Fuel 262 (2020) 116436

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Fuel
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Full Length Article

Comparisons of advanced combustion technologies (HCCI, PCCI, and dual- T

fuel PCCI) on engine performance and emission characteristics in a heavy-
duty diesel engine
Euijoon Shima,b, Hyunwook Parka, Choongsik Baea,
⁎

a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST (Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology), Republic of Korea
b
Advanced Engine System Development Team, Doosan Infracore Co., Republic of Korea

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Homogeneous charge compression ignition
(HCCI)
Premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI)
Reactivity controlled compression ignition
(RCCI)
Pilot-ignited dual-fuel combustion (pilot-DF)
Dual-fuel premixed charge compression
ignition (DF-PCCI)
Advanced combustion technologies (ACTs), which have great potential for nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate
matter (PM) reduction simultaneously, have been researched steadily to replace conventional diesel combustion
(CDC) over the past 40 years. However, it is still unclear which ACT is suitable as a practical alternative com-
bustion technology. In this study, single-fueled and dual-fueled ACTs, such as homogeneous charge compression
ignition (HCCI), premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) and dual-fuel premixed charge compression ig-
nition (DF-PCCI), were implemented to compare with each other in a heavy-duty single cylinder engine under a
specified load condition at which all ACTs can be operated stably. The combustion characteristics, emission
performance, thermal efficiency ( T ), and combustion efficiency ( c ) were considered as comparative factors in
order for the comparative evaluations of among the three ACTs. The results showed that all ACTs could reduce
the NOx and PM emissions simultaneously under the EU-VI NOx and PM regulations without after-treatment
system. In addition, DF-PCCI combustion has achieved indicated thermal efficiency (ITE) of 45.3%, which was
higher than that for CDC, due to the superior controllability of combustion phase and burn duration. However,
DF-PCCI combustion produced high amounts of total hydrocarbon (THC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions
which could deteriorate the combustion efficiency. These results suggest that although the DF-PCCI combustion
technology has various strengths, such as high thermal efficiency and superior combustion controllability, the
combustion efficiency should be improved through THC and CO reductions in order to become a practical
combustion technology.

1. Introduction reduction due to the high thermal efficiency ( T ) by using a high

The internal combustion engine has been widely used as the most
efficient energy transfer system in both industry, mobility and many
other applications. However, as global interest in the environment in-
creased, each government adopted more strict emission regulations to
reduce harmful emissions, such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate
matter (PM), and greenhouse gases (GHG) [1,2]. Especially, even
though, a diesel engine was regarded as a solution for the GHG
compression ratio [3]. It could be social issues which the diesel engine
produces high amounts of NOx and PM emissions during the combus-
tion process due to the combustion characteristics of high temperature
and diffusion burn [4]. Although many researchers of conventional
diesel combustion (CDC) have attempted to adopt exhaust gas re-
circulation (EGR) [5] and injection strategies [6] to reduce NOx and PM
emissions, they could not reduce them simultaneously due to the NOx
and PM trade-off characteristics [7].

Abbreviations: ACT, Advanced combustion technology; AFR, Air fuel ratio; ATDC, After top dead center; BTDC, Before top dead center; CAD, Crank angle degree;
CDC, Conventional diesel combustion; CNG, Compressed natural gas; CO, Carbon monoxide; CO2, Carbon dioxide; EGR, Exhaust gas recirculation; HCCI,
Homogeneous charge compression ignition; HRF, High reactivity fuel; HRR, Heat release rate; HTO, High temperature oxidation; HC, Hydrocarbon; DF-PCCI, Dual-
fuel premixed charge compression ignition; GCI, Gasoline compression ignition; GHG, Greenhouse gas; LHV, Low heating value; LRF, Low reactivity fuel; LTC, Low
temperature combustion; LTO, Low temperature oxidation; MPRR, Maximum pressure rise rate; NMHC, Non-methane hydrocarbon; NOx, Nitrogen oxide; PCCI,
Premixed charge compression ignition; pilot-DF, Pilot ignited dual-fuel; PM, Particulate matter; PPC, Partially premixed combustion; RCCI, Reactivity controlled
compression ignition; SOC, Start of combustion; SOI, Start of diesel injection; TDC, Top dead center
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: csbae@kaist.ac.kr (C. Bae).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.116436
Received 8 July 2019; Received in revised form 12 October 2019; Accepted 15 October 2019
0016-2361/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E. Shim, et al. Fuel 262 (2020) 116436

