2016; published online December 1,
2016. Editor: David Wisler.
drea et al. [19], which investigates the effects of ambient air tem-
perature and humidity on crank angle of 50% mass fraction
burned (CA50) and the allowable range of CA50 in a production-
feasible SACI engine.
This study extends the SACI ambient condition investigations
described in Ref. [19] by performing additional engine dynamom-
eter tests for investigating how temperature and humidity affect
rate of heat release profiles, fraction of flame propagation versus
auto-ignition, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), residual gas frac-
tion, and engine-out CO, NOx, and hydrocarbon emissions from
stoichiometric SACI combustion.
Experimental Setup
Experiments were performed using a 2.0 L inline four-cylinder
engine based on General Motors Ecotec LNF engine that was
modified to enable multimode operation including HCCI, SACI,
and SI. Key engine specifications are provided in Table 1. The
engine used a custom cylinder head, pistons, and a central-
mounted (spray guided) direct injection (DI) fuel injection system
using Bosch HDEV5 six-hole high-pressure fuel injectors. The
valvetrain package includes dual independent variable valve tim-
ing (VVT) controlled by DENSO electric camshaft phasers in
conjunction with a two-step Delphi variable valve lift (VVL)
mechanism. A high-pressure EGR system was used to move
exhaust gas through an EGR cooler and EGR valve to the intake
manifold. The cooler maintained EGR temperature at approxi-
mately 100  C using engine coolant.
Engine control was via a Bosch MED17.3.2 ECU and ETAS
ES910.3 prototyping interface. An AVL AC dynamometer system
was used to maintain engine speed and measure engine load. Cyl-
inder pressure was measured using Kistler 6125 C pressure trans-
ducers. Engine-out lambda was measured with a Bosch LSU4.9
wide range oxygen sensor and ETAS LA4 lambda module.

Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power MAY 2017, Vol. 139 / 051501-1
C 2017 by ASME
Copyright V
 Table 1 Engine specifications Table 3 Ambient conditions

Displacement volume (L) 2.0 Points A B C D

Number of cylinders 4 Temperature after combustion air unit ( C) 16 25 45 25

Number of valves per cylinder 4 Relative humidity after combustion air unit (%) 55 32 11 60
Head design Pent roof Temperature after intercooler ( C) 20 27 41 27
Bore (mm) 86 Dew point ( C) 7.0 7.2 7.8 16.7
Stroke (mm) 86 Absolute humidity (g/m3) 7.42 7.30 7.13 13.70
Connection rod length (mm) 145
Compression ratio 11.7:1
Valvetrain DOHC dual independent VVT and VVL
Injection type Direct (spray guided) Table 4 Actuator settings
Injector location Central
Turbocharger Borg Warner K04 twin scroll Actuator Value
External EGR layout High pressure
Engine speed 2000 rpm

