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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 980184

Effects of EGR on Heat Release in Diesel

Combustion
N. Ladommatos, S. M. Abdelhalim and H. Zhao, Z. Hu.
Brunel University

Reprinted From: In-Cylinder Diesel Particulate and NOx Control

(SP-1326)

International Congress and Exposition

Detroit, Michigan
February 23-26, 1998

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Effects of EGR on Heat Release in Diesel Combustion
N. Ladommatos, S. M. Abdelhalim and H. Zhao, Z. Hu.
Copyright © 1998 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
ABSTRACT
The effects of Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) on die-
sel engine exhaust emissions were isolated and studied
in earlier investigations (1,2,3,4,5). This paper analyses
the heat release patterns during the combustion process
and co-relates the results with the exhaust emissions.
The EGR effects considered include the dilution of the
inlet charge with CO2 or water vapour, the increase in the
inlet charge temperature, and the thermal throttling aris-
ing from the use of hot EGR.
The use of diluents (CO2 and H2O), which are the princi-
pal constituents of EGR, caused an increase in ignition
delay and a shift in the location of start of combustion. As
a consequence of this shift, the whole combustion pro-
cess was also shifted further towards the expansion
stroke. This resulted in the products of combustion
spending shorter periods at high temperatures which
lowered the NOx formation rate. In addition, the longer
ignition delay period provided more time for the fuel top
penetrate which could have led to larger amounts of
gases in the flame envelop, thereby lowering the com-
bustion temperature and resulting in lower NOx forma-
tion.
Although the increased ignition delay period is expected
to cause increasing amount of fuel being burned during
the pre-mixed burning period, however, the reduction in
oxygen availability associated with the application of
EGR diluents reduced the rate at which the fuel burnt in
the pre-mixed phase. Moreover, the shift of the combus-
tion process towards the expansion stroke resulted in
earlier quenching of the combustion process, that is,
shorter combustion duration, which yielded higher levels
of products of incomplete combustion in the exhaust.
The different effects of inlet charge thermal throttling
(associated with the use of hot EGR) were simulated and
the heat release patterns were analysed. The reduction
in the inlet charge oxygen, resulting from throttling the
inlet charge, caused an increase in the ignition delay;
however, this increase was largely offset by reductions in
ignition delay due to increased inlet charge temperature
and decreased inlet charge mass.
1
980184
Brunel University
INTRODUCTION
The heat release pattern during diesel combustion is
affected by the timing and duration of the combustion
process, by the amount of fuel burnt in the pre-mixed and
the diffusion phases, and by the rate of burning.
When the fuel is injected into the combustion chamber
the atomized fuel travels through the compressed
charge. The density of the charge, as well as its composi-
tion, temperature, pressure, and swirl motion all affect
fuel ignition and combustion. In addition, the fuel charac-
teristics and the fuel injection parameters influence signif-
icantly the rate at which the fuel mixes with the charge
and burns. The time taken to form the ignited mixture (the
ignition delay period) and the fuel injection timing deter-
mine the timing at which combustion commences. The
rapid combustion that occurs immediately after the igni-
tion delay period is known as the pre-mixed burning
phase, which is limited by the kinetic reaction rates (6,7).
The pre-mixed phase is followed by the diffusion-burning
phase, where the rate of fuel oxidation is much faster
than the fuel-air mixing rate (7,8). In diesel combustion,
the majority of the fuel burns in the diffusion phase. This
phase, unlike the pre-mixed phase, is responsible for the
majority of soot generation and the particulates appear-
ing in diesel exhaust.
The application of EGR in diesel engines results in modi-
fying both the composition (addition of CO2 and H2O)
and physical conditions (temperature, density) of the inlet
charge. These modifications, in turn, affect the combus-
tion process and, consequently, the exhaust emissions.
With EGR, the introduction of carbon dioxide and water
vapour in the inlet charge at the expense of oxygen dis-
placement, results in increasing the ignition delay period
(4,9) giving more time for the spray to penetrate and the
auto-ignition locations to be shifted towards the wall of
the combustion chamber (9,10). This results in an
increase in the volume of the combustion flames. In turn,
the enlargement of the flame volume encloses larger
amounts of gases that absorb more energy released by
combustion, leading to lower combustion temperatures
and, ultimately, to reduced NO x emissions (4,9,11). The
increase in ignition delay period also shifts the whole
combustion process further into the expansion stroke,
which influences the progress of combustion and the for-
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mation of emissions. Moreover, the reduction in oxygen each phase of combustion was then obtained by averag-
flow rate associated with the application of EGR reduces ing the combustion timing of these three cycles and nor-
the combustion temperature and pressure which, in turn, malizing the average to the corresponding average timing
leads to lower NOx formation as well as lower soot oxida- of the baseline conducted in the same day of each test.
