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A Review of Pre-Chamber Initiated Jet Ignition
Combustion Systems
Elisa Toulson and Harold J. Schock
Michigan State Univ.
William P. Attard
MAHLE Powertrain
ABSTRACT
This paper reviews progress on turbulent jet ignition systems
for otherwise standard spark ignition engines, with focus on
small pre-chamber systems (<3% of clearance volume) with
auxiliary pre-chamber fueling. The review covers a range of
systems including early designs such as those by Gussak and
Oppenheim and more recent designs proposed by GM, FEV,
Bosch and MAHLE Powertrain. A major advantage of jet
ignition systems is that they enable very fast burn rates due to
the ignition system producing multiple, distributed ignition
sites, which consume the main charge rapidly and with
minimal combustion variability. The locally distributed
ignition sites allow for increased levels of dilution (lean burn/
EGR) when compared to conventional spark ignition
combustion. Dilution levels are comparable to those reported
in recent homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI)
systems. In addition, jet ignition systems have the potential
for combustion phasing control and hence speed/load range
benefits when compared to HCCI, without the need for SI-
HCCI combustion mode switching. The faster burn rates also
allow for a base compression ratio increase (1-2 points) when
compared to spark ignition and when combined with diluted
mixture combustion, provide increased engine efficiency.
INTRODUCTION
During the 1970s, when reducing fuel consumption became a
high priority, there was a great deal of interest in lean burn
technologies, which are an option for reducing engine
emissions while simultaneously increasing fuel efficiency.
Lean burn occurs when fuel is burnt in excess air and running
an engine in this manner has many advantages over
conventional stoichiometric combustion. Firstly, combustion
2010-01-2263
Published
10/25/2010
Copyright © 2010 SAE International
occurs at a lower temperature which results in the formation
of fewer oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions. Engine drive
cycle efficiency is also improved when operating with excess
air, which decreases fuel consumption and allows the engine
to run less throttled (to maintain the same road power),
greatly reducing the pumping losses [1]. In this case, power
output can be somewhat controlled by varying the fuel
supplied to the combustion chamber (as in a diesel engine)
rather than by throttling, as is done in conventional
stoichiometric spark ignition engines. Reducing fuel
consumption also leads to a decrease in carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions.
By the 1980s, gasoline lean burn strategy emissions without
after-treatment could no longer comply with the new more
stringent emission regulations that had come into effect.
These new emission standards promoted the near universal
application of the three-way catalytic converter and therefore
stoichiometric operation to spark ignition engines. The three-
way catalyst effectively and simultaneously reduces NOx
emissions and oxidizes carbon monoxide (CO) and
hydrocarbon (HC) emissions to meet emission regulations.
However, use of a three-way catalyst requires stoichiometric
engine operation, which leads to an increase in fuel
consumption and therefore CO2 emissions relative to lean
burn operation. With the development of lean-burn NOx
emission control technologies combined with demands to
both improve fuel economy and reduce emissions, there has
been renewed interest in lean burn technologies.
LEAN BURN
Lean burn technology provides a means to reduce engine
emissions and increase engine thermal efficiency. Lean burn
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occurs when the air to fuel ratio (AFR) is greater than
stoichiometric or λ = 1, where λ is equal to the actual AFR
divided by the stoichiometric AFR (or the reciprocal of the
equivalence ratio (φ)). One advantage of running an engine
lean occurs as the introduction of additional air increases the
specific heat ratio (γ) which leads to an increase in thermal
efficiency as can be seen in Equation 1, which is for the ideal
Otto cycle.
(1)
Where CR is the compression ratio (maximum cylinder
volume / clearance volume) and γ is the specific heat ratio
equal to Cp/Cv or Cp/(Cp-Rgas). Lean engine operation has
the potential to increase efficiency by affecting γ as well as
reduce pumping losses by tending towards throttle-less
operation, which can further improve fuel economy for the
same road load. Lean burn technology has not been
extensively implemented for several reasons including
compromised combustion stability and three-way catalyst
incompatibility. In addition, although NOx emissions
decrease at higher λ due to lower combustion temperatures,
significant improvements in NOx emissions can only begin to
be seen at the lean limit (λ∼1.4) of conventional spark
ignition engines. Moreover, the effectiveness of the three-
way catalyst, which is the primary means to control NOx, HC
and CO emissions in conventional spark ignition engines,
degrades rapidly at AFR that vary from stoichiometric.
There are also several other disadvantages of lean burn
technology that have prevented it from being more widely
used. The narrow flammability limits of most fuels make it
difficult to run lean while maintaining adequate combustion
stability with low misfire rates. Poor combustion stability
leads to increased HC emissions due to misfire and partial
burning cycles. Partial burning is primarily caused by the
slower laminar flame speeds of lean mixtures that severely
affect flame kernel growth and hence flame propagation.
Furthermore, as the lean limit of combustion is approached,
irregular ignition and HC emissions increase while power
output substantially decreases. There have been a number of
technologies designed to gain the advantages of lean burn
while circumventing the disadvantages. One solution to the
lean burn challenges outlined above is ignition enhancement,
which facilitates lean burn by raising the ignition energy and/
or intensifying turbulence, which increases flame speed.
Another method to control combustion of lean burn mixtures
is with jet ignition, which utilizes a pre-chamber combustion
initiation system. The jet ignition concept involves the use of
a chemically active, turbulent jet to initiate combustion in
lean fuel mixtures. With jet ignition, the combustion of the
main charge is reliable over a much broader range of air-fuel
ratios since the jet acts as a distributed ignition source. The
large number of distributed ignition sites ensures that the
flame travel distances are relatively small enabling short
combustion durations even in traditionally slow burning lean
mixtures [2,3]. However, although jet ignition systems
provide additional ignition energy there are higher heat losses
than conventional systems due to the additional surface area
of the pre-chamber, which may compromise engine
efficiency. Nevertheless, the combusting jet does provide an
ongoing combustion and jet motion of substantial mass of
fuel-air mixture which enables combustion in diluted
mixtures and generally benefits engine efficiency. This report
will provide a review of pre-chamber initiated jet ignition
systems; with the main focus on small pre-chamber,
enhanced ignition systems that replace the spark plug in a
conventional spark ignition engine.
BACKGROUND
Ignition enhancement involves increasing the ignition energy
in order to improve the burning characteristics of the fuel.
Lean burn engines generally require high ignition energy,
long duration of ignition and a wide dispersion of ignition
sources in order to achieve fast burn rates. Initiating
combustion at multiple sites is especially important in
increasing burn rates due to the low flame velocities that
occur in lean mixtures. Reviews of combustion enhancement
systems for homogeneously fueled internal combustion
engines have been completed by Dale and Oppenheim in
1981 [4] and by Dale et al. in 1997 [3]. These reviews
highlighted research on numerous methods to enhance
ignition such as:
• High energy spark plugs
• Photochemical, breakdown, laser and microwave ignition
and corona spark plugs
• Plasma jet and rail plug igniters
• Pre-chamber torch cells
• Divided chamber (pre-chamber) stratified charge
• Pre-chamber flame or combustion jet igniters
• Homogeneous ignition systems
This review discusses pre-chamber initiated combustion
systems, which can be characterized by having; large or small
prechamber volumes, auxiliary or no auxiliary pre-chamber
fueling (charge stratification) and large or small orifice(s)
connecting the pre-chamber to the main chamber. A chart of
a selection of the research on different pre-chamber initiated
combustion systems is shown in Figure 1, including
references to patents and/or SAE papers (each section
arranged in chronological order from top to bottom). The
focus of this review is the jet ignition concept with a small
pre-chamber volume (<3% of clearance volume) and
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therefore only those technologies that aided in its evolution