variety of novel ACTs, such as HCCI, PCCI, LTC, pilot-DF and RCCI,
Nomenclature
with the aim of achieving ultra-low NOx and PM in an internal com-
bustion engine. However, there are very few cases of practical appli-
Global equivalence ratio [–]
global
cation. Therefore, a comparative evaluation of each advanced com-
Local equivalence ratio [–]
local
bustion technology is needed to determine which of them is the most
Combustion efficiency [%]
c
promising for commercial application. There are few previous studies to
Thermal efficiency [%]
T
compare each advanced combustion technology as below.
SR Substitution ratio [%]
Noh et al. reviewed the literature on HCCI, partially premixed
IMEPnet Net indicated mean effective pressure [MPa]
combustion (PPC) and gasoline compression ignition (GCI) researches,
ISFC Indicated specific fuel consumption [g/kWh]
which was published after 2010, to give the information about the ef-
CoV _IMEPnet Coefficient of variation of IMEPnet [%]
fect of bioethanol as the inhibitive additive of auto-ignition in advanced
combustion engines [20].
Pandian et al. studied the operational load range and emission
Advanced combustion technology (ACT) is a novel combustion
characteristics of three different LTC strategies. According to the study,
concept, which make it possible to reduce NOx and PM simultaneously
the single fueled advanced combustion technologies had the potential
by controlling the maximum combustion temperature and the local
to reduce NOx and PM emissions to nearly zero. However, there was a
equivalence ratio properly in the combustion chamber during the
limit in the operating ranges under low load conditions [14].
combustion process [8]. In 1979, Onishi et al. introduced the homo-
Previous comparative studies, which compared various ACTs from
geneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) concept in a gasoline-
various journal papers, could give comprehensive insight about ad-
fueled two-stroke engine [9]. The authors proposed that homogeneous
vanced combustion. However, there is little quantitative comparison of
mixture by the early injected fuel had the potential to curb NOx and PM
various ACTs under the same operating conditions to derive suitable
formation. Since then, many other researchers have attempted to de-
combustion technology for the commercialization of an ACT.
velop low emission, high thermal efficiency ACTs, such as HCCI, pre-
In this study, single-fueled and dual-fueled ACTs, such as HCCI,
mixed charge compression ignition (PCCI), and massive-EGR low tem-
PCCI, RCCI, and pilot-DF, were implemented to quantitatively analyze
perature combustion (LTC) utilizing charge mixture homogeneity [10].
their performance in a single-cylinder engine. Specifically, combustion
Fig. 1 well explains the combustion concepts of various single-fueled
characteristics, efficiency characteristics, emission performance, and
ACTs on the pi-T diagram [11]. However, these single-fueled ACTs have
combustion stability were analyzed of each ACTs for comparative
many obstacles to be real-world combustion technology alternatives,
evaluating. Furthermore, the major obstacles, which have to be over-
because it is difficult to control the combustion phase [10,12], maintain
come for becoming a practical combustion technology, were derived
the combustion stability [13], and expand the operating range toward
from the experimental results. Ultimately, the purpose of this study is
high load conditions [14,15]. Moreover, they produce high amounts of
trying to derive which ACTs are suitable for practical use, and to sug-
hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions due to the
gest future research topics in order to get one step closer to the practical
incomplete combustion [16,17].
use of advanced combustion technology.
Dual-fueled ACTs were introduced as alternatives to the single-
fueled ACTs in order to better control the combustion phase by utilizing
2. Methodology
the two different reactivity fuels while maintaining low NOx and PM
emissions. As one of the dual-fueled ACTs, Kokjohn et al. reported that
2.1. Classification of combustion technologies
the reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI) combustion could
control the combustion phase with fuel reactivity stratification, which
Fig. 2 shows the combustion concepts of CDC, HCCI, PCCI, and dual-
controlled the fuel mass ratio between high-reactivity fuel (HRF) and
fuel PCCI, which were implemented in this study. Fig. 3 schematically
low-reactivity fuel (LRF) [18]. In addition, Gebert et al. reported on the
displays the conceptual operation area for five combustion concepts
pilot-ignited dual-fuel (pilot-DF) combustion, which supplies LRF
according to the diesel injection time and natural gas substitution ratio
through the intake port during the intake process and then injects HRF
(SR). The implementation methods and combustion characteristics of
into the combustion chamber directly as an igniter at the end of the
each advanced combustion concept are explained in Figs. 2 and 3.
compression process to control the combustion phase [19].
First, CDC could control the combustion phase by adjusting the
In short, over the past four decades, researchers have developed a
diesel injection timing near the top dead center (TDC). The maximum
combustion temperature is extremely high in CDC conditions owing to
the high heat release during the short combustion period; this is the
reaction that causes the high amounts of NOx emission [21]. Second,
single-fueled ACTs, such as HCCI and PCCI, should utilize the homo-
geneity of the charge mixture for premixed burn [22]. For instance,
HCCI combustion concept should early inject the diesel during the in-
take process from 160 to 220 crank angle degrees before top dead
center (CAD BTDC) to make a homogeneous charge mixture [23]. In the
case of PCCI, the diesel should be injected into the combustion chamber
during the compression process from 30 to 160 CAD BTDC to make the
premixed charge mixture. Moreover, in order to extend the air-fuel
mixing period, and to optimize the combustion phase, multi-fuel in-
jection and EGR strategy were conducted. In case of EGR, which con-
tains a large amount of inert gas, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) that has
large thermal capacity, can extend the ignition delay [30].
Third, dual-fueled ACTs utilize two different reactivity fuels, which
Fig. 1. Operating range of various combustion concepts, such as homogeneous are LRF and HRF. In this study, compressed natural gas (CNG) and
charge compression ignition (HCCI), premixed charge compression ignition diesel were used as LRF and HRF, respectively. Dual-fuel PCCI com-
(PCCI), low temperature diesel combustion (LTC), and conventional diesel bustion can be classified into pilot-DF and RCCI according to the
combustion (CDC), on the Φ–T Soot and NOx generation map [11] method of combustion phase control. In the case of RCCI, both LRF and