tion. The combustion duration was obtained using the normal-
ized timing results.
Using hot EGR (without cooling the EGR prior to mixing
with inlet air), increases the inlet charge temperature and The different tests conducted in this study are described
reduces the inlet charge mass due to thermal throttling in Table 1 together with the inlet charge masses and fuel-
(reduction in inlet charge density). Increasing the inlet ling rates. For all tests, the engine was operated at 2000
charge temperature (even if the inlet charge mass was to r.p.m. and constant fuel injection timing which was fixed
be kept constant) has, on its own, a complex effect on at 10 deg. CA BTDC. More details about the engine oper-
heat release rate. The increase in inlet charge tempera- ating conditions, description of the test methodology, and
ture increases the cylinder gas temperature throughout the layout of the system are given in references (1-5).
the combustion cycle (12). It, also, shortens the ignition
The air mass flow rate to the engine was controlled via a
delay period (1,13) which provides less time for the fuel
gate valve that was placed upstream of a positive-dis-
to mix with the oxidizer. Conversely, the increase in inlet
placement rotary gas meter used for measuring the inlet
charge temperature enhances the evaporation of the fuel
air volume flow rate. By measuring the temperature and
and air fuel mixing both during the ignition delay period
pressure of the air flowing through the gas-meter the
and subsequent combustion processes. However, exces-
mass flow rate was calculated. Controlled masses of dilu-
sive evaporation could result in fuel rich mixtures in
ent gases (carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, helium,
regions of the combustion chamber where air entrain-
argon) were injected from pressurized gas bottles into
ment is restricted by the high viscosity of the hot air. As a
the inlet air manifold, downstream of the gas meter, into
result, high levels of soot can be produced due to
the mixing section of the inlet charge delivery line which
increased rates of fuel pyrolysis at the high temperatures
was some four meters long. Also, water vapour addition
prevailing during combustion (14).
was possible by means of a fine water spray injected into
Thermal throttling due to hot EGR also results in lower the heated air stream flowing through the mixing pipe.
inlet charge density and, hence, lower inlet charge mass. Complete vaporization was ensured by maintaining the
The reduced inlet charge mass affects the combustion in temperatures of the mixing pipe, downstream of the
two ways. Firstly, the heat released by combustion is water injector, at an elevated temperature using thermo-
absorbed by a lower charge mass, resulting in higher gas statically controlled tape heaters.
temperatures. Secondly, the reduction in inlet charge
The exhaust emissions from cylinder No. 1 were mea-
mass reduces the oxygen available for combustion. It
sured for NOx, UHC, smoke, and particulates. The partic-
was shown in reference (5) that the reduction in inlet
ulate emissions which were collected on glass fibre filters
charge mass, generally, caused lower engine output
were further split into volatile organic fraction (VOF) and
power and worse emissions, due to combustion deterio-
carbon (dry soot). This was achieved by placing the fil-
ration that was mainly attributable to the reduced inlet
ters, for 24 hours, inside a vacuum oven that was continu-
charge oxygen. The reduction in inlet charge oxygen also
ously purged with nitrogen and kept at a constant
resulted in a slightly longer ignition delay period.
temperature of 200 oC. Weighing the filters before and
after the vacuum oven test enabled calculation of the
EXPERIMENTAL WORK VOF, which was considered to be equivalent to the loss of
weight during the test.
A naturally aspirated, 2.5 l Ford, four cylinder DI diesel
engine was used in this investigation. However, only one
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
cylinder was used for testing (cylinder No. 1), with its inlet
and exhaust manifolds separated from those of other
EFFECT OF CARBON DIOXIDE REPLACING OXYGEN
three cylinders. The purpose of this was to allow gases to
IN THE INLET CHARGE – In earlier investigations (2)
be injected in the inlet charge of the No. 1 cylinder. Also
the authors considered the major effects of introducing
to avoid mixing between the exhaust gases of No. 1 cylin-
CO2 into the inlet charge of a diesel engine so as to
der with those from the other three cylinders. The No. 1
replace oxygen. During those investigations they identi-
cylinder was equipped with fuel needle-lift and cylinder-
fied three major effects: the dilution, the chemical, and
gas pressure transducers for providing data needed for
the thermal effects. The dilution effect, which is the
heat release analysis. The data were sampled every half
reduction in oxygen fraction in the inlet charge due to
a degree crank angle for 50 consecutive engine cycles.
replacement with CO2, was shown to be the most signifi-
The heat release diagrams shown in the results section
cant one influencing the combustion process and the for-
of this paper are for cylinder No. 1 and for one engine
mation of emissions. The chemical effect, which is
cycle that resembled the average for each test. For each
associated with the dissociation of CO 2 to form free radi-
test also, at least three cycles were chosen such that
cals, was shown to have a minor impact on combustion
their heat release results were consistent with the aver-
and emissions. The thermal effect, which arises from the
age results of the relevant test. The combustion timing for