will be discussed in detail. Benefits of small pre-chamber
volumes relative to their larger counterparts include;
negligible power loss and fewer HC emissions due to the
reduced crevice volume and combustion surface area. A
comparison of the relevant differences between gasoline
spark ignition, diesel compression ignition, HCCI and jet
ignition is shown in Table 1.
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Figure 1. Development of selected pre-chamber ignition systems including references to patents and/or SAE papers. Each
branch is arranged in chronological order from top to bottom.
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Table 1. Generated comparison of common combustion technologies [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12] versus jet ignition. (PM:
Particulate Matter, NOx: Oxides of Nitrogen, NSC: NOx Storage Catalyst, SCR: Selective Catalytic Reduction, SIDI: Spark
Ignition Direct Ignition)

EARLY PRE-CHAMBER
APPLICATIONS
Combustion initiation in pre-chamber cavities in spark
ignition engines first began in the first part of the twentieth
century with the 2-stroke Ricardo Dolphin engine [14]. This
engine relied on a passive auxiliary intake valve from which a
fuel rich mixture entered into a pre-chamber cavity. The rich
mixture was then ignited by a spark and ignited a leaner main
chamber mixture. The main features of this design can be
seen in Figure 2. This pre-chamber design inspired many
other similar 3-valve engine concepts including those
patented by Summers [15], Mallory [16], Bagnulo [17] and
Barnes [18]. Torch cell engine designs also evolved from this
concept and were an effort to simplify the design by
removing the need for auxiliary pre-chamber fuelling. With
torch cell designs, a pre-chamber cavity containing a spark
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plug is filled with fresh main chamber charge during
compression. Upon ignition, a turbulent torch is produced
which ignites the main chamber charge. Torch cell systems
have been shown to extend the lean operating range of the
engine and have been developed by Toyota [19] (Figure 3),
Ford [20], and Volkswagen [21] in addition to several others
shown in the left branch of Figure 1.
Figure 2. Cylinder head from Ricardo two-stroke divided
chamber stratified charge engine [14]
Figure 3. Toyota Turbulence Generating Pot torch cell
design [19,22]
Unlike torch cells, in divided chamber stratified charge
engines there is an additional fuel source in the pre-chamber.
In older designs, pre-chamber fuel is supplied via a third
valve and additional carburetor, while in more modern
designs a pre-chamber fuel injector is generally used. The
two separate, interconnected chambers ensure charge
stratification and that the rich mixture in the smaller pre-
chamber can be easily ignited with a spark plug. Initially,
divided chamber stratified charge systems were characterized
by a large pre-chamber and large orifices and with this
configuration when the pre-chamber fuel is ignited, a regular
flame front is produced that traverses the pre-chamber and
exits the orifices slowly into the main chamber. Perhaps the
most successful example of this technology is the Compound
Vortex Controlled Combustion (CVCC) system developed by
Honda [23], which could comply with the 1975 emission
standards without a catalytic converter (Figure 4). Other
examples of this technology include the Nilov [24],
Broderson Conta [25, 26, 27], Heintz Ram-Straticharge [28],
Porsche SKS [29] and GM Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI)
torch ignition [30] engine, which are shown in Figures 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, with a more extensive list available in the middle
column of Figure 1.
Figure 4. Honda's CVCC Engine. The Honda system
relies primarily on a flame torch to ignite the main
mixture, resulting in normal flame propagation [6,23]
Figure 5. Nilov Engine [24]
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Figure 6. Broderson Conta Engine [25, 26, 27]
Figure 7. Heintz Ram-Straticharge Engine [28,31]
Figure 8. Porsche SKS Engine [29]
Figure 9. GM Electronic Fuel Injection Pre-chamber
Torch Ignition Engine [30]
Jet igniters are a subset of the divided chamber stratified
charge concept, with the notable difference of a much smaller
orifice(s) connecting the main chamber and pre-chamber
combustion cavities [4]. The smaller orifice size causes the
burning mixture to travel quickly through the orifice, which
extinguishes the flame and seeds the main chamber with
reacting active radical species that reignite some distance
away from the pre-chamber. In addition, the smaller orifice
creates a flame jet that penetrates deeper into the main
charge, however, to avoid impinging on the combustion
chamber wall the pre-chamber volume has to be kept
relatively small. Similar to HCCI, with jet ignition chemical
kinetics plays a much larger role in determining combustion
characteristics than with SI and Diesel combustion. Both
HCCI and jet ignition rely to some extent on chemical
kinetics to initiate combustion. With HCCI, combustion is
dominated by the kinetics of intermediate temperature
hydrocarbon ignition, which occurs in the in-cylinder mixture
during compression, with ignition occurring when the
temperature of the core fuel-air charge reaches the H2O2
decomposition temperature [7,32]. In addition, the large
quantities of EGR often used with HCCI also affect the
chemical kinetics, through both temperature changes and the
presence of active species in the exhaust gas [33,34]. With jet
ignition, the active radicals present in the partially combusted
products ejected from the pre-chamber aid in initiating main
chamber combustion by producing multiple, distributed
ignition sites, which rapidly consume the main chamber
charge.
The concept of jet ignition was introduced in the late 1950s
by Nikolai Semenov, famous for developing the general
theory of chemical chain reactions [5,35]. This concept was
further developed by Lev Ivanovich Gussak into the first jet
ignition engine under the name of LAG (Lavinia Aktivatisia
Gorenia or Avalanche Activated Combustion) shown in
Figure 10 [6,36]. Gussak identified that the LAG process was
most optimized with a pre-chamber size of 2-3% of the
clearance volume, an orifice area 0.03-0.04 cm2 per 1 cm3 of
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pre-chamber volume and with an orifice length to diameter
ratio of ½ [37]. In 1981, the LAG system was implemented
into the powertrain of the Volga passenger vehicle, which
was equipped with a cam-actuated injector that introduced a
rich (λ = 0.5) mixture into the pre-chamber, which then
ignited an ultra-lean (λ = 2) mixture in the cylinder [5,38,39].
It was Gussak's extensive study that revealed the importance
of active radicals in this type of ignition process
[39,40,41,42].
Figure 10. The LAG process uses active radicals from a
quenched flame to provide a distributed ignition source
[6,36]
PRE-CHAMBER JET IGNITION
SYSTEMS
The following section provides a summary of the
characteristics of each of the small pre-chamber jet ignition
systems that are displayed in the right-hand branch of Figure
1.
JET PLUME INJECTION AND
COMBUSTION (JPIC)
Flame jet ignition has been extensively researched by
Oppenheim et al. at The University of California, Berkley
and continued at Kyushu University in Japan
[43,44,45,46,47,48,49]. Their Jet Plume Injection and
Combustion (JPIC) system, which evolved from development
of their earlier pulsed jet combustion (PJC) concept, consists
of the pulsed jet combustor shown in Figure 11 [45], which
installs in the engine much as a direct injector would. This
combustor is a miniaturized version of the initiator for the
LAG process following the concept of a swirl chamber spark
plug developed by Latsch at Robert Bosch GmbH, which will
be discussed later on. The fuel injector can inject either fuel
or a fuel-air mixture through its hollow electrode into the
cavity at the bottom of the combustor. A portion of the
mixture also travels through the orifice into the cylinder
which contains a fuel-air mixture together with some residual
gas from the preceding cycle. At the end of the fuel injection
period, a spark ignites the rich mixture in the cavity and
combustion products jet into the engine cylinder, introducing
turbulence to the in-cylinder mixture. This flame jet ignition
system is similar to the work of Yamaguchi et al. [50] in that
an attempt is made to have a large number of distributed
ignition sites, enabling small flame travel distances and thus
short combustion durations even in slow burning lean
mixtures. There have been extensive fundamental studies of
the JPIC system in both combustion bombs and rapid
compression machines, which are discussed below, however,
at this time no engine testing of the JPIC system has been
reported.
Figure 11. Jet Pulse Combustion diagram 1-fuel
injector, 2-retaining clamp, 3-retaining body, 4-check
valve, 5-insulating connector, 6-high voltage terminal, 7-
insulator body, 8-retainer nut, 9-plug body, 10-O-ring
gaskets, 11-perforations for charge inlet, 12-turbular
electrode, 13-tube seal, 14-orifice [45].
This flame jet ignition system has been shown capable of
igniting main combustion chamber mixtures that are leaner
than the normally reported lean flammability limits. One
study [44] reported that pulsed jet combustion had the ability
to ignite mixtures with an equivalence ratio of 0.45 where
only 0.65 could be ignited with spark ignition. In addition,
pulsed jet combustion was twice as fast and with fewer heat
transfer losses, which resulted in a maximum pressure rise
about 10% higher than when spark ignition was used. Several
other studies [46,47] also examined the effects of pre-
chamber size and orifice length on combustion. It was
determined that if the orifice diameter is too small, the jet
penetrates with such high velocity that it can not ignite the
lean mixture due to the excessive velocity gradient. This is an
effect also observed with plasma jet ignition in very lean
mixtures [47]. Smaller orifices also have greater heat losses
leading to slightly lower pressure rises compared to larger
orifices, however, jet penetration is greater with a smaller
orifice as seen in Figure 12. Pre-chamber size was shown to
have a less important influence than orifice length but in all
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cases a rich pre-chamber mixture was shown to be beneficial

