Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI): Benefits, Compromises, and Future

Engine Applications
Author(s): Rudolf H. Stanglmaier and Charles E. Roberts
Source: SAE Transactions , 1999, Vol. 108, Section 3: JOURNAL OF ENGINES (1999), pp.
2138-2145
Published by: SAE International

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44743535

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 1999-01-3682

Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI): Ben

Compromises, and Future Engine Applicat
Rudolf H. Stanglmaier and Charles E. Roberts
Southwest Research Institute

Copyright © 1999 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.

ABSTRACT there are some difficulties in applying HCCI combustion

to internal combustion engines. This paper discusses the
Large reductions in low-load NOx emissions can potential
be benefits of HCCI engines and the obstacles that
obtained by replacing conventional Diesel or spark must be overcome to realize those benefits.
ignited combustion by HCCI combustion in reciprocating
engines. Currently, HCCI combustion is limited to operat- CHARACTERISTICS OF HCCI COMBUSTION
ing conditions with lean air/fuel ratios or large amounts of
EGR. However, a numerical model shows that, even if Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI)
high equivalence ratio HCCI operation were satisfactorily emerged as a technology with potential for reduci
attained, the NOx reduction potential vs. Dl-Diesel com- engine-out emissions and significant research effo
bustion would be much smaller. Thus, high-load HCCI have been directed at understanding the fundamen
operation may best be obtained through highly boosted mechanisms of this combustion mode in recent ye
fuel-lean operation. Alternatively, HCCI combustion may HCCI combustion of most fuels displays a peculiar tw
be suited well for "dual mode" engine applications, in stage heat release, as shown in Figure 1 . The first st
which spark ignition or conventional Diesel combustion is of the heat release curve is associated with low-tempe
used to obtain full load. Avoiding wall impingement with ture kinetic reactions (cool and/or blue flames), and t
heavy fuels is critical for achieving good emissions and time delay between the first and main heat release
fuel consumption, and it appears that a large degree of attributed to the "Negative Temperature Coefficie
mixture inhomogeneity can be tolerated from a NOx ben- Regime" of these reactions (Furutani et al., 1993, Puch
efit standpoint. et al., 1996). Low-temperature kinetics have been stud
for some time, as this chemistry is responsible for kn
INTRODUCTION in spark-ignition engines (e.g. Green et al., 1987, Add
garla et al., 1989). Research conducted with the us
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) optical diagnostics has shown that HCCI combustion in
combustion is achieved when a mixture of air, fuel andtiates simultaneously at multiple sites within the comb
recycled combustion products is compressed until it auto-tion chamber and that there is no discernable flame-
propagation (e.g. Furutani et al., 1993; lida, 1994;
ignites. This results in heat releasing reactions that ini-
tiate simultaneously at multiple sites within the combus-Aoyama et al., 1996). It has been reported that, despite
tion chamber and occur at the global equivalence ratio. the absence of a flame front, the HCCI heat release rate
Unlike Diesel (diffusion-controlled) combustion, HCCI is not controlled purely by chemical reaction rates. One
group
reactions are not necessarily limited by the mixing rate at has postulated that turbulent mixing may play an
the interface between the fuel jet and oxidizer. HCCI important role in limiting the heat release rate (Kong et
combustion differs from spark-ignited combustion in that al., 1992), although this view is not embraced by all
it has no discernible flame front and is devoid of a local- researchers in the field. Since the combustion reactions
ized high-temperature reaction region. Thus, HCCI com- are not initiated by a spark and are not limited by tradi-
bustion is generally characterized by distributed, low-tional flame-sheet physics, leaner mixtures can be con-
temperature reactions that occur relatively fast. sumed by HCCI combustion than is possible through
other methods. In general, HCCI combustion consists of
HCCI engines have demonstrated very low emissions of distributed, fuel-lean reactions and is devoid of localized
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and particulate matter (PM), as
high-temperature regions or flame fronts.
well as high thermal efficiency at part load. However,