2
E. Shim, et al. Fuel 262 (2020) 116436

Fig. 2. Combustion concepts of conventional diesel combustion and various advanced combustion technologies according to the fuel supply and EGR strategy.

load condition such as 0.45 MPa indicated mean effective pressure

(IMEP). Regarding the load condition, the full load condition of the
experiment engine is 1.5 MPa IMEP.
Each ACT was conducted to investigate its baseline performance
characteristics, such as emission, efficiency, and combustion char-
acteristics, by adjusting the diesel injection timing and CNG substitu-
tion ratio (SR). For the fairest comparative evaluation, all ACTs were
optimized for the combustion phase to maximize the thermal efficiency
( T ), while complying with the EU-VI NOx and PM emission regula-
tions. For the single-fueled ACTs, the diesel injection timing, multi-in-
jection strategy, and EGR rate were utilized as major parameters to
optimize the combustion phase, whereas for the dual-fueled ACTs, the
diesel injection timing, CNG SR, EGR rate, and air-fuel ratio (with the
throttle adjusted), were the major optimization parameters for the
combustion phase.

2.3. Experimental set-up

Fig. 3. Conceptual operating area of five combustion concepts according to the
diesel injection timing and natural gas substitution ratio. Fig. 4 depicts experimental devices and the 1-liter single-cylinder
engine system, which could accommodate both single and dual-fueled
HRF are supplied into the combustion chamber at an early stage. The ACTs. Table 2 gives information about the single-cylinder engine
start of combustion (SOC) is determined depending on the chemical system, which was modified from the commercial 6-liter, 6-cylinder
kinetics of the stratified fuel reactivity, and thus, the fuel mass ratio heavy-duty diesel engine. The combustion chamber was configured
between LRF and HRF is a major determinant of the combustion phase with a re-entrant structure piston bowl to maximize air-fuel mixing
in RCCI combustion. In contrast, in the case of pilot-DF combustion, intensity under the CDC. A massive EGR system equipped with a water
LRF is introduced through the intake port during the intake process, cooling system, was adopted to implement the advanced combustion
and then HRF is directly injected into the combustion chamber near the technologies. A throttle system was installed at intake upstream to
TDC as an igniter. Thus, the timing of the HRF injection is the major
determinant of the combustion phase. Table 1
Experimental conditions of advanced combustion technologies.
Specification Range
2.2. Experimental conditions
Engine speed (rpm) 1400
Table 1 summarizes the experimental conditions of both single- Engine Load [IMEPnet] (MPa) 0.45
fueled and dual-fueled ACTs. In the case of single-fueled ACTs, the Diesel Injection Pressure (MPa) 100
Maximum Pressure Rise Rate (bar/CAD) 10
operating range is limited toward high load conditions due to the high
maximum pressure rise rate (MPRR) [24] and the lack of absolute O2
Combustion Mode Diesel injection timing CNG Substitution Ratio (SR)
concentration [23]. In contrast, dual-fueled ACTs are difficult to op- [CAD bTDC] [%]
erate under low load conditions due to the bulk quenching phenom-
enon, even though the combustion is quite stable under medium to high HCCI 160–220 –
load conditions [25]. Hence, for the fairest comparison of the single- PCCI 30–160 –
DF-PCCI 0–160 0–95%
and dual-fueled ACTs, the operating load condition was chosen at a low

3
E. Shim, et al. Fuel 262 (2020) 116436

Fig. 4. Schematic diagrams of the single-cylinder engine and experimental devices [25].

Table 2 (mCNG LHVCNG ) + (mDiesel LHVDiesel )

LHVDF [MJ /kg ] =
Specifications of the single-cylinder engine [25]. (mCNG + mDiesel ) (1)
Specification Value
The CNG SR, which expresses the portion of chemical energy of CNG
Engine type Single cylinder compression ignition type fuel in the CNG-diesel dual-fuel combustion mode, was calculated by
Displacement [cc] 987 Eq. (2)
Bore × Stroke [mm] 100 × 125
Connecting rod length [mm] 202 mCNG LHVCNG
Compression ratio [-] 17.4 CNG SR [%] = × 100
Number of Valves [EA] 4 (mCNG LHVCNG ) + (mDiesel LHVDiesel ) (2)
Piston type Re-entrant bowl
Diesel injection system 180 MPa 7 Holes – 150 Deg, 360 HFR The combustion characteristics, such as the in-cylinder pressure
NG mass flow control system Thermal mass flow meter (Bronkhorst F-202AV profile, heat release rate (HRR), maximum pressure rise rate (MPRR),
[NG])
burn duration, ignition delay, and combustion stability, were analyzed
Throttle Ball valve type
EGR system Gas temperature controlled EGR by the combustion analyzer (AVL, INDICOM), which has heat transfer
model. The ignition delay was defined as the difference between crank
angle at the start of diesel injection (SOI) and the crank angle at 5% of
control the global equivalence ratio ( global ) for the combustion stability the total heat release (CA05). The coefficient of variation of IMEPnet
under the low load condition in the dual-fueled ACTs [25]. The air flow (CoV IMEPnet) could be represented as the index of the combustion
meter (Blonkhost, F-106AI) was installed in front of the surge tank to stability. A gas analyzer (Horiba, MEXA 7100DEGR) was utilized to
measure the intake air flow rate. measure engine-out emissions; CO, HC, NOx, O2, and CO2. A smoke
To implement the dual-fuel ACTs, diesel and CNG were utilized as meter (AVL, 415S), which adopts the reflectometer methods, was uti-
the HRF and LRF respectively. Table 3 gives information about the lized to measure the PM emission.
chemical properties of the CNG and diesel, which were utilized on the
experimental research. CNG is suitable as a LRF in dual-fueled ACTs
with high auto-ignition resistance characteristics. The CNG supply
system for this study was installed at the intake manifold. The supplied
Table 3
CNG quantity was controlled by a natural gas mass flow controller Fuel properties [25].
(Bronkhorst, F-202). The diesel was injected into the cylinder directly
by a programmable injection controller (Zenobalti Co., ZB_9012P) that Specification Diesel Compressed natural gas