in igniting lean mixtures [46].

A further application of this flame jet ignition system has

been in controlling the ignition timing of homogeneous
charge compression ignition (HCCI) engines [51, 52]. In this
application, the pulsed flame jet is used as a trigger for the
auto ignition of the fuel which was at an equivalence ratio of
0.3-0.4 and could not be ignited solely by a spark. The results
of this work indicate that when the intensity of the flame jet
decreases, combustion occurs over a large area of the
combustion chamber and appears similar to auto-ignition Figure 13. Photographs of auto-ignition combustion at
only cases (Figure 13), with no large scale flame propagation. an equivalence ratio of 0.3 and different initial
Figure 14 shows pictures of the combustion at an equivalence temperatures (Upper-333 K, Middle-323 K, Lower 313 K)
ration of 0.3 and a variety or orifice diameters and ignition in a rapid compression machine [51,52].
timings. The pictures show that the jet begins to enter the
combustion chamber within 1 ms of the spark discharge. The
jet intensity then weakens and combustion occurs over a large
part of the combustion chamber, similar to the auto ignition
cases of Figure 13. During this study, since the mixture was
leaner than the lean flammability limit, flame propagation
from the jet did not occur and instead the mixture
homogeneously ignited following the initial jet penetration
[51,52]. In contrast, earlier experiments where the mixture
was within the lean flammability limit, caused the flame to
propagate continuously from the jet as can be seen in Figure
12.

Figure 14. Photographs of combustion initiated by PFJ

in a rapid compression machine: equivalence ratio 0.3,
Initial temperature 323K (d= orifice diameter, τ1 =
ignition timing of the PFJ igniter. Row 1 d=2.5 mm,
τ1=42.5 ms, Row 2 d=2.5 mm, τ1=45.0 ms, Row 3 d=4.0
mm, τ1=42.5 ms, and Row 4 d=4.0 mm, τ1=45.0 ms)
[51,52].