2
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higher specific heat capacity of CO2 in comparison to the
replaced oxygen, was shown to have negligible effects on
combustion and emissions.
Figure 1 shows a progressive shift in the heat release
pattern with the increasing CO2 replacing oxygen in the
inlet charge. In Figure 1 results are shown when the oxy-
gen concentration by mass (%m) in the inlet charge was
reduced, first, to 20 % m (3%m of O2 replaced by CO2),
then 18%m (i.e. 5%m CO2), and then 16%m (i.e. 7%m
CO2). Each phase of combustion was uniformly delayed
with the progressive addition of CO 2. The ignition delay
varied from 7.9 deg. CA for the baseline with no CO2
addition to 15.6 deg. CA for 7%m of CO2 replacing oxy-
gen in the inlet charge. This increase in ignition delay
provided more time for the fuel to mix with the oxidizer,
which could have increased the amount of pre-mixed
fuel. However, the reduction in oxygen fraction reduced
the intensity of pre-mixed combustion, and thereby some-
what offsetting the effect of extra pre-mixed fuel. This is
clearly shown by the reduction in the peak of heat
release rate for the test with 5%m CO2 replacing oxygen
in Figures 2a and 2b, respectively.
Figure 3a shows the combustion duration, from start of
combustion, for various stages of combustion with
increasing CO2 replacing oxygen in the inlet charge.
When the CO2 percentage was increased in the inlet
charge, the time taken for the first 10 %m of the fuel to be
burned decreased substantially. It was less than half a
degree CA (the resolution of the shaft encoder) for the
inlet charge with 7%m CO2. Figure 3a also shows that,
following the more rapid initial burning, the subsequent
phases of combustion proceeded more slowly with
increasing CO2 replacing oxygen in the inlet charge. This
could, mainly, be due to the reduction in the mass of oxy-
gen available for combustion. The combustion was then
terminated as the cylinder gases were cooled during the
expansion stroke. This led to a progressive reduction in
combustion duration for the bulk of the fuel burnt in the
diffusion phase as shown in Figure 3b for the combustion
duration of the pre-mixed and the diffusion phases.
EFFECT OF WATER VAPOUR – The most significant
effect of water vapour in EGR on exhaust emissions was
shown by the authors in earlier investigation (3) to be the
dilution of the inlet charge.
Figure 4 shows that the replacement of part of the inlet
charge oxygen with water vapour had a minor influence
on the heat release pattern. In general, it resulted in a
slight shift in the combustion process, where the ignition
delay was slightly extended. This trend was more clear
for the highest water vapour addition level tested (3%m
H2O).
Figures 5a and 5b show the heat release diagrams for
the test with 3%m water vapour in the inlet charge and for
the baseline taken at the same day of the test, respec-
tively. Replacing part of the inlet charge oxygen with
water vapour resulted in a reduction in the peak of heat
release rate by about 10%. It can be seen that there was
3
a corresponding increase in the fuel burnt during the dif-
fusion phase. This could mainly be due to the reduction
in oxygen in the inlet charge. The reduction in the peak of
pre-mixed heat release rate could have been partly
responsible for the reduction in NOx emissions formation
when water vapour replaced oxygen in the inlet charge
as was shown in reference (3). Also, the reduction in pre-
mixed burning implies an increase in diffusion burning,
which is known to cause increase in particulate emis-
sions.
The duration, from start of combustion, of each stage of
combustion is shown in Figure 6a. It can be seen that,
qualitatively, the effect of displacing oxygen in the inlet
charge with water vapour is similar to that of displacing
oxygen with CO2 (see Figure 3a). The water vapour had
a minor effect on the duration of all stages of combustion.
There was a slight extension of the pre-mixed combus-
tion duration and a corresponding decrease in the diffu-
sion burning duration as shown in Figure 6b. As was
suggested earlier for the test with CO2, the shift of the
combustion process into the expansion stroke could have
resulted in premature end of combustion. This is sup-
ported by the observations of increased UHC, smoke,
and particulate emissions when water vapour replaced
oxygen in the inlet charge (3).
INLET CHARGE TEMPERATURE EFFECT – The tem-
perature of a diluted inlet charge (fixed O2 concentration
of 17%m and constant inlet charge mass flow rate of 9 g/
s) was raised from 40 °C to 120 °C at intervals of 20 °C.
This resulted in shortening of the ignition delay period
from 12.3 to 7.0 °CA, as shown in Figure 7. It was also
shown in reference (1) that both the peak cylinder-gas
pressure and temperature increased with the increase in
inlet charge temperature. More details about this test are
given in reference (1).
Figure 8 shows the heat release patterns for the diluted
inlet charge at different temperatures. The progressive
increase in inlet charge temperature resulted in a uniform
shift in the different phases of combustion, causing them
to occur earlier during the cycle. However, the timing at
which 90%m of the fuel burned was an exception; after
reaching a minimum at 800176 °C, it increased. Also, the
timing for burning 90%m of the fuel varied only slightly
with the increase in inlet charge temperature, as shown
in Figure 8.
Figure 9a shows the duration of the different stages of
combustion. The duration of the pre-mixed phase hardly
changed when the inlet charge temperature was
increased. However, on increasing the inlet charge tem-
perature, the whole of the combustion duration took