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 increasing engine load. A quasi-dimensional engine
model (Alamo_Engine) was used to model the NOx
emissions from HCCI combustion of Diesel fuel in com-
parison to conventional direct-injection Diesel combus-
tion. This model requires the crank-angle resolved heat
release as an input and uses the Zeldovich reaction set
and a correlated contribution from prompt NO kinetics to
predict NOx (Dodge et al., 1998; Dickey et al., 1999). Fig-
ure 2 shows the heat release rates used as inputs to the
model and the predicted NOx emissions from HCCI com-
bustion of Diesel fuel compared to a direct-injected Die-
sel engine (Dl-Diesel) and Dl-Diesel with aggressive
EGR levels. The compression ratio for all cases was
16:1, and the prescribed heat-release curve for HCCI
represents a typical scenario at this compression ratio.
These results show that HCCI combustion can result in
Figure 1 . Typical heat release curve from HCCI
combustion of DF-2 Diesel fuel and a Fischer-
large NOx reductions at part engine load, but that the
potential NOx advantage of HCCI combustion vs. Dl-Die-
Tropsch Naphtha.
sel diminishes at higher equivalence ratios.

HCCI combustion initiation is not sensitive to in-cylinder

fluid mechanics, and generally displays very low cyclic
variability (e.g. Stockinger et al., 1992). However, under
some conditions, bi-modal cylinder pressure distributions
have been obtained (Ishibashi and Asai, 1996). This bi-
modal, or irregular, combustion characteristic is believed
to be associated with the gas exchange process and the
retention of residual exhaust products from previous
cycles (Ishibashi and Asai, 1996; Green et al., 1987).

EMISSIONS BEHAVIOR -The main motivation for

studying HCCI combustion stems from its potential for
significant reductions in exhaust emissions in compari-
son to conventional Diesel or spark-ignition combustion.
A brief overview of the emissions characteristics from
HCCI engines is provided in this section.

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) - Perhaps the single largest

attraction of HCCI combustion is that it can reduce NOx
emissions by 90 - 98 % in comparison to conventional
Diesel combustion (Gray and Ryan, 1997; Nakagome et
al., 1997; Aiyoshizawa et al., 1998, Hashizume et al.,
1998; Mase et al., 1998). The underlying mechanism
responsible for this reduction in NOx emissions is the
absence of high-temperature regions within the combus-
tion chamber. HCCI combustion reactions occur at the
global air-fuel ratio, which is typically quite lean, and at a
temperature significantly below those encountered within
the reaction zone in Diesel or spark-ignition engines.
Several numerical models of NOx emissions from HCCI
combustion have documented this effect (e.g., Najt and Figure 2. Predicted NOx emissions vs. engine load for
Foster, 1983; Ishii et al., 1997; Christensen et al., 1997; typical HCCI and DI Diesel combustion.
Gray et al., 1998).

HCCI combustion is currently practical only at low mix-The numerical model was also used to study the effects
ture equivalence ratios, as discussed elsewhere in this of combustion phasing on HCCI performance. It was
paper. Peak combustion temperatures within HCCI found that premature HCCI ignition at high loads causes
engines are related directly to the engine load (if con- dramatically increased BSFC and NOx levels. However,
trolled by stoichiometry), and NOx emissions from HCCI at low to medium load conditions, premature HCCI igni-
combustion are known to increase considerably with tion increases BSFC without a large penalty in NOx emis-