FURTHER LAG RESEARCH

Figure 12. Schlieren records of combustion of a
methane-air mixture in a constant volume combustion
chamber at an equivalence ratio of 0.8. From left: 1, 3, 5,
7, 9 ms after spark discharge [49,52].
During the 1980s, the LAG type of ignition was also
researched by Yamaguchi et al. [50] at The Nogoya Institute
of Technology in Japan. In this study, which examined the
ignition and burning process in a divided chamber bomb, two
different size pre-chambers were used together with several
orifice diameters. Yamaguchi et al. identified four different
types of ignition patterns possible with this process:
(I). Well dispersed burning: Small diameter orifice. After a
long induction period the main chamber ignited and
combusted rapidly due to a chemical chain reaction rather
than a thermal reaction.
(II). Composite ignition: Slightly larger orifice than (I)
caused a shorter induction period. Ignition occurred as a
result of active radical and thermal effects. Flame kernels
promoted main chamber burning. This regime was
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determined best for lean burn operation (equivalence ratio in
pre-chamber = 1.1, main chamber as lean as 0.4 for propane-
air mixture).
(III). Flame kernel torch ignition: Orifice further enlarged
relative to (II) but only large enough to still have an issuing
turbulent jet which would entrain significant amounts of the
main chamber mixture. Ignition is due solely to flame
kernels.
(IV). Flame front torch ignition: Largest orifice. Pre-
chamber flame can pass through the orifice and enter the
main chamber as a torch and therefore the main combustion
proceeds as normal flame propagation.
The work of Yamaguchi further supported Gussak's idea that
it is possible to effectively ignite combustible mixtures with
only active radicals. However, Yamaguchi et al. concluded
that the most favorable combustion pattern for lean burning
was the composite ignition (II) pattern as can be seen in
Figure 15, which shows the lean flammability possible with
increasing orifice diameter and corresponding combustion
patterns for pre-chamber to main chamber ratios (a) of 0.1
and 0.2 [50].
Figure 15. Main chamber lean flammability limit for
varying nozzle diameter for pre-chamber to main
chamber volume ratios of 0.1 and 0.2 in a divided
chamber bomb. The composite ignition (II) combustion
pattern is most successful at igniting lean mixtures [50].
HYDROGEN ASSISTED JET IGNITION
(HAJI)
In the 1990s, a Hydrogen Assisted Jet Ignition (HAJI) system
was developed by Harry C. Watson et al. at The University of
Melbourne [53,54,55]. HAJI is an advanced pre-chamber
ignition process that involves the use of a chemically active,
turbulent jet to initiate combustion of ultra-lean mixtures in
an otherwise standard gasoline fuelled engine. The HAJI unit
installs into the spark plug bore and consists of a small pre-
chamber, spark plug and pre-chamber direct injector (Figure
16). In the HAJI process, a small amount of hydrogen (about
2% of the main fuel energy or approximately 1 g/km H2) is
injected next to the spark plug electrodes inside the pre-
chamber so that a rich mixture is formed. Once the hydrogen
mixture in the pre-chamber is ignited, the combusting gas
travels through one or more orifices into the main chamber at
high speed, where it then entrains and ignites the lean main
chamber charge. Figure 17 shows optical images of HAJI
combustion in a side ignited, two valve engine design
[61,62]. In these images, the flame quenching effect can
clearly be seen, with the main chamber combustion initiating
in the center of the combustion chamber.
The existence of chemically reactive intermediate products
(active radicals H and OH) in addition to high levels of
turbulence in the jets cause an energy level more than two
orders of magnitude higher than that which is found in a
spark [56]. Similar ignition benefits of several other pre-
chamber ignition systems, have been previously documented
[4,5,57], with HAJI being unique as its pre-chamber volume
is ∼1% of the clearance volume. HAJI, similar to other jet
ignition processes, enables reliable main chamber combustion
over a much broader range of AFRs because the jet acts as a
distributed ignition source, which can overcome the problems
of poorly mixed main chamber charges and slower burning
fuels [2,58]. The lean limit can be extended to λ = 5 at wide
open throttle (WOT) conditions with gasoline as the main
fuel and hydrogen as the pre-chamber fuel [59]. Thus, the
vigorous jets of chemically active combustion products burn
the main charge rapidly and with almost no combustion
variability (< 2% COVIMEP at λ = 2).
Figure 16. Section view of the HAJI unit installed in the
CFR engine [60].
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Figure 17. Optical engine images of HAJI combustion
using hydrogen as the pre-chamber fuel [61,62]. The
flame quenching effect as the combustion products exit
the pre-chamber into the main chamber can be
visualized with the reacting pre-chamber mixture
initiating main chamber combustion in multiple
locations some distance away from the pre-chamber
nozzle.
Due to the leaner operation possible with the HAJI system,
combustion occurs at a more moderate temperature, which
results in lower NOx formation. Lower temperatures also
improve efficiency by decreasing dissociation such as CO2 to
CO and H2O to H2, which normally occur at high
temperatures. Engine efficiency is also increased by
maintaining a short burn duration even when operating with
excess air, which decreases fuel consumption and allows the
engine to run less throttled, greatly reducing the pumping
loses [1]. It is even possible to run a HAJI equipped engine in
an entirely unthrottled mode in the range of λ = 2-5. Under
these conditions, HC emissions become very significant as a
result of burning mixtures at low temperatures, particularly
increasing the wall quench HC source as well as reducing the
burn up of piston and other crevice sourced hydrocarbons
[59].
The idea of stratification of hydrogen in a small pre-chamber
around spark plug electrodes to ensure ignition arose from a
combination of two areas of lean burn technology research.
The first being pre-chamber stratified charge engines and the
second involved the addition of small amounts of hydrogen to
the intake air to improve combustion of the main chamber
charge. Kyaw and Watson [63] recognized that gasoline fuel
is not an effective pre-chamber fuel due to the narrow
flammability limits and large quench thickness of gasoline
fuel-air mixtures. By using hydrogen as the pre-chamber fuel,
HC emissions can be reduced and the lean limit can be
extended due to the production of active radicals that are
generated in a hydrogen rich pre-chamber. They also showed
that a HAJI equipped engine is able to run up to λ = 5, which
allows for the control of engine power output through AFR
adjustments rather than through throttling. Subsequently,
Lumsden and Watson [61] determined, through an
optimization process, that the most beneficial operating area
of HAJI at a compression ratio of 9 was between λ = 1.7 and
λ = 2. In this range, values of ultra low emissions converge to
values of high indicated net thermal efficiencies of 42%.
They were also the first to take images of the HAJI process in
an optical access engine and to show that the flame kernel in
these images initiates away from the orifices, which indicates
that the jets extinguish as they propagate through the orifices
and then reignite upon exit. Glasson et al. [64] developed a
multi-cylinder HAJI equipped gasoline spark ignition engine.
The study found similar results, with a decrease in all exhaust
gas emissions except hydrocarbons, which were higher for all
operating conditions.
Following this, Lawrence [2,58] focused on identifying the
sources of HC emissions from the HAJI equipped ultra-lean
burn engine. It was found that HC emissions dramatically
increase beyond λ = 2 and that the majority (72%) of the HC
emissions are sourced from the piston ring crevice at engine
conditions where adequate combustion stability was still
maintained [2]. Hamori [65,66] explored the limits of
performance of lean burn ignition in conjunction with
supercharging in a boosted CFR engine. He compared spark
ignition and HAJI at a range of manifold absolute pressures
(MAP), AFRs and compression ratios and used both
hydrogen and gasoline as the main chamber fuel. Hamori
found that the HAJI equipped engine had higher thermal
efficiency, lower CO and NOx emissions but 3.5 times higher
HC emissions than its spark ignition counterpart at all load
points. The use of hydrogen as the main chamber fuel
reduced HC emissions to near zero levels.
Toulson et al. [60,67,68,69] examined the effects of
numerous alternative pre-chamber fuels, including CNG,
LPG, reformed fuel mixtures and carbon monoxide, on
combustion stability and emissions with the lean limit of
several combinations shown in Figure 18. Although hydrogen
was most successful with this process, other more readily
available alternative fuels also proved useful at extending the
lean limit in a HAJI engine. In addition, the effects of charge
dilution with retained residuals and cooled EGR were also
studied with the aim of stoichiometric combustion to permit
three way catalyst application [70].
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Figure 18. HAJI lean limit (10% COV of IMEP)
operation in a CFR engine with different pre-chamber-
main chamber fuel combinations (1200 rev/min,
compression ratio of 11, 70 kPa MAP and MBT spark
timing) [67,68].
HYDROGEN FLAME JET IGNITION
(HFJI)
A similar system to HAJI is the Hydrogen Flame Jet Ignition
(HFJI) system developed by Kito and colleagues at Gifu
University and Toyota College of Technology in Japan
[71,72]. The authors of this work tried to gain a better
understanding of the mechanism of ignition enhancement of
the jet and whether it was the role of active radicals or the jet
turbulence that was more important in extending the lean
stability limit. The authors investigated the lean limit of
stable ignition of the HFJI method using both a constant
volume combustion chamber and a rapid compression
machine and found that with the HFJI method, the turbulent
effect on enhancement is bigger than the radical effect.
Furthermore, it was determined that, HFJI could ignite the
same mixture at a lower compression ratio than spark ignition
or plasma jet ignition in the rapid compression machine. In
addition, because plasma jet ignition also produces radicals
and this study found that ignition was not enhanced with
plasma relative to spark ignition, much of the extra ignition
enhancement enabled by the flame jet can be attributed to the
jet turbulence. Therefore they proposed that the turbulence
caused by the jet plays a larger role than that of the radicals.
This was justified by the claim that a strong radical effect
would change the reaction process and extend the lean
inflammation limit but that turbulence has little possibility of
extending the lean limit of inflammation. Therefore they
concluded that HFJI has the ability to make combustion more
stable and reduce the combustion duration in lean mixtures
but that HFJI has little possibility of making the lean limit of
ignition leaner than the lean inflammation limit. Schlieren
pictures comparing conventional ignition to HFJI are shown
in Figure 19.
Figure 19. Schlieren pictures of conventional and
Hydrogen Flame Jet Ignition in a constant volume
combustion chamber [71].
PULSED JET COMBUSTION
One of the first engine studies using the jet ignition concept
was the Pulsed Jet Combustion work competed by Lezanski
et al. [73] at the Warsaw Institute of Technology. With
Pulsed Jet Combustion, the pre-chamber was built around the
tip of the spark plug (Figure 20), which was modified to have
a hollow central electrode through which a fuel-air mixture
could flow (λ = 0.85). During compression a spark is
discharged and a high pressure jet of combustion products
issues from the pre-chamber into the cylinder, igniting the
lean in-cylinder mixture. Ideally, the flame extinguishes itself
as it exits through the orifice. Results from this work indicate
the Pulsed Jet Combustion system produced faster
combustion, more rapid pressure rise and a higher peak
pressure relative to conventional spark ignition, especially in
lean mixtures. However, as the equivalence ratio was moved
closer to stoichiometric the difference between Pulsed Jet
Combustion and spark ignition decreased [73]. This system
differed slightly from the JPIC system discussed earlier in
that it used the high pressure generated in the pre-chamber
due to combustion to produce the initial jetting action, while
the JPIC system used its high pressure injection. An
advantage of the JPIC system over the Pulsed Jet Combustion
system is that it is self purging since the air-fuel mixture
flows through the igniter, eliminating the problems that occur
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when the cavity in the Pulsed Jet Combustion system is filled