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The fuel utilized in this study was Chevron Phillips UTG96
gasoline fuel. Selected key fuel specifications, taken from the
Chevron Phillips certificate of analysis, are listed in Table 2.
EGR was calculated from the molar ratio of intake and exhaust
gas CO2 concentrations. An AVL SESAM i60 emissions bench
was used to measure intake and exhaust concentrations. The
bench uses an NDIR for intake CO2 concentration and an FTIR
for exhaust CO2, CO, NOx, and individual hydrocarbon species.
An AVL combustion air system controlled intake temperature and
humidity.
Experimental Procedure and Data Analysis
Four ambient conditions, points A, B, C, and D, are chosen to
investigate the effects of ambient temperature and humidity
(Table 3). Points A–C have very similar absolute humidity and
different temperatures, while points B and D have the same tem-
perature and different absolute humidities.
Air from the combustion air unit passes through the turbo-
charger compressor and intercooler and then enters the engine’s
intake manifold. Temperature and relative humidity after the com-
bustion air unit, temperature after the intercooler, dew point, and
absolute humidity (which are the same at both locations) are
shown in Table 3. In the figures and discussion that follow, tem-
perature after the intercooler ( C) and absolute humidity (g/m3)
are the selected reference variables (e.g., the variables shown on
the horizontal axis of figures) and are referred to as “temperature”
and “humidity.”
The engine is operated in negative valve overlap (NVO) mode
to enable SACI combustion. The SACI operating range for this
engine is from 1400 rpm to 3600 rpm and from 2 bar to 6 bar brake
mean effective pressure (BMEP). The operating condition
selected for this study is 2000 rpm and 4 bar, which is in the mid-
dle of the SACI speed and load range for this engine and is a rep-
resentative point for SACI combustion [19]. While running the
various ambient conditions, the engine’s fueling rate and throttle
position were fixed, thus lambda and BMEP vary slightly between
points. Other engine actuator settings are also held constant. The
settings of actuators are listed in Table 4. Error bars shown in fol-
lowing figures represent the repeatability of measurement of 300
sequential cycles.
Exhaust valve closing timinga 60 deg bTDC gas exchange
Intake valve opening timinga 81 deg aTDC gas exchange
Fuel injection pressure 100 bar
Start of injection 300 deg bTDC firing
Spark timing 34 deg bTDC firing
Lambda (nominal) 1.00
BMEP (nominal) 4 bar
a
At a valve lift of 0.5 mm.
Rate of heat release analysis and residual gas estimation is per-
formed using three pressure analysis (TPA) [20]. In this tech-
nique, measured instantaneous intake, exhaust, and cylinder
pressures are used in conjunction with measured cylinder head
port flow data and intake and exhaust valve profiles to determine
the contents of the cylinder (air flow, residual content, and fuel
quantity) at the start of combustion. The Woschni heat transfer
correlation is used [21]. By calculating the maximum of the sec-
ond derivative of the rate of heat release, the auto-ignition point is
identified [22]; and thus, the burned fraction of flame propagation
is calculated. This method is deemed sufficient for obtaining
trendwise estimates of auto-ignition timing for SACI combustion
where there is significant flame propagation and auto-ignition
[23].
Results and Discussion
Temperature Effect. To investigate the effect of ambient tem-
perature on SACI combustion, rate of heat release analysis is per-
formed for conditions A–C, which use the same actuator settings
and the same absolute humidity. As shown in Fig. 1, as ambient
temperature increases, the maximum rate of heat release increases
significantly and occurs earlier. From the mass fraction burned
profiles, which are shown in Fig. 2, it can be seen that burn dura-
tion decreases and auto-ignition timing occurs earlier as ambient
temperature is increased.

Table 2 Fuel specifications

Fuel type Chevron Phillips UTG96 gasoline

Research octane number (RON) 96.7

Motor octane number (MON) 88.8
Antiknock index (R þ M)/2 92.8
H/C atomic ratio 1.89
Stoichiometric air–fuel ratio 14.6
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) 42.9
Fig. 1 Heat release rate profiles as a function of temperature

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Fig. 2 Mass fraction burned profiles and auto-ignition points Fig. 4 BMEP and maximum value of pressure rise rate as a
as a function of temperature function of temperature

Combustion phasing, as described by CA50, is shown in Fig. 3.

As temperature is increased from 20  C to 41  C, CA50 is
advanced by 5.6 crank angle degrees. Also, it can be seen from
Fig. 3 that as temperature increases, a smaller fraction of the fuel
is burned by flame propagation and a larger fraction through auto-
ignition. The earlier and faster combustion increases maximum
pressure rise rate (Fig. 4). Higher temperature leads to higher
charge temperature during compression, which promotes the auto-
ignition process. According to the results calculated from TPA
method, the in-cylinder charge temperature at IVC increases from
456 K to 468 K when the ambient condition changes from condi-
tion A to condition C. The air density decreases as temperature
increases, which leads to the reduction of inducted air mass at a
fixed throttle position. Less air and the same fuel shift lambda
slightly rich (lambda decreases from 1.008 to 0.988 as tempera-
ture increases from 20 to 41  C) and causes a slight decrease in
BMEP as shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 5 External EGR and internal EGR as a function of
Due to the higher fraction of heat release by the auto-ignition temperature
process, the maximum pressure rise rate increases from 2.6 to
5.4 bar/CAD as temperature increases (Fig. 4). Figure 5 shows
that total EGR increases slightly as temperature is increased. The
increase is driven by increased internal EGR. Earlier combustion
phasing reduces cylinder pressure and increases cylinder density
during the exhaust stoke, which causes less exhaust mass to be
pushed out before exhaust valve closing (EVC) and more internal
EGR to be trapped.
Increased fraction of auto-ignition tends to reduce COV, while
increased total EGR tends to increase COV. Figure 6 shows the
net effect of this, in which COV first decreases and then increases
with increasing temperature. As temperature is increased, BSFC is
improved by more advanced combustion phasing, but it is