could control the injection timing, injection pressure, and multiple in- Density @ 293 K [kg/m ] 3
826 0.75
jection. The supplied diesel quantity was measured by the fuel flow Cetane Number 52.1 –
meter (AVL, 733S). RON – 130
To calculate the thermal efficiency in the dual-fueled combustion Auto-ignition Temperature [°C] 180–220 650
Carbon content [%] 87 75
mode, the low heating value of dual-fueled ACT (LHVDF) was calculated
Lower Heating Value [MJ/kg] 42.5 45.3
by Eq. (1) Stoichiometry A/F [kg/kg] 14.3 17.2

4
E. Shim, et al.
3. Results
3.1. Baseline engine performance characteristics of various advanced
combustion technologies
3.1.1. Combustion characteristics
The schematic format of various combustion operating regions,
expressed in Fig. 3, was utilized to glance the engine performance
characteristics for various combustion technologies. Fig. 5 shows the
combustion characteristics, such as the difference between the crank
angle at the start of diesel injection (SOI) and the crank angle at 50% of
the total heat release (CA50), ignition delay, burn duration, and the
coefficient of variation of IMEPnet (CoV_IMEPnet), for various combus-
tion technologies under the low load condition (IMEPnet 0.45 MPa).
Fig. 5. Characteristics of (a) CA50, (b) ignition delay, (c) burn duration, (d) CoV_IMEPnet, and (e) maximum pressure rise rate (MPRR) for various combustion
technologies (CDC, HCCI, PCCI, and DF-PCCI) under IMEPnet 0.45 MPa.
5
Fuel 262 (2020) 116436
In the case of conventional diesel combustion (CDC), the combus-
tion phase, which represents CA50 in Fig. 5(a), was controlled by the
diesel injection timing. Therefore, CDC could easily control the com-
bustion phase by adjusting the diesel injection timing. Generally, the
maximum thermal efficiency ( T ) is usually acquired when CA50 is
placed at 5 crank angle degree (CAD) after top dead center (ATDC).
However, in the case of premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI)
and homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) combustion re-
gions, the combustion phase was placed in considerably earlier than it
was in CDC. Therefore, in these single-fueled advanced combustion
technologies (ACTs), the combustion phase should be optimized for the
maximum thermal efficiency. This advanced combustion phase toward
the before top dead center (BTDC) direction is one of the reasons why
single-fueled ACTs have lower indicated thermal efficiency (ITE) as
E. Shim, et al.
Fig. 6. Emission ((a) NOx, (b) PM, (c) THC, (d) CO, and (e) CO2) characteristics for various combustion technologies (CDC, HCCI, PCCI, and DF-PCCI) under the
IMEPnet 0.45 MPa.
shown in Fig. 7(a). Thus, the single-fueled ACTs should adopt com-
bustion phase retardation strategies such as exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) [30], or multiple injection strategies [26]. In contrast, dual-fuel
premixed charge compression ignition (DF-PCCI), such as pilot ignited
dual-fuel (Pilot-DF) and reactivity controlled compression ignition
(RCCI), could control the combustion phase more easily by adjusting
the diesel injection timing and the natural gas substitution ratio (SR) as
shown in Fig. 5 (a). For example, in the case of the pilot-DF combustion,
the combustion phase was advanced when advancing the diesel injec-
tion timing at the same condition of NG SR. To make it clearly, in the
pilot-DF combustion case, diesel is utilized as an igniter when injected
near the TDC. Meanwhile, the combustion phase in RCCI combustion
was retarded when advancing the diesel injection timing at the same
6
Fuel 262 (2020) 116436
condition of NG SR, because early injected diesel makes a reactivity
stratification with natural gas. Therefore, chemical kinetics govern the
combustion process in the RCCI combustion. Thus, the earlier diesel is
injected, the leaner the local equivalence ratio ( local ) will be, which
could cause the retardation of the combustion phase in RCCI combus-
tion.
Fig. 5(b) shows the ignition delay, which means the difference be-
tween the crank angle at SOI and the crank angle at CA05 (timing at 5%
of total heat release). The ignition delay period was increased by ad-
vancing the diesel injection timing in all combustion concepts, as the
early injected diesel make the local equivalence ratio lean, which ex-