longer, as shown from the duration of 90% m of the fuel
burnt in Figure 9a. This was due to a large increase in the
duration of diffusion burning as shown in Figure 9b. It
was, also, shown in reference (1) that the progressive
increase in inlet charge temperature was accompanied
by excessive increase in the exhaust particulates and
carbon emissions.
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INLET CHARGE THROTTLING EFFECT – This test
was conducted to simulate the reduction in inlet mass
flow rate arising from the use of hot EGR (reduction in
inlet charge density). The inlet air mass flow rate to the
No. 1 cylinder was progressively throttled from 10 g/s to
8.5 g/s in steps of 0.5 g/s whilst keeping the inlet charge
temperature constant at 30 °C. The test was then
repeated but this time calculated amounts of oxygen and
helium were injected in the inlet manifold while throttling
the inlet air at constant temperature. In this way, the oxy-
gen mass flow rate to the engine was maintained con-
stant at 2.33 g/s, while the inlet charge mass was
progressively reduced again from 10 g/s to 8.5 g/s. As
result the O2 concentration increased during throttling.
The specific heat capacity of the inlet charge was also
kept constant and equal to that of air by means of helium
injection.
Figure 10 shows that throttling the inlet air flow, resulted
in a progressive increase in the ignition delay period. This
could be due to the reduction in the inlet charge oxygen
that accompanied inlet air throttling. Accordingly, the
other phases of combustion were also delayed, as shown
in Figure 10. On the other hand, Figure 11 shows that the
ignition delay period was slightly shortened as a result of
inlet charge throttling while keeping the oxygen mass
flow rate constant (i.e. O2 concentration increases with
greater throttling). This was suggested in reference (5) to
be due to the increase in oxygen concentration with
respect to the other inlet charge constituents. It could be
shown from Figures 10 and 11 that although both modes
of inlet charge throttling had opposite effects on heat
release, however, the difference between them was very
small. Moreover, the reduction in inlet air mass flow rate
has, on its own, two major but opposite effects which tend
to cancel each other out. The reduction in the inlet
charge air flow rate tends to raise the peak cylinder gas
temperature, since the heat energy released by the fuel is
absorbed by a smaller trapped mass in the engine cylin-
der. Also, the reduction in inlet charge oxygen due to air
throttling tends to reduce the peak cylinder gas tempera-
ture.
Table 1. Engine Operating Conditions
Parameters Effect of CO2 and Water vapour
Engine Speed (rpm) 2000
Injection Timing (°CA BTDC) 10
Fuelling Rate per Cylinder (g/s) 0.224
Inlet Charge Mass Flow rate / Cylinder (g/s) 10
Inlet Charge Temp. (°C) 30
Oxygen Concentration (%m) 16.3 – 23.3
Air/Fuel Ratio 31.2:1 – 44.6:1
Description of the Test Oxygen was reduced from 23.3%m
to a minimum of 16.3 %m by
replacement with CO2 or H2O.
4
Figures 12a, 12b, and 12c show the heat release dia-
grams for the baseline (10 g/s), throttled inlet air (9 g/s),
and throttled inlet charge with constant oxygen mass flow
rate and constant specific heat capacity (9 g/s), respec-
tively. It could be seen that the longer the ignition delay
period was, the higher was the maximum rate-of-pre-
mixed burning, which is attributed to the longer time avail-
able for fuel to mix with the oxidizer. The NOx emissions
shown in reference (5) were highest for the throttling test
with constant oxygen, although, it had the lowest rate of
pre-mixed burning.
Figure 13a shows the duration of the different phases of
combustion for the inlet air throttling test while Figure 14a
shows the corresponding values for the throttling test with
constant oxygen flow rate and constant specific heat
capacity. The durations for the different phases of com-
bustion hardly changed for both tests, although they were
slightly longer for the test with inlet air throttling. This
could be due to the lower oxygen availability that slowed
down the combustion process. The trend was reversed
for the duration of the whole burning process (as mea-
sured by the 90 % fuel burnt) where it slightly decreased
with throttling the inlet air. Figures 13b and 14b show the
combustion durations for the pre-mixed and the diffusion
burning phases for inlet air throttling, and inlet charge
throttling at constant oxygen mass flow rate, respectively.
Both the pre-mixed and diffusion burning phases were
lengthened when the inlet charge was throttled whilst
keeping the oxygen mass flow rate constant. On the
other hand, the diffusion burning phase was shortened
when the inlet air mass flow rate to the engine was
reduced. This could be due to earlier termination of the
combustion process for this test as a result of delayed
start of combustion and the consequent shifting of the
combustion process towards the expansion stroke. The
earlier quenching of the combustion process could have,
together with the lower oxygen availability, resulted in the
excessive smoke and UHC emissions associated with
this test, as was shown in reference (5).
Inlet Charge Temperature Inlet Charge Throttling Effect
Effect
2000 2000
10 10
0.202 0.224
9.0 10 - 8.5
40 - 120 30
17.3 23.3 - 27.4
44.6:1 38:1 - 44.6:1
The temperature of diluted inlet The inlet charge was throttled
charge (17.3%m O2) was raised first at 0.5 g/s intervals from 10 -
from 40 -120 °C at 20 °C inter- 8.5 g/s. Then the test was
vals. repeated by keeping the inlet
charge O2 & Cp constant.
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CONCLUSION 7. Plee, S. L. and Ahmad, T.,"Relative Roles of Premixed and