Fig. 6 COV and BSFC as a function of temperature

deteriorated by lower BMEP (from 3.98 bar to 3.83 bar) and

slightly richer mixture. The overall effect is a slight increase from
284.9 g/kWh to 290.1 g/kWh in BSFC (Fig. 6). In a production
application, lambda would remain stoichiometric by closed-loop
control and BMEP would remain fixed by driver command, so in
this scenario BSFC would most likely not increase.
In terms of emissions, CO increases and then decreases as tem-
perature is increased, as shown in Fig. 7. Advanced combustion
Fig. 3 CA50 and flame propagation fraction as a function of phasing increases peak charge temperature and the dissociation of
temperature CO2 into CO; slightly richer operation also increases CO. But

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Fig. 7 CO and NOx emission as a function of temperature
Fig. 9 Hydrocarbon emission as a function of temperature

increasing the fraction of fuel burned through auto-ignition likely

leads to more complete combustion and lower CO, consistent with
the reduction in CoV of IMEP.
Higher peak charge temperature leads to higher NOx, which is
illustrated in Fig. 7. NO increases significantly as charge tempera-
ture increases while NO2 stays essentially constant (Fig. 8).
Various exhaust hydrocarbon species were measured as temper-
ature was increased: CH4, C2H2, C2H4, C2H6, C3H6, and C4H6.
From Fig. 9, it can be observed that each hydrocarbon only varies
slightly as temperature is increased, indicating that temperature
and auto-ignition fraction do not have an appreciable effect on
combustion efficiency for these conditions.

Humidity Effect. To investigate the effect of humidity on

SACI combustion, rate of heat release curves and mass burned
profiles of operating points with the same temperature and differ-
ent humidities are calculated using TPA and shown in Figs. 10
and 11. Higher humidity decreases the rate of specific heats and
increases the heat capacity of the charge, which results in lower
Fig. 10 Heat release rate profiles as a function of humidity
compression and combustion temperatures, respectively. This
delays the auto-ignition event, thereby lowering the rate of heat
release and lengthening combustion duration.
Engine performance characteristics from the humidity tests are
shown in Table 5. Higher humidity causes slower flame propaga-
tion and delayed auto-ignition, which retards CA50 by 13 crank
angle degrees. Higher humidity causes a lower fraction of flame
propagation and a higher fraction of auto-ignition combustion.
Also, these factors lead to less stable combustion, resulting in
higher COV of IMEP and reduced maximum rate of pressure rise.
The reduction of inducted air mass resulting from the displace-
ment of intake air by water vapor results in a slight reduction of
BMEP and a slightly richer mixture. Due to the delay of combus-
tion phasing, reduction of BMEP, and a slightly richer mixture,
BSFC increases. Internal and external EGR rates decrease.

Fig. 11 Mass fraction burned profiles and auto-ignition points

as a function of humidity

External EGR decreases slightly due to a slight increase of intake

manifold pressure caused by higher water concentration, and due
to hotter and less dense exhaust gas. Later combustion phasing
increases cylinder temperature during expansion and exhaust,
which leads to less internal EGR trapped in NVO duration.
In terms of emissions, dissociation of CO2 is reduced due to
lower combustion temperature, which leads to less CO as shown
in Fig. 12. Also, less NOx is created due to lower maximum com-
bustion temperature. However, NO2 rises with the increase of
humidity (Fig. 13). CH4 and C2H2 decrease slightly, while C2H4,
Fig. 8 NO and NO2 emission as a function of temperature C2H6, C3H6, and C4H6 increase slightly, as shown in Fig. 14.