tended the start of the combustion (SOC) timing.
Fig. 5(c) shows the burn duration, defined as a duration between
E. Shim, et al.
Fig. 7. Characteristics of (a) ITE, (b) ISFC, and (c) combustion efficiency for various combustion technologies (CDC, HCCI, PCCI, and DF-PCCI) under IMEPnet
0.45 MPa.
CA05 and CA90. There is an inefficient region between 100 and 170
BTDC SOI in the HCCI and PCCI section, which is difficult to adopt for
practical use because of the inefficiently long burn duration. Long burn
duration could deteriorate the thermal efficiency owing to the high heat
transfer loss during the expansion process and lowering the constant-
pressure combustion ratio. In contrast, in the case of DF-PCCI region,
burn duration was shorter than that of single-fueled ACTs. Moreover,
burn duration, which is almost same as CDC, could be found in the
proper NG SR region of DF-PCCI.
Fig. 5(d) shows the coefficient of variation of IMEPnet (CoV_I-
MEPnet), which represent the index of the combustion stability. In this
study, misfire was defined as CoV_IMEPnet over 5%. The combustion
stability is considered to be a very important factor in estimating the
practical use of combustion technology. The level of CoV_IMEPnet of
CDC was recorded quite stable as under 1.5%. However, in most PCCI
combustion regions, combustion stability was evaluated unstable as
over 4% of CoV_IMEPnet. Some part of HCCI combustion regions, par-
ticularly between 140 and 160 BTDC CAD, also recorded high level of
CoV_IMEPnet, which caused the deterioration of the complete combus-
tion. As these results, under high level of CoV_IMEPnet regions, the level
of CO emission was recorded extremely high due to the incomplete
combustion as shown in Fig. 6(d). On the other hand, in the case of DF-
PCCI combustion, the level of CoV_IMEPnet was recorded under 3% in
most operating regions. Especially, the level of combustion stability was
almost the same as that of the CDC in the pilot-DF combustion regions,
because the combustion phase of pilot-DF combustion was controlled
by solely diesel injection timing like CDC.
Fig. 5(e) shows the maximum pressure rise rate (MPRR), which is
related to the noise and the engine durability. Some previous authors
determined MPRR under 10 bar/CAD to be optimal for preventing
7
Fuel 262 (2020) 116436
engine noise and damage [27,28]. In this study, MPRR was recorded
extremely high nearly 20 bar/CAD in the ranges between 20 and 40
BTDC SOI under 60% of the NG SR conditions in the DF-PCCI com-
bustion. However, DF-PCCI combustion could escape the high MPRR
zone by adopting a proper NG SR as shown in Fig. 5(e).
In this section, combustion characteristics, such as burn duration,
CoV_IMEPnet, and MPRR, were investigated and reported. It was found
that the stable operating conditions for single-fueled ACTs is quite
narrow because of the difficulties of controlling the combustion phase,
burn duration, and MPRR. In contrast, the dual-fueled ACTs had stable
operating zones in which combustion phase, burn duration, and MPRR
could be controlled easily by adopting proper mass ratios between LRF
and HRF, even though, there is a high MPRR zone.
3.1.2. Emission characteristics
Fig. 6 shows emission characteristics, such as NOx, PM, THC, CO,
and CO2, for various combustion technologies. The general purpose of
developing ACTs is to reduce NOx and PM emissions simultaneously.
From this perspective, the NOx and PM trade-off characteristics of CDC
clearly reflect the purpose of this study, as shown in Fig. 6(a) and (b).
Under CDC, the NOx emission was recorded over 11 g/kWh, approxi-
mately 28 times more than the EU-VI NOx emission regulation, whereas
the PM emission was recorded quite low because of the NOx-PM trade-
off relationship. In contrast, in all ACT combustion regions except for
PCCI, the level of NOx and PM emissions were recorded under the EU-
VI NOx and PM emission regulations. The PCCI combustion region
exhibits a relatively high PM emission characteristics compared to other
ACTs. Fig. 6(c) and (d) show the characteristics of THC and CO emis-
sions. In both HCCI and PCCI regions, the THC and CO emission levels
were extremely higher than those of CDC because of the incomplete
E. Shim, et al. Fuel 262 (2020) 116436