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sions. The model also predicts that optimizing the HCCI CHALLENGES
combustion phasing can extend the low-NOx region of
HCCI combustion to lower air/fuel ratios, but this has There are a number of obstacles that must be overcome
been difficult to achieve in practice so far. before the potential benefits of HCCI combustion can be
fully realized in production applications. This section
Particulate Matter (PM) - HCCI combustion has also describes the main difficulties with this technology.
been reported to produce low levels of smoke and PM
emissions (Suzuki et al., 1997; Kimura et al., 1997 COMBUSTION
and PHASING AND CONTROL -One of the
1998; Mase et al., 1998). The mechanism for these principal challenges of HCCI combustion is control of t
smoke reductions is not as well documented, but it is combustion phasing. Unlike in spark-ignition or conve
thought that the absence of diffusion-limited combustion tional Diesel engines, a direct method for controlling
and localized fuel-rich regions discourages the formation start of combustion is not available. Instead, the start
of soot. One exception to this can occur when poor mix- combustion is established by the auto-ignition chemist
ture preparation leads to liquid fuel deposition on the of the air-fuel mixture. Auto-ignition of a fuel-oxidizer m
combustion chamber and localized fuel-rich regions of ture is influenced by the properties of the mixture and
combustion. the time-temperature history to which it is expose
Hence, combustion phasing of HCCI engines is affected
Hydrocarbons (HCl and Carbon Monoxide (COI - In by:
contrast to NOx and PM emissions, HCCI combustion
• Auto-ignition properties of the fuel1
typically results in higher HC and CO emissions than
• Fuel concentration
conventional Diesel combustion (Suzuki et al., 1997;Nak-
agome et al., 1997; Christensen and Johansson, 1998). • Residual rate and, possibly, reactivity of the residual
One factor that contributes to these observed levels of
• Mixture homogeneity
HC and CO emissions is the low in-cylinder temperature
• Compression ratio
due to the lean mixtures and/or high levels of EGR which
are necessary for satisfactory HCCI operation. It is well • Intake temperature, latent heat of vaporization of the
known that reduced burned gas temperatures lead to fuel, and engine temperature
decreased post-combustion oxidation rates within the cyl- • Heat transfer to the engine
inder (i.e. Roberts and Matthews, 1996) and increased • Other engine-dependent parameters
levels of HC and CO in the exhaust. Mixture preparation
is of great importance to HC emissions for HCCI combus-Several approaches for controlling the combustion phas-
tion of liquid fuels, for it is well known that liquid fuel dep-ing have been attempted, but a fundamental distinction
osition on combustion chamber surfaces can result in can be made between those methods attempting to con-
dramatic increases in HC emissions (Stanglmaier et al.,the time-temperature history to which the mixture is
trol
1 999). This problem is exacerbated for heavy fuels such exposed, and methods aimed at altering the propensity
as Diesel. for auto-ignition of the mixture, as illustrated on Figure 3.
Methods for controlling the time-temperature history of
the mixture include: In-cylinder fuel injection timing, water
EFFICIENCY - HCCI combustion is generally character-
ized by high heat-release rates, which can approximateinjection, intake air temperature modulation, variable
compression
the ideal Otto cycle when properly phased in relation to ratio, and variable valve timing.
the engine cycle. The distributed low-temperature reac-
The reactivity of the mixture can be altered by varying the
tions and non-luminous combustion result in reduced
properties of the fuel, the air-fuel ratio, or by exhaust gas
heat rejection to the engine. Hence, HCCI combustionrecirculation
is, (EGR). EGR can also be used to modulate
in itself, conducive to high thermodynamic cycle efficien-the mixture temperature. It has been suggested that
cies. HCCI fuel efficiencies comparable to those of con- active radical species in the exhaust play and important
ventional Diesel combustion at part load have been role in HCCI combustion (e.g. Ishibashi and Asai, 1996),
reported by several researchers (Aoyama et al., 1996; but this view is not universally accepted. It is perhaps
Hashizume et al., 1997; Suzuki et al., 1997; Christensen
more likely that stable, intermediate products of combus-
and Johansson, 1998; Harada et al., 1998). tion from a prior cycle, which can be much more reactive
However, reduced fuel efficiencies (higher BSFC) are than the parent fuel (e.g. Addargarla et al., 1989), may
reported for Diesel engines employing partial fumigation influence the overall mixture reactivity. This may be par-
(Osses et al., 1998), and for some direct-injected HCCI ticularly true for HCCI combustion, given the elevated
engines running on Diesel fuel (Suzuki et al., 1997; concentrations of unburned and partially-burned hydro-
Odaka et al., 1999). Difficulties in mixture preparation, carbons in the exhaust stream, and the high EGR levels
fuel impingement on the walls, and poor combustion
phasing are thought to be predominantly responsible for 1 . Although related to the auto-Ignition properties of a fuel,
these reduced efficiencies. the "octane" and "cetane" ratings are avoided in this dis-
cussion. These ratings are obtained from standardized
tests significantly different from HCCI combustion, and
can be misleading.
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typically employed. Mixture reactivity can be used to con-
trol HCCI combustion initiation effectively. A method for
controlling the combustion phasing by blending two differ-
ent fuels has been demonstrated in a laboratory environ-
ment by Furutani et al. (1998) and Akagawa et al. (1999).
Methods for Controlling HCCI
Combustion Phasing
i r i r