with residual gasses. In addition, as only the last part of the
JPIC air-fuel injection is ignited, metering of the mixture is
less important than with the Pulsed Jet Combustion system
[3].

Figure 21. Schematic description of the BPI Concept: (a)

injection in the compression stroke, (b) air fuel mixture
in the piston bowl,(c) mixture transport into the pre-
Figure 20. Pulsed Jet Combustor used by Lezanski et al. chamber spark plug, (d) ignition and inflammation by
[73]. flame jets [76].

SWIRL CHAMBER SPARK PLUGS

In the early 1980s, Reinhard Latsch at Bosch Stuttgart
attempted to simplify the LAG process by eliminating the
additional supply of pre-chamber fuel-air mixture. His system
relied only on the piston compressed main air-fuel mixture
entering the pre-chamber. This version of the flame jet igniter
was called the swirl chamber spark plug and had a miniature
cavity housed inside a 14 mm spark plug [74]. Further studies Figure 22. Pre-chamber spark plug (Multitorch) used
on swirl chamber type spark plugs have been more recently with the BPI concept [76].
completed by Latsch and colleagues under the name of the
bowl pre-chamber ignition (BPI) concept [75,76]. This
Investigation into swirl chamber spark plugs has also been
concept, shown schematically in Figure 21, is realized with a
undertaken by Bowing et al. [77] who completed a study on a
pre-chamber spark plug (Figure 22), direct injector and a
variety of ignition systems for highly diluted mixtures in
piston bowl. With BPI there are 2 injection events. The first,
spark ignition engines. In this study it was shown that
during the inlet stroke, leads to a lean (λ = 1.4-1.7)
although flame jet ignition with a swirl chamber spark plug
homogeneous mixture in the cylinder. The second small
leads to fast energy conversion, the residual gas that is
injection (∼3% of total fuel mass) occurs during the
trapped inside the pre-chamber along with the in-cylinder air-
compression stroke and is directed towards the piston bowl so
fuel mixture fails to ignite near the lean limit and makes the
that it is transported through piston motion towards the pre-
swirl chamber spark plug no better at enhancing combustion
chamber with a highly turbulent flow. The rich pre-chamber
near the lean limit than a conventional spark plug. In an effort
mixture is then ignited with the pre-chamber sparkplug,
to improve combustion this study also examined a methane
creating flame jets which penetrate into the main combustion
scavenged swirl chamber spark plug, which showed a greater
chamber and the lean in-cylinder mixture. As with other
ability to extend the lean limit relative to its unscavenged
flame jet ignition concepts, BPI results in significant
counterpart, both shown in Figure 23. The ignition
reductions in fuel consumption and NOx emissions at part
enhancement was attributed to the stratification of the charge
load. In addition, there is a reduction in knock sensitivity at
rich mixture in the pre-chamber.
full load.
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indicate that the benefits of swirl and tumble are much