combustion. In fact, this is one of the primary reasons that ACTs could natural gas SR and diesel injection timing without the EGR and multiple
not yet be applied to practical use. In the case of the DF-PCCI com- diesel injection strategy as shown in Fig. 8(c).
bustion region, relatively fewer amounts of THC and CO emission Table 4 summarizes the engine parameter when each combustion
characteristics were shown compared to single-fueled ACTs. However, technologies had the best thermal efficiency while keeping the con-
THC and CO emission levels were still higher than those of CDC. The straint conditions. In addition, Fig. 9 shows the engine performance
previous study well explained the three factors, such as ‘blow-through’, data, such as emissions, ITE, combustion efficiency, combustion stabi-
‘crevice’, and ‘bulk quenching’ effects, why THC emissions are higher in lity (CoV_IMEPnet), of the optimized combustion technologies. All ACTs
the DF-PCCI combustion [25]. First, the blow-through effect means the had achieved ultra-low level of NOx and PM emissions that were
loss of LRF (e.g., natural gas) that escapes into the exhaust port without complied with EU-VI NOx and PM emission regulations without after-
participating in combustion during the valve overlap period. Second, treatment system. However, in the cases of HCCI and PCCI combustion,
the crevice effect means combustion loss from unburnt fuel that stacked the levels of CO and THC emissions were recorded extremely higher
in the crevice volume because of the early-supplied fuel in DF-PCCI than those for CDC. Especially PCCI combustion produced nearly 38
combustion. Third, the bulk quenching effect refers to bulk combustion
loss, owing to an extremely locally lean equivalence ratio under the low
load condition in DF-PCCI combustion. These three factors could in-
crease the THC and CO emissions in DF-PCCI combustion. Fig. 6(d)
shows the characteristics of the CO2 emissions. In the case of single-
fueled ACTs regions, high amounts of CO2 emissions have been emitted
compared to CDC, because both HCCI and PCCI combustion did not
match with the best combustion phase. Therefore, indicated thermal
efficiency (ITE) was terribly destroyed in the single-fueled ACTs. In
contrast, the DF-PCCI combustion emitted averagely 20% less CO2 than
it did in CDC conditions. There are high CO2 reduction trends as the NG
SR increase in DF-PCCI combustion because natural gas has chemical
characteristics of higher hydrogen-carbon ratio compared to diesel.

3.1.3. Efficiency characteristics

Fig. 7 shows the efficiency characteristics, such as indicated thermal
efficiency (ITE), indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC), and com-
bustion efficiency ( c ). In the case of single fueled ACTs, thermal effi-
ciency was deteriorated due to the high combustion loss and combus-
tion phase mismatch as shown in Fig. 7 (a) and (c). Moreover, ISFC was
also extremely high to be accepted for practical use. However, as DF-
PCCI has a good controllability of combustion phase and burn duration,
the DF-PCCI combustion has achieved a high level of the ITE zone with
low fuel consumption, which is nearly the same levels as in CDC con-
ditions. Therefore, DF-PCCI combustion could increase the thermal ef-
ficiency by matching the combustion phase and reducing the burn
duration for more effective combustion.

3.2. Comparative evaluation of four combustion strategies

Engine performance characteristics for various ACTs of baseline

conditions were browsed in the section of 3.1. This section deals with
the comparative evaluation of optimized ACTs. In order to quantita-
tively analyze the possibility of the practical use for each ACTs, each
ACTs had been conducted the optimization of the thermal efficiency
while keeping the EU-VI NOx (0.4 g/kWh) and PM (0.01 g/kWh)
emission regulations and the combustion stability (CoV_IMEPnet) under
5% as constraint conditions.
Fig. 8 shows the in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate (HRR)
profiles for both the baseline and the optimized combustion phase
conditions for each ACT. Fig. 8(a) shows the HCCI combustion case.
Separated low temperature oxidation (LTO) and high temperature
oxidation (HTO) phenomena, which are one of the evidences of HCCI
combustion, were observed in the HRR profile as shown in Fig. 8(a).
The combustion phase of HCCI baseline condition was considerably
advanced toward BTDC direction. EGR was adopted to match the
combustion phase for maximum ITE. As a result, the combustion phase
was retarded near the TDC. In the case of PCCI combustion, the multi-
injection strategy was adopted in addition to EGR in order to extend the
ignition delay and enhance the mixture homogeneity as shown in
Fig. 8(b). As a result, PCCI combustion also could improve the ITE
performance by matching the combustion phase, while maintaining the
NOx and PM constraint conditions. Finally, in the case of DF-PCCI Fig. 8. Combustion phase optimization of (a) HCCI, (b) PCCI, and (c) DF-PCCI
combustion, it was possible to control the combustion phase using only combustion technologies.

8
E. Shim, et al. Fuel 262 (2020) 116436

Table 4
Constraint conditions and optimized engine parameters of combustion technologies (CDC, HCCI, PCCI, DF-PCCI).
Constraint conditions Range

CoV_IMEPnet [%] < 5%

NOx [g/kWh] 0.4 g/kWh
PM [g/kWh] 0.01 g/kWh

Optimized engine parameters

Combustion Mode 1st Diesel injection timing [CAD bTDC] 2nd Diesel injection timing [CAD bTDC] EGR [%] CNG Substitution Ratio (SR) [%]