ALTER MIXTURE T1M_ TIME-TEMPERATURE TÎLmdati.DI:
RFarTiviTY i īvi i T T1M_ TIME-TEMPERATURE
i īvi i T HISTORY OF MIXTURE
_ -, «Modulate intake temp.
•Blend 2 _ or more fuels -, , ^ , . . .. .. .
_ , ..... «In-Cyl. , ^ , injection . . .. timing .. .
•Fue _ , additives ..... .«rte, injection
•Fuelpte-conditioning .«rte, .Variab|e'CR injection
•Variable valve timing
•EGR
Figure 3.
Phasing.
In laboratory experiments, the most popular method for
controlling the start of reaction is by modulating the
intake air temperature. Higher intake temperatures
advance the start of combustion and vice-versa, but the
range of crank-angles over which the combustion phas-
ing can be controlled is quite limited and a large penalty
in volumetric efficiency accompanies high intake temper-
atures. Moreover, this method is generally deemed
impractical for mobile applications. Fuel-injection timing
(in direct injected applications) has proven to be an inef-
fective method for controlling the combustion phasing
(Takeda et al., 1996; Nakagome et al., 1997), as the fuel
vaporization process significantly affects the time-tem-
perature history of the mixture. Water injection has been
attempted as a method for delaying the start of reaction,
but this approach was also found to be largely inade-
quate (Christensen et al., 1999). Variable compression
ratio or valve timing appear promising, but are associated
with additional costs in engine hardware. These
approaches are not commonly discussed in the literature.
Perhaps the most successful phasing control demon-
strated to date is fuel-blending. Combustion control over
a significant range has been achieved with this method,
but its feasibility for production is questionable. At this
time, no single method for controlling HCCI combustion
phasing has emerged as a clear solution to this chal-
lenge.
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POWER OUTPUT - A current drawback of HCCI com-
bustion is that it is presently limited in power output. Sta-
ble HCCI combustion can generally be achieved for lean
A/F ratios and/or large amounts of EGR. However, as the
A/F ratio approaches stoichiometric values (without EGR
dilution), the combustion stability degrades, heat release
rates increase, knock-like oscillations in the cylinder pres-
sure appear, and the emissions benefits vanish (e.g.
Stockinger et al., 1992; Aoyama etal., 1996, Christensen
et al., 1997; Gray and Ryan, 1997). Fuels with inherently
lower heat release rates, like methane, can be com-
busted at lower A/F ratios and achieve higher specific
engine outputs (Christensen et al., 1997).
Given this apparent limitation in A/F ratio for HCCI com-
bustion, power increases can be obtained by augmenting
the air flow through the engine. Supercharging has
proven to be effective in this respect, and it also has a
beneficial influence on reducing the heat release rate
(Aoyama et al., 1996; Christensen et al., 1998a; Iwabuchi
et al., 1999). Christensen and coworkers (1998a) have
achieved HCCI operation up to an IMEP of 14 bar, using
an externally boosted engine fueled with methane.
Increasing the engine speed may also be an effective
method of increasing HCCI power output and reducing
the heat release rate in crank-angle space, but this
approach is not well documented. A high-speed, super-
Methods for Co
charged engine may be the most viable configuration for
lean HCCI combustion.
Another approach to overcome the limitations in power
output has been to pursue the development of "dual-
mode" engines that employ HCCI combustion at low
loads and Diesel combustion or spark-ignition at high
loads. Although attractive, HCCI/spark-ignition engines
have not been discussed much in the literature. HCCI/
Diesel engines are being pursued by a number of
researchers.
HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE PREPARATION - Effec-
tive mixture preparation, and avoiding fuel-wall interac
tions is crucial for achieving high fuel efficiency, reducing
HC and PM emissions, and preventing oil dilution.
Impingement of fuel on the surfaces of the combustion
chamber has been proven detrimental to HC emission
even for moderately volatile fuels such as gasoline
(Stanglmaier et al., 1 999). Mixture homogeneity has an
effect on the auto-ignition reactions that control the HCCI
combustion phasing (Harada et al., 1998; Christensen et
al., 1999), but there is significant evidence that low NOx
emissions can be produced even with a large degree of
mixture inhomogeneity within the combustion chamber
(Kimura et al., 1997 and 1998; Aiyoshizawa et al. 1998;
Mase et al., 1998). Homogeneous mixture preparation is
most difficult for fuels with reduced volatility such as Die-
sel, which require elevated intake air temperatures for
low-smoke operation when port-injected (Gray and Ryan,
1997).
2141
HCCI ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS attributed directly to poor fuel vaporization and fuel-wall
interactions within the combustion chamber. Port-injec-
A number of promising engine concepts using HCCI tion may be attractive for gaseous and high volatility
fuels, but is more problematic for Diesel fuel.
combustion are being developed, including free piston
designs (Van Blarigan et al., 1998), and two-stroke
engines (e.g. Ishibashi and Asai, 1996). In this discus- HCCI Engine
sion, only conventional 4-stroke engine designs suitable
Configuration
for over the road applications are included. Figure 4
shows a schematic breakdown of HCCI engine configu-
rations. The first distinction in this illustration is for full-
time HCCI engines vs. dual combustion mode engines. Dedicated _ ....
Full-time HCCI engines have the largest benefit potential. HCCI _ Dual .... Mode
Highly boosted, fuel-lean, dedicated HCCI engines may
be attractive for some stationary or marine applications. ,
Future development of HCCI-specific fuels and combus- HCCI- , HCCF
tion phasing control may also expand the air/fuel ratio Diesel
operating range.