1. The lower oxygen available for combustion, associ-
ated with EGR, resulted in prolonged ignition delay
periods that shifted the whole combustion process
further towards the expansion stroke. This resulted in
the combustion gases spending shorter periods at
high temperatures, leading to lower thermal NOx for-
mation as well as lower rate of soot oxidation.
2. Although, the longer ignition delay periods, associ-
ated with EGR, could have resulted in higher rates of
pre-mixed burning, the lower oxygen availability
reduced the peak rate of pre-mixed burning. This led
to reduction in combustion temperatures and pres-
sures and, consequently, to lower NOx and higher
particulates. Also, the reduction in pre-mixed burning
resulted in increased diffusion burning which, in turn,
increased the particulate and smoke emissions.
3. The increase in inlet charge temperature, associated
with the application of hot EGR, resulted in increase
in combustion temperatures during the whole of the
combustion cycle. It also shortened the ignition delay
period, thereby, advancing the whole of the combus-
tion process which led to higher combustion temper-
atures as well as to longer periods spent by
combustion gases at these high temperatures. This
has, ultimately, led to increases in the formation of,
both, NOx and particulate emissions.
4. The effect of inlet charge throttling due to the applica-
tion of hot EGR on heat release is minor, since the
effect of reducing the inlet charge oxygen is almost
offset by the effect of reducing the inlet charge mass.
Diffusion Burning in Diesel Combustion", SAE Paper No.
831733 (1983).
8. Ahmad, T. and Plee, S. L., "Application of Flame Tempera-
ture Correlations to Emissions from a Direct-Injection Die-
sel Engine", SAE Paper No. 831734 (1983).
9. Ropke, S., Schweimer, G. W., and Strauss, T. S., " NOx
Formation in Diesel Engines for Various Fuels and Intake
Gases", SAE Paper No. 950213 (1995).
10. Shimazaki, N., Hatanaka, H., Yokota, K., and Nakahira, T.,
"A Study of Diesel Combustion Process Under the Condi-
tion of EGR and High-Pressure Fuel Injection with Gas
Sampling Method", SAE Paper No. 960030 (1996).
11. Ladommatos, N., Abdelhalim, S. M., and Zhao, H., "The
Effects of Carbon Dioxide in EGR on Diesel Engine Emis-
sions", IMechE Paper No. C517/028/96 (1996).
12. Khan, I. M., "Formation and Combustion of Carbon in a
Diesel Engine", Proc. IMechE, Vol. 185, Part 3J, pp 36-43
(1969-70)
13. Kim, Y. M., Kwon, Y. D., Kim, H. J., and Kim, S. W., "Numer-
ical Study on Ignition and Combustion Process of a Diesel
Spray in EGR Environment", SAE Paper No. 960874
(1996).
14. Kawamura, H., Sekiyama, S., and Sasaki, H., " Observa-
tion of Combustion Process of Diesel Fuel Spray in High
Temperature Air", SAE Paper No. 922207 (1992).
15. Sato, Y., Noda, A., and Sakamoto, T., "Effe