CDC 10 – 0 –
HCCI 200 – 51 –
PCCI 80 60 51.3 –
DF-PCCI 30 – 23 40%

combustion phase effectively for thermal efficiency. High amounts of

combustion occurred before TDC region as shown in Fig. 8(a) and (b),
because large portions of negative work could deteriorate ITE in the
single-fueled ACTs. Furthermore, some portion of early-supplied fuel,
which stacked into the crevice volume and impinged the cold cylinder
wall, to make homogeneous charge mixture could not participate in the
combustion during the combustion process. It could aggravate the
combustion loss. Hence, these phenomena could deteriorate the ITE in
the single-fueled ACTs. On the other hand, DF-PCCI combustion had
recorded 45.3% of ITE. The superior combustion phase controllability
through adopting proper ratios between LRF and HRF in the DF-PCCI
combustion could play a major role in achieving high thermal effi-
ciency. In addition, DF-PCCI combustion could control the burn dura-
tion by controlling the natural gas SR as shown in Fig. 5(c). Short burn
duration could reduce heat transfer loss. Therefore, it can be possible to
improve the thermal efficiency. However, DF-PCCI combustion also had
recorded low combustion efficiency due to the ‘blow-through’, ‘crevice’,
and ‘bulk quenching’ effects which were explained above in Section
3.1.2. It means there is additional potential to improve thermal effi-
ciency by reducing combustion loss.

4. Discussion

In order to become an alternative combustion technology capable of

Fig. 9. Engine performances, such as emissions, thermal efficiency, combustion
efficiency, and combustion stability (CoV IMEPnet), for optimized combustion
technologies.
times of THC emission compared to CDC. The high THC and CO
emission characteristics due to incomplete combustion are recognized
as major obstacles for the practical use of HCCI and PCCI combustion
technologies. DF-PCCI combustion emitted less THC than it did in the
single-fueled ACTs. However, it still emitted more THC than CDC.
CO2 emissions could represent the greenhouse gases (GHG). Single-
fueled ACTs had produced CO2 emissions, nearly 4% higher than CDC,
because of low thermal efficiency and combustion efficiency char-
acteristics, even though the combustion phase was matched. On the
other hand, DF-PCCI combustion could reduce CO2 emissions up to
14.5% compared to CDC, due to the high thermal efficiency and low
carbon fuel such as natural gas application.
Single-fueled ACTs were recorded as lower level of ITE compared to
CDC, because the single-fueled ACTs had difficulty controlling the
replacing conventional diesel combustion, it is necessary to satisfy the
characteristics of high thermal efficiency, low harmful emissions, and
low GHG while maintaining high combustion stability under the whole
operating load ranges.
In this study, three advanced combustion technologies, such as
HCCI, PCCI, and DF-PCCI, had been evaluated comparatively to de-
termine which combustion technology was suitable for practical use.
Fig. 10 summarizes the pros and cons about single-fueled and dual-
fueled ACTs that were investigated in this study. All of the ACTs had
great performance of reducing the NOx and PM emissions simulta-
neously. However, single-fueled ACTs still face many obstacles in be-
coming a practical combustion alternatives. For example, it is difficult
to control the combustion phase with HCCI and PCCI combustions. Not
only in this but also in previous studies, massive EGR and multiple
injection strategies were used to control the combustion phase [26]. As
a result, there are some operating points to well control the combustion
phase while maintaining low NOx and PM emissions. However, the
operating conditions for stable combustion are too narrow and thus can
be implemented only on the laboratory scale. Moreover, massive EGR
could limit the operating range toward high load conditions due to the
lack of the absolute O2 concentration in the combustion chamber
[23,33]. It seems quite difficult to drive stable operation under the
whole operating load range with single-fueled ACTs on the transient
engine cycle. Furthermore, high amounts of HC and CO emissions due
to incomplete combustion are recognized as significant challenges to
ACT commercialization. For these reasons, it can be concluded that the
single-fueled ACTs are not suitable for practical use.