weaker than they are with spark ignition [79]. Therefore it
was concluded that with APIR, in-cylinder aerodynamics
should be kept to a minimum to limit heat losses to the walls
and maximize engine efficiency. In addition, the APIR
system was found to have better knock resistance than spark
ignition, allowing the compression ratio to be increased and
higher overall efficiency to be achieved [79].

Figure 23. Swirl chamber spark plug (Left). Scavenged

swirl chamber spark plug (Right) [77].

SELF IGNITION TRIGGERED BY

RADICAL INJECTION (APIR)
During the 1990s, there was an attempt to merge spark and
compression ignition with “Auto-inflammation Pilotée par
injection de Radicaux” (APIR) or self ignition triggered by
radical injection at The University of Orléans in France
[78,79]. APIR is a high stratified charge concept in which a
rich mixture is introduced into a pre-chamber. It is similar to
the PJC concept developed at the University of California,
Berkeley with the novel feature being the very small diameter
of the orifices (<1 mm) connecting the pre-chamber and the
main chamber. The narrow holes are used to quench the
flame propagation and also to prevent combustion from Figure 24. Laser sheet tomography and direct
reappearing in the vortex of the jet issuing from the pre- visualization of APIR combustion vs. crank angle [78].
chamber, similar to the PJC process. In addition, with APIR
the number of orifices is increased to about ten, which
enables overall radical seeding of the main chamber.
Furthermore, the small orifice diameter enables the pre-
chamber to be relatively independent from main chamber
conditions limiting back flow and allowing the high pressure
rise to expel the radicals from the pre-chamber further from
the APIR orifice exit. Laser sheet tomography and direct
visualization of APIR is shown in Figure 24 [78].

Figure 25 compares PJC, APIR and spark ignition

experimental results [78] and it can be seen that the initial
burn duration is shorter with APIR due to its smaller holes,
which agrees with the results of Murase [46] concerning the
effect of orifice diameter. Further study of the APIR process
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to the cylinder and each have their own “pre-chamber piston”

(Figure 26). Hot gas jets produced by the pre-chamber auto-
ignition are introduced into the cylinder where they rapidly
induce auto-ignition of the main in-cylinder mixture. With
this system, instead of employing a spark to initiate
combustion in the pre-chambers, a valve connecting the pre-
chamber to the cylinder is closed near the beginning of the
compression stroke. Following this, the precisely controlled
pre-chamber pistons compress the pre-chamber mixture and
cause auto-ignition. At this point the microvalves connecting
the pre-chambers to the main cylinder are opened and the hot
gas jets emanate from the pre-chamber into the cylinder and
ignite the homogeneous in-cylinder mixture. This system
provides some benefits over jet ignition systems that employ
a spark, as the uneven combustion and inefficiencies
associated with spark ignition are prevented [81,82].

Figure 25. Experimental results comparing combustion

durations for APIR, PJC and spark ignition over 200
consecutive cycles [78].

PREMIXED CHARGE FORCED AUTO

IGNITION (PCFA)
In 2003 Najt et al. of General Motors filed a patent for a dual-
mode combustion engine that at light loads and low speeds
employs a pulsed jet of reacting fuel mixture from a pre-
chamber that mixes with an ultra lean premixed main
chamber mixture, causing rapidly expanding combustion
which ignites the remaining main chamber mixture by
compression ignition [80]. A conventional combustion mode
and near stoichiometric mixture is used at higher speed-load
conditions and the mixture is ignited either by a spark plug or
the pulsed jet igniter. The advantages of employing the
pulsed jet ignition at low speed-load conditions are that it
Figure 26. Schematic of an engine system with the HCJI
enables HCCI like combustion along with its associated
concept. 10- engine cylinder, 12- charge space, 15-piston,
benefits of improvements in efficiency and reduced NOx
20a,20b- pre-chambers, 22a,22b- pre-chamber
emissions but with the advantage of combustion phasing
microvalves, 25- pre-chamber valve controller, 30-ECU,
control.
35- load requirements, 40- cylinder sensors, 41- intake
valve, 42- exhaust valve, 45- variable valve system
HOMOGENEOUS COMBUSTION JET [81,82].
IGNITION (HCJI)
In 2003 Kojic et al. of Robert Bosch GmbH filled two patents
[81,82] for controlling the auto-ignition timing for HCCI PRE-CHAMBER IGNITER
engines with the help of pre-chamber jet ignition. In their In 2006 H. E. Durling patented [83] an igniter for internal
proposed system, the auto-ignition is controlled by the timing combustion engines operating over a wide range of air fuel
of the compression ignition in pre-chambers that are coupled ratios. Durling et al. also holds patents for torch jet spark
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plugs (General Motors) [84] and directed jet spark plugs
(Delphi) [85], with the new igniter design distinct as it
incorporates a pre-chamber fuel delivery system for the
internal cavity (Figure 27). In addition to the secondary air/
fuel delivery system, the igniter design consists of an internal
cavity containing a spark gap as well as a spark gap external
to the cavity that is exposed to the main combustion chamber.
The proposed operating strategy of the igniter is that at
relatively high load conditions the igniter operates in spark
ignition mode without secondary pre-chamber fueling. At
lower loads the engine operates in a homogeneous charge
compression ignition mode, whereby main chamber
combustion is initiated by injected active radicals, which are
the partially combusted products of the richer secondary air-
fuel mixture delivered to the igniter's internal cavity. The
advantage of this operating strategy is that ignition can be
achieved with either a spark or by compression depending on
the engine load and that the benefits of both types of ignition
can be realized [83].
Figure 27. Pre-chamber igniter patented by Durling [83].
Major components include 16-fuel delivery system, 18-
central electrode, 36- internal cavity, 38- orifice, 46-
intermediate electrode, 48- cylinder head, 66- internal
spark gap and 68- external spark gap. The reader is
directed to the original patent [83] for a full description
of all numbered components.
PRE-CHAMBER SPARK PLUGS WITH
PILOT INJECTION
The most recent investigations by Latsch et al. involve
research on pre-chamber spark plugs with pilot injection,
with the concept shown in Figure 28 [86]. One of the main
aims of this system was to create an inflammation zone with
low ignition energy demand to minimize the requirements of
the conventional ignition system while at the same time ignite
very lean in-cylinder mixtures through flame torches
extending into the cylinder. As with Bowing et al. [77],
insufficient residual gas scavenging from the pre-chamber
leading to inadequate mixture formation was an issue with
this design and was the reason why the pilot injection was
employed. One major difference between this flame jet
ignition systems and many others is that the fuel is injected
into the pre-chamber during the inlet stroke, rather that during
the compression stroke, which helps to push the residual
gases out of the chamber. In this study, several gaseous fuels
were used to scavenge the pre-chamber, including methane,
reformer gas and hydrogen, with hydrogen the most
successful at extending the lean limit as can be seen in the
results shown in Figure 29 [86].
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Figure 29. Efficiency and NOx emission of a lean burn