051501-4 / Vol. 139, MAY 2017 Transactions of the ASME

 Table 5 Humidity effect on engine performance

Points B D

Temperature after combustion air unit (  C) 25 25

Relative humidity after combustion air unit (%) 32 60
Temperature after intercooler (  C) 27 27
Absolute humidity (g/m3) 7.30 13.70
COV of IMEP (%) 1.65 4.13
BSFC (g/kWh) 288.0 301.3
BMEP (bar) 3.97 3.70
PRMAX (bar/deg) 3.84 2.47
CA50 (deg BTDC) 12.59 25.57
Flame propagation mass burned fraction (-) 0.287 0.228
eEGR (%) 6.32 5.84
iEGR (%) 25.4 23.5

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Fig. 14 Hydrocarbon emission as a function of humidity

Fig. 12 CO and NOx emission as a function of humidity

Fig. 15 CA50 for HCCI and SACI as a function of temperature

Fig. 13 NO and NO2 emission as a function of humidity

Comparison of How Ambient Conditions Affect SACI,

HCCI, and SI Combustion Modes. To compare how ambient
conditions affect SACI, HCCI, and SI combustion, SACI data
obtained from this research are compared with HCCI and SI
results from three other studies [13,15,17]. Even though operating
conditions and engine configurations are different, the comparison
provides insight into the relative significance of ambient condition
on various combustion modes. Fig. 16 CA50 for HCCI and SACI as a function of humidity
Data shown in Fig. 15 indicate that the effect of temperature on
combustion phasing is stronger on SACI combustion than on
HCCI combustion. Similar to that, the effect of humidity on SACI SACI tests in this study have CA50 at 10–16 deg aTDC. Hotter
is also more significant than on HCCI, which is shown in Fig. 16. temperature and lower humidity tend to speed up flame propaga-
The higher sensitivity of SACI combustion is believed to result tion combustion and auto-ignition combustion, which advance
from its combustion phasing, as described in the following combustion phasing and bring combustion closer to TDC. Com-
paragraphs. bustion that takes place close to TDC occurs at higher temperature

Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power MAY 2017, Vol. 139 / 051501-5