9
E. Shim, et al.
Fig. 10. Pros and cons of single-fueled and dual-fueled advanced combustion technologies.
In contrast, DF-PCCI combustion could control the combustion
phase relatively easily as same as CDC. For instance, the proper com-
bination between the natural gas SR and the start of diesel injection
timing could control both the combustion phase and the burn duration
without EGR as discussed in result sections. It means that DF-PCCI
combustion can be free from the EGR for combustion phase control. It
has great benefit to operate toward high load conditions in the DF-PCCI
combustion. Some previous studies reported that DF-PCCI combustion
could operate high load condition same as CDC [29,31,33]. Moreover,
the superior combustion phase and burn duration controllability of DF-
PCCI could make it possible to improve the indicated thermal efficiency
( T ) up to 45.3%, which was higher than CDC. Thermal efficiency is
usually recognized as one of the most significant issues for the effective
use of the remaining fossil fuels when developing new combustion
technology. In addition, DF-PCCI combustion could also reduce CO2
emissions dramatically. In this study, the CO2 emissions in the DF-PCCI
combustion when the natural gas SR was applied 40%, were reduced
14.5% compared to CDC, because DF-PCCI combustion could utilize the
low carbon fuel such as natural gas. Moreover, there are additional
possibilities for CO2 reduction when operating the high load conditions,
because as the operating load condition is increased, the natural gas SR
could be increased up to 95% of natural gas SR [29]. In the near future,
many countries will be expected to adopt CO2 regulations additionally.
In this perspective, DF-PCCI combustion could be a great solution to
reduce CO2 emissions effectively. However, DF-PCCI combustion has
also weakness points. For instance, THC and CO emissions in the DF-
PCCI especially under the low load conditions were still higher than
they were for CDC, even though, those emission levels were recorded
lower than the levels for the single-fueled ACTs. These high amounts of
THC and CO emission characteristics in the DF-PCCI combustion could
deteriorate the combustion efficiency ( c ). Furthermore, THC included
methane is recognized as one of the major greenhouse gases (GHG).
Non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) and methane are assigned as the
20-year global warming potential (GWP) factor of 12 and 22.5 re-
spectively [32]. It means that NMHC and methane could potentially
affect the global warming much more than CO2 emissions. These are the
reasons why DF-PCCI combustion could not be operated under low load
conditions [29]. Therefore, DF-PCCI combustion have to solve the THC
emission problem under the low load conditions to become a practical
alternative advanced combustion technology.
10
Fuel 262 (2020) 116436
In this study, from the evaluation of various ACTs, the DF-PCCI
combustion technology has various strengths, such as high thermal
efficiency, superior combustion stability, wide operating load ranges,
and low CO2 characteristics while maintaining low NOx and PM
emissions as well. However, in order to become a practical substitute
combustion technology, it seems necessary to conduct additional re-
searches for the THC reduction under the low load conditions in the
future.
5. Conclusions
This study aims to evaluate which of the advanced combustion
technologies (ACTs) is suitable as a substitutional combustion tech-
nology for conventional diesel combustion (CDC). Accordingly, three
ACTs such as homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI), pre-
mixed charge compression ignition (PCCI), and dual-fuel premixed
charge compression ignition (DF-PCCI), were implemented to quanti-
tatively compare with each other in a heavy-duty single-cylinder en-
gine. The characteristics of combustion, emissions, and efficiency were
compared among the ACTs. The key findings can be described as fol-
lows:
• All ACTs could reduce NOx and PM emissions simultaneously under
the EU-VI NOx and PM emission regulations without an after-
treatment system.
• Single-fueled ACTs, such as HCCI, PCCI combustion had difficulty
controlling the combustion phase, and thus the single-fueled ACTs
have to adopt the massive EGR above 40% and the multiple injec-
tion strategy to match with the optimum combustion phase for best
thermal efficiency.
• Single-fueled ACTs produced high amounts of THC and CO emis-
sions up to maximum 38 times compared to CDC due to the in-
complete combustion, which make it possible to deteriorate both the
combustion efficiency ( c ) and the thermal efficiency ( T ).
• The difficulty of combustion phase control and the high THC and CO
emission characteristics could be recognized as the major reasons
why the single-fueled ACTs are not ready for commercialization yet.
• DF-PCCI combustion could control the combustion phase more ea-
sier than the single-fueled ACTs by adjusting the natural gas sub-
stitution ratio (SR) and the diesel injection timing.
E. Shim, et al. Fuel 262 (2020) 116436

• DF-PCCI combustion was recorded 45.3% of indicated thermal ef-
ficiency (ITE) by controlling the combustion phase and burn dura-
tion, and could reduce the CO2 emissions by 14.3% at natural gas
substitution ratio (SR) of 40% under the low load condition
(0.45 MPa IMEPnet).
• DF-PCCI combustion still produced high THC emissions, nearly 7.8
times than those from CDC, although the levels were significantly
lower than those with the single-fueled ACTs.
For the last 40 years, advanced combustion technologies have been
researched actively with novel ideas. As a result, many obstacles that
impede the practical use, have been resolved until now. In particular,
the DF-PCCI combustion technology among various advanced com-
bustion technologies has been evaluated as the most promising com-
bustion technology capable of achieving the high thermal efficiency
and low CO2 emissions with high combustion stability while main-
taining low NOx and PM emissions simultaneously. However, there are
remaining research topics, which have to improve the combustion ef-
ficiency of DF-PCCI combustion technology by reducing the THC and
CO emissions to the CDC level to develop it for practical use.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to appreciate the Global-Top Project
(Development of Advanced Combustion Technology for Global Top Low
Emission Vehicle (2016002070001)) of the Ministry of Environment
(MOE) of Korea for financial support by the Center for Environmentally
Friendly Vehicle (CEFV).

Appendix

Table 5
Measurement device specifications.
Measured contents Device Dynamic range Linearity/accuracy Repeatability

CO (High content) HORIBA 0–10 vol% ≤ ± 1% of FS ≤ ± 0.5% of FS

CO (Low content) MEXA 7100 DEGR 0–2.5 k ppm
CO2 0–16 vol%
O2 0–25 vol%
NOx 0–10 k ppm
HC 0–50 k ppm
PM AVL 0–10 FSN – ≤ ± 0.005FSN + 3% of MV
Smoke Meter 415S
Diesel flow rate AVL 0–150 kg/h ≤0.12% of MV –
733S
CNG flow rate Bronkhorst 0.08–4 kg/h ≤ ± 0.5% of MV + ± 0.1% of FS < 0.2% of MV
F-202AV
In-cylinder pressure Kistler 0–250 bar ≤ ± 0.3% of FS –
6056A
Intake pressure Kistler 0–5 bar ≤ ± 0.3% of FS –
4045A5

*FS = full scale.

**MV = measurement value.

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