An alternative way of obtaining full power output, at the

HCCI Fuel
expense of additional benefits, is to operate an engine on
introduction
HCCI combustion at low and part loads and on either ^ v

spark-ignition or conventional Diesel combustion at full

load. Obviously, this approach is only attractive for appli- ,
cations that experience significant part load engine oper- Port In-Cylinder
ation and would benefit from emissions reductions over Injection | Injection
this operating range. Dual-mode spark-ignition/HCCI
engines have not been discussed much in the literature,
but appear attractive for light-duty vehicle applications. Late Early
Dual-mode Diesel/HCCI engines, on the other hand, are In-Cylinder In-Cylinder
being pursued by several research groups around the Injection | Injection
world.
Figure 4. HCCI Engine Configurations.
The next level of classification for HCCI engines is com-
EARLY IN-CYLINDER INJECTION -Another method of
prised by the method of fueling. This represents an
promoting a homogeneous fuel-air mixture within the cyl-
important distinction because it has a profound effect on
the engine characteristics and confines the combustion inder is through early (well in advance of TDC) in-cylinder
control methods that can be employed. Three fueling injection of a portion or all of the fuel. This can be done
through the same nozzles used for Diesel combustion
methods will be described in more detail: port-injection,
early in-cylinder injection, and late in-cylinder injection. (e.g., Yokota et al., 1997), or through separate direct-
injectors (e.g. Miyamoto et al., 1998). Interestingly, this
PORT-INJECTION OR FUMIGATION - The simplest way method provides ineffective control of the reaction phas-
ing
of promoting a homogenous in-cylinder mixture is by by varying the fuel introduction time. This occurs
introducing fuel upstream of the intake valves, andbecause the fuel vaporization process significantly
affects the time-temperature history to which the mixture
inducting the mixture into the cylinder during the intake
stroke. This method takes advantage of the turbulence is exposed and limits the range over which control can be
attained.
generated as the intake flow rushes past the intake
valves to promote mixing. However, the fuel-air mixture HCCI
is operation with in-cylinder injection is only reported
exposed to the entire time-temperature history of the cyl-
in the literature for Diesel fuel. However, fuel wall
inder, and thus injection timing cannot be used to control
impingement is a severe problem when injecting heavy
the start of reaction. Port-injection or fumigation is the
fuels into the low-density air charge. Some researchers
most common configuration used in HCCI engines, and have a expended significant effort in minimizing wall
number of researchers have used it with varying degrees impingement by developing low-penetration fuel injectors
of success (e.g., Stockinger et al., 1992; Aoyama et al.,
(Harada et al., 1998; Iwabuçhi et al., 1999), and have
1996; Christensen et al., 1997 and 1998; Ryan and Cal-obtained significant improvements. However, wall
lahan, 1996; Osses et al., 1998; Suzuki et al., 1997 and impingement is likely to remain a problem for in-cylinder
1998; Ogawa et al., 1998; Furutani et al., 1998). injection of Diesel fuel into low-density environments. In-
Port-injection or fumigation of heavy fuels can result in cylinder fuel injection is likely to become the preferred
high HC and CO emissions, and in increased fuel con- method for fueling HCCI engines in the future as better
sumption and oil dilution. Most of these problems can be mixture preparation techniques are developed.