Fig. 17 Brake-specific CO for HCCI, SACI, and SI as a function
of temperature
and pressure due to compression from the piston, which further
speeds up combustion and advances it even more. So, there is the
direct effect of higher temperature, and the indirect effect of com-
bustion occurring closer to TDC.
HCCI tests performed by Andreae et al. [15] have CA50 at
0–6 deg ATDC, which is more advanced than in the SACI tests.
Hotter temperature and lower humidity speed up combustion,
which advances combustion phasing. But in these HCCI test cases
with earlier combustion phasing, an advancement of the start of
combustion, which occurs before TDC, away from TDC, moves
the start of combustion away from TDC, to a point where the pis-
ton has not yet completed its full compression of the charge. The
middle and later parts of combustion move closer to TDC, but the
amount of compression done by the piston at TDC versus a few
degrees after TDC is not very different. Compression temperature
has a parabolic shape in an engine with a crank slider mechanism
and temperature is relatively flat near TDC. Thus, for the HCCI
cases, higher temperature advances combustion, and there is no
strong indirect effect as there is in the SACI cases.
Fig. 18 Brake-specific NOx for HCCI, SACI, and SI as a function
of temperature
051501-6 / Vol. 139, MAY 2017
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Fig. 19 Brake-specific HC for HCCI, SACI, and SI as a function
of temperature
In terms of emissions, Figs. 17–19 show how brake-specific
CO, NOx, and HC emissions from HCCI [17] and SACI and SI
[13] combustion are affected by temperature. BSCO emissions
from HCCI are lower than from the other combustion modes, pos-
sibly because the HCCI cases are run at a lean condition that tends
to reduce BSCO. For the HCCI and SI cases, higher temperature
advances combustion, increases peak combustion temperature,
and decreases BSCO. For the SACI cases, higher temperature ini-
tially increases BSCO and then slightly decreases BSCO. The
increase may be a result of increased dissociation of CO2 into CO
and a slightly richer mixture, while the decrease may be due to
more auto-ignition promoting more complete combustion.
SI has higher BSNOx than SACI and HCCI because the SI
cases have less dilution (from burned gases or air) and therefore
have much higher combustion temperatures. As temperature
increases, BSNOx increases at a similar rate for HCCI, SACI, and
SI combustion.
Higher temperature tends to reduce BSHC for all the three com-
bustion modes, but the lower peak combustion temperature of
HCCI causes its BSHC emissions to be much greater than from
SACI and SI.
Summary and Conclusion
This study investigates the effects of ambient temperature and
humidity on combustion and emissions from a stoichiometric
SACI engine. The effects of temperature and humidity on com-
bustion phasing, maximum pressure rise rate, fraction of auto-
ignition combustion versus flame propagation, COV of IMEP,
BSFC, and CO, NOx, and hydrocarbon emissions are analyzed.
At the medium speed and load SACI test point selected,
increasing air temperature from 20  C to 41  C advances combus-
tion phasing, increases maximum pressure rise rate, causes a
larger fraction of the charge to be consumed by auto-ignition (and
a smaller fraction by flame propagation), and increases BSNOx.
Increasing humidity from 32% to 60% retards combustion phas-
ing, reduces maximum pressure rise rate, increases COV of
IMEP, reduces BSNOx, and increases BSFC.
A comparison of the SACI results from this study to HCCI
results from another study shows that the effects of temperature
and humidity on CA50 are stronger for SACI as compared to
HCCI, likely due to different combustion phasing used by the two
combustion modes.
Higher temperature increases BSNOx from SACI, HCCI, and
SI. The level of BSNOx from SACI is similar to HCCI and much
Transactions of the ASME
lower than SI. Temperature decreases BSHC from SACI, HCCI,
and SI. The level of BSHC for SACI is similar to SI and much
lower than HCCI. Increasing temperature initially increases and
then decreases BSCO from SACI. This differs from HCCI and SI,
where BSCO decreases with temperature.
These data indicate that successful implementation of SACI
combustion in passenger cars requires a combustion control strat-
egy that considers ambient temperature and humidity.
Acknowledgment
This material is based upon the work supported by the Depart-
ment of Energy (National Energy Technology Laboratory) under
Award No. DE-EE0003533. This work was performed as a part of
the ACCESS project consortium (Robert Bosch LLC, AVL, Inc.,
VVL ¼ variable valve lift
VVT ¼ variable valve timing
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CAD ¼ crank angle degree ture, Engine Speed and Fuel Composition,” SAE Paper No. 2002-01-1924.
CA50 ¼ crank angle of 50% mass fraction burned [17] Persson, H., Agrell, M., Olsson, J., Johansson, B., and Str€ om, H., 2004, “The
CI ¼ compression ignition Effect of Intake Temperature on HCCI Operation Using Negative Valve Over-
lap,” SAE Paper No. 2004-01-0944.
COV ¼ coefficient of variation of IMEP [18] Sj€oberg, M., and Dec, J. E., 2004, “An Investigation of the Relationship
DI ¼ direct injection Between Measured Intake Temperature, BDC Temperature, and Combustion
EGR ¼ exhaust gas recirculation Phasing for Premixed and DI HCCI Engines,” SAE Paper No. 2004-01-1900.
EVC ¼ exhaust valve closing [19] Mendrea, B., Chang, Y., Akkus, Y. Z. A., Sterniak, J., and Bohac, S. V., 2015,
“Investigations of the Effect of Ambient Condition on SACI Combustion
GDI ¼ gasoline direct injection Range,” SAE Paper No. 2015-01-0828.
HCCI ¼ homogeneous charge compression ignition [20] Gamma Technologies, 2015, “GT-SUITE: A Revolutionary MBSE Tool,”
IMEP ¼ indicated mean effective pressure Gamma Technologies, Inc., Westmont, IL.
NVO ¼ negative valve overlap [21] Woschni, G. A., 1967, “Universally Applicable Equation for the Instantaneous
Heat Transfer Coefficient in the Internal Combustion Engine,” SAE Paper No.
SACI ¼ spark-assisted compression ignition
670931.
SI ¼ spark ignition [22] Persson, H., Hultqvist, A., Johansson, B., and Rem on, A., 2007, “Investigation
SOI ¼ start of injection timing of the Early Flame Development in Spark Assisted HCCI Combustion Using
TDC ¼ top dead center High Speed Chemiluminescence Imaging,” SAE Paper No. 2007-01-0212.
[23] Ortiz-Soto, E. A., Lavoie, G. A., Martz, J. B., Wooldridge, M. S., and Assanis,
TPA ¼ three pressure analysis D. N., 2014, “Enhanced Heat Release Analysis for Advanced Multi-Mode
TWC ¼ three-way catalytic converter Combustion Engine Experiments,” Appl. Energy, 136, pp. 465–479.

Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power MAY 2017, Vol. 139 / 051501-7