CNG engine operating at part load with a pre-chamber
spark plug with pilot injection (n=1600 rev/min,
BMEP=2 bar) [86].

HOMOGENEOUS COMBUSTION
RADICAL IGNITION
In 2007, Blank of HCRI Technologies Intl. filed a patent [87]
and published work on Homogeneous Combustion Radical
Ignition (HCRI) [88,89]. This system provides a method of
enhancing combustion and improving ignition of
homogeneous mixtures. Ignition is achieved with the use of
secondary mini-chambers, connected to the main combustion
chamber via small conduits, which initiate radical ignition of
the main homogeneous charge with species generated in an
earlier engine cycle. Although earlier work focused on
passive piston micro-chambers [90] with no auxiliary
fuelling, the more recent studies incorporated a method of
mini-chamber temperature management and a means to insert
Figure 28. Principle of pre-chamber spark plug with
fuel directly into the mini-chambers. These new techniques
pilot injection [86].
enable further control of the quantity of radical ignition
species generated in the mini-chamber and thus better control
of the main chamber ignition of the later cycle. The benefits
of the HCRI process include improvements in combustion
efficiency, decreases in emissions and a tolerance to a
broader range of fuels [87].

TURBULENT JET IGNITION

The Turbulent Jet Ignition research underway by MAHLE
Powertrain [11,91,92,93] builds on previous research
completed in the field. The objective of this research was to
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make the technology more feasible than other laboratory

based jet ignition systems presented in this review paper and
hence applies off the shelf hardware and modern control
systems to a unique pre-chamber design. Additionally, the
system has been developed to operate on readily available
commercial fuels (e.g. gasoline, propane, natural gas),
overcoming previous jet ignition hurdles of using hydrogen
as the pre-chamber fuel. The system has been developed as a
simple bolt-on addition for a modern engine design and
simply replaces the spark plug in a pent roof combustion
system. Figure 30 displays a computer generated image of the
MAHLE Turbulent Jet Ignition system while Figure 31
highlights a section view of the system installed in the test
engine.

Figure 31. Computer generated image sectional view

highlighting the Turbulent Jet Igniter centrally installed
in the test engines 4-valve pent roof combustion system
[11].

The list below highlights some of the novel and defining

features of the MAHLE Turbulent Jet Ignition system.

• Very small pre-chamber volume (∼ 2% of the clearance

volume)
◦ Minimize crevice volume, HC emissions, heat loss,
surface-to-volume ratio effects and pre-chamber residual
gas.
• Pre-chamber connected to main chamber by one or more
Figure 30. Computer generated image of the modern
small orifices (∼1.25 mm diameter)
design Turbulent Jet Igniter, designed to replace the
spark plug in a for a 4-valve pent roof spark ignition ◦ Promotes flame quenching and penetration into the main
combustion system [11]. chamber. The reacting pre-chamber mixture initiates main
chamber combustion in multiple locations through
chemical, thermal and turbulent effects
• Separately fuelled pre-chamber (flush mounted
electronically controlled direct injector)
◦ Allows a rich mixture to be contained in the pre-
chamber while the main chamber is heavily diluted
(excess air and/or EGR). Injector location assists in
scavenging the pre-chamber residuals and minimizing
crevice volume
• Separately fuelled main-chamber (electronically controlled
PFI or DI)
◦ Allows homogeneous or stratified main chamber
mixtures (HC/NOx emission control)
• Spark discharge initiated pre-chamber combustion (flush
mounted electronically controlled spark plug)
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◦ Allows simple combustion phasing control.
• Research targets using readily available commercial fuels
for both main and pre-chambers
◦ Enables the use of existing refueling infrastructure
Figure 32 displays some images highlighting the pre-chamber
and nozzle assembly. In this particular jet ignition system, the
diameter of the orifices are kept small (1.25 mm) to enable
the pre-chamber flame front to be extinguished as the
combustion products exit out of the small pre-chamber (∼
2% of the clearance volume) into the main chamber. It is then
the reacting pre-chamber mixture which initiates main
chamber combustion in multiple locations through chemical,
thermal and turbulent effects some distance away from the
pre-chamber nozzle. Figure 33 highlights the Turbulent Jet
Ignition sequence over one complete engine cycle. The key
element which differs from a conventional spark ignition
fueling strategy is the addition of small quantities of pre-
chamber fuel (∼2% of total energy). The pre-chamber fueling
event is timed to end at approximately 50° before the spark
discharge. This ensures that a rich plentiful mixture can be
contained in the pre-chamber before the spark discharge
which has been proven to chemically enhance the combustion
process through the formation of active radicals.
Figure 32. Computer generated image detail
highlighting the Turbulent Jet Ignition pre-chamber and
nozzle in the 4-valve pent roof combustion system [11].
Figure 33. Timeline of Turbulent Jet Ignition sequence
events over one complete engine cycle [11].
Initial experimental results taken by MAHLE Powertrain
with the Turbulent Jet Ignition system have been very
promising. The load range achievable with this combustion
system in normally aspirated form has been shown to match
conventional spark ignition combustion with controllable
rates of pressure rise at high load [91]. Additionally, transient
engine operation via fuel quantity variation (eg diesel like
operation) has also been demonstrated. The upper image of
Figure 34 displays the effects on load and thermal efficiency
for throttle-less (unthrottled) Turbulent Jet Ignition operation,
where load is controlled by varying the fuel addition in both
combustion cavities. The high diluent fraction and resultant
low temperature combustion has resulted in a peak indicated
net thermal efficiency of 42% to be recorded together with
near zero engine out NOx emissions. This was achieved
utilizing the engine's standard PFI fuel delivery system and a
relatively low compression ratio of 10.4. To put the Turbulent
Jet Ignition peak thermal efficiency numbers into context, the
data is compared to other gasoline spark ignition and HCCI
combustion systems as shown in the lower diagram of Figure
34. Comparisons are made using spark ignition test data taken
in the same test engine, with the boosted HCCI data found in
the literature [12,94] which also used the same engine
platform (GM Ecotec) as jet ignition tests. Comparisons
highlight a 11% peak efficiency improvement with Turbulent
Jet Ignition relative to conventional stoichiometric spark
ignition combustion. Results also indicate that jet ignition
combustion has the potential to exceed 45% indicated net
thermal efficiency (19% relative improvement) with a CR
increase to ∼14. The CR increase is facilitated by the burn
rate improvement associated with the distributed ignition
system and the addition of side, wall guided DI. This would
exceed the HCCI peak thermal efficiency of 43% in the same
engine platform as there is no requirement to switch back to
conventional spark ignition combustion at high load
operation, which limits HCCI maximum CR for knock
avoidance.
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temperatures and at part load, reduced engine throttling.