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LATE IN-CYLINDER INJECTION - Perhaps the newest SUMMARY
approach to homogeneous Diesel combustion is that
used in the Nissan MK system during low-load operation • Two fundamentally different approaches to control-
(Aiyoshizawa et al., 1998; Mase et al., 1998). In this con- ling HCCI combustion phasing are possible: i) alter-
cept, fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber ing the mixture propensity for auto-ignition, and ii)
near or after TDC, but the ignition delay is extended altering the time-temperature history to which the
through the use of large amounts of cooled EGR, a mixture is exposed. A viable method of controlling the
reduction in the engine compression ratio, and vigorous combustion phasing in production applications has
swirl. The net result is that the combustion reactions not yet been identified.
begin well after the end of injection, and a diffusion-lim-
• The method of fuel introduction is critical for HCCI
ited combustion jet is not established. Despite the signifi-engines as fuel-wall wetting negatively impacts HC,
cant mixture inhomogeneity that exists within the CO, and PM emissions, as well as BSFC and oil dilu-
cylinder, low NOx emissions are obtained. Late in-cylin- tion. Mixture preparation of heavy fuels in HCCI
der injection of Diesel appears to avoid most of the prob- engines often represents a compromise between
lems associated with fuel wall impingement and providesmixture homogeneity and reduced wall impingement.
some control of the combustion phasing, but the short
• It appears that some degree of mixture inhomogene-
ignition delay of Diesel limits this approach to low engine
ity is tolerable for realizing HCCI NOx benefits. Thus,
loads. Further developments of the late in-cylinder injec-
it may be possible to trade-off mixture homogeneity
tion approach are likely to be applied to other classes of
for combustion phasing control and/or HC emissions
Diesel engines in the near future.
benefits, with some injection strategies.
FUTURE ENGINE APPLICATIONS OF HCCI • HCCI combustion has been shown to produce very
low levels of NOx at low loads, but computational
There are a number of obstacles which must be over- models predict that NOx levels would equal or
come in order to realize a fuel-efficient, low-emissions exceed Dl-Diesel levels at comparable full load if the
HCCI engine. A full-time HCCI engine appears desirable, combustion phasing can not be optimized.
but its ability to produce power comparable to conven- • Intake charge boosting can increase power output
tional Diesel or stoichiometric engines is still in question. from fuel-lean HCCI engines. Alternatively, HCCI
Computational and experimental results suggest that, combustion may be used in "dual-mode" engine
even if stoichiometric air-fuel ratios were possible under applications, which operate on Dl-Diesel or spark-
HCCI combustion, there would be no NOx benefit over ignition at high load.
spark ignited combustion. Highly boosted, fuel-lean HCCI
engines appear to be a promising option for producing ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
full power output in stationary and marine applications.
Future development of HCCI-specific fuels and improve- We sincerely thank Mr. Lee Dodge of Southwest
ments in combustion phasing control may enable Diesel- Research Institute for his assistance using the
like air/fuel ratios and power output. For near-term mobileAlamo_Engine code.
applications, however, HCCI combustion may be best
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