Additionally, the low temperature combustion has resulted in
single digit ppm engine out NOx emissions with controllable
levels of HC and CO emissions using conventional three-way
or oxidization catalyst technology.

Figure 34. Upper- Turbulent Jet Ignition throttle-less

(WOT) engine operation at 1500 rev/min and the
subsequent effects on load and thermal efficiency with
fuel variation, 10.4:1 CR. Lower-Peak efficiency
comparison between Turbulent Jet Ignition (blue),
boosted HCCI (green)[12,94], SI lean (purple) and SI
Stoichiometric (red) in the GM Ecotec platform [91].

Additionally, Figure 35 makes a comparison to spark ignition

combustion at the world wide mapping condition of 1500 rev/
min, 3.3 bar IMEPn (∼2.62 bar BMEP). Experimental results
highlight that the pre-chamber combustion system is capable
of tolerating up to 54% mass fraction diluent while still Figure 35. Comparison of spark ignition and jet ignition
maintaining adequate combustion stability. The high diluent combustion systems with increased dilution levels (excess
fraction has enabled the pre-chamber combustion system to air or excess fuel with hot internal EGR: 30°CA NVO)
record an 18% improvement in fuel consumption when up to the combustion stability limit (<10% CoV IMEPg).
compared to conventional stoichiometric spark ignition at this Constant speed/load world wide mapping condition of
operating condition. The efficiency improvements 1500 rev/min, 3.3 bar IMEPn (∼2.62 bar BMEP), 10.4:1
highlighted in both Figures 34 and 35 are due to a CR [11].
combination of combustion improvements, the near
elimination of dissociation due to the low combustion
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CONCLUSIONS
All of the jet ignition technologies discussed in this report
contribute to ignition enhancement to varying extents through
the use of a turbulent jet which acts as a distributed ignition
source. This distributed ignition source has multiple benefits,
including initiating combustion in very dilute mixtures
(excess air and or EGR) and extending the knock limit. This
has major benefits in improving part load fuel economy and
peak thermal efficiency. Additionally, the distributed ignition
sites enable relatively small flame travel distances enabling
short combustion durations (high burn rates) even in slow
burning dilute mixtures. The jet ignition process also
improves combustion variability, which in conventional spark
ignition engines is limited by the chemical composition and
local cyclic turbulence in the vicinity of the spark plug, which
affects initial flame kernel development. Both the reduced
ignition delay and burn variability resulting from the jet
ignition process permit the use of a dilute main chamber
mixture, especially when a rich of stoichiometric mixture is
used in the pre-chamber. The jet ignition strategy therefore
allows for an overall dilute combustion system and the
emission and thermal efficiency advantages that are
associated with running with very high amounts of excess air
or EGR. Furthermore, the load range achievable with jet
ignition technology offers benefits over other low
temperature combustion technologies such as HCCI, in that it
is capable of running at both high and low loads without
complex hardware (comparable or exceeding conventional
spark ignition). In addition, the start of combustion control
and hence combustion phasing that is achievable with jet
ignition overcomes the complex control drawbacks of other
low temperature combustion technologies.
This review paper has highlighted many different pre-
chamber and jet ignition combustion systems. Although there
are several ways forward for this type of combustion system,
the authors believe that the concept of a small pre-chamber
volume fed with an auxiliary pre-chamber mixture is the most
likely future application of this system. To date, jet ignition
technology has been limited to research laboratories and even
with promising experimental results, has not been able to
penetrate the vehicle fleet. However, with growing global
concerns regarding the environment and energy supply, the
benefits offered by jet ignition combustion may be one way
forward, hence it is envisioned that this type of combustion
system will be further developed to meet future world
requirements. Initial jet ignition vehicle penetration is most
likely to occur through a hybrid rather than a stand alone
powertrain application for simplicity reasons. In particular,
the ultra-high efficiencies possible with jet ignition and the
simplicity of the mechanical hardware and control system
offer unique opportunities of coupling this technology to
series hybrid or range-extender vehicle applications.
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AFR HCCI
Air-to-Fuel Ratio Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition

APIR HCJI
Auto-inflammation Pilotée par Injection de Radicaux Homogeneous Combustion Jet Ignition
or self ignition triggered by radical injection
HCRI
BPI Homogeneous Charge Radical Ignition
Bowl Pre-chamber Ignition
HFJI
CO Hydrogen Flame Jet Ignition
Carbon Monoxide
JPIC
CO2 Jet Plume Injection and Combustion
Carbon Dioxide
LAG
COVIMEP Lavinia Aktivatisia Gorenia or Avalanche Activated
Coefficient of Variation of IMEP Combustion

CR NO
Compression Ratio Nitric Oxide

CVCC NO2
Compound Vortex Controlled Combustion Nitrogen Dioxide

DCSC NOx
Divided Chamber Stratified Charge Oxides of Nitrogen

DI OH
Direct Injection Hydroxyl Radical

FJI PFI
Flame Jet Ignition Port Fuel Injection

H PFJ
Hydrogen Radical Pulsed Flame Jet

H2 PJC
Hydrogen Pulsed Jet Combustion

HAJI Rgas
Hydrogen Assisted Jet Ignition Gas Constant

HC SCR
Hydrocarbon Selective Catalytic Reduction
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doi:10.4271/2010-01-2263