REFERENCES

1. Ladommatos, N., Abdelhalim, S. M., Zhao, H., and Hu, Z.,

"The Dilution, Chemical, and Thermal Effects of Exhaust
Gas Recirculation on Diesel Engine Emissions, Part 1:
Effect of Reducing Inlet Charge Oxygen", SAE Paper No.
961165 (1996).
2. Ladommatos, N., Abdelhalim, S. M., Zhao, H., and Hu, Z.,
"The Dilution, Chemical, and Thermal Effects of Exhaust
Gas Recirculation on Diesel Engine Emissions, Part 2:
Effects of Carbon Dioxide", SAE Paper No. 961167 (1996).
3. Ladommatos, N., Abdelhalim, S. M., Zhao, H., and Hu, Z.,
"The Dilution, Chemical, and Thermal Effects of Exhaust
Gas Recirculation on Diesel Engine Emissions, Part 3:
Effects of Water Vapour", SAE Paper No. 971659 (1997).
4. Ladommatos, N., Abdelhalim, S. M., Zhao, H., and Hu, Z.,
"The Dilution, Chemical, and Thermal Effects of Exhaust
Gas Recirculation on Diesel Engine Emissions, Part 4:
Effects of Carbon Dioxide and Water Vapour", SAE Paper
No. 971660 (1997).
5. Ladommatos, N., Abdelhalim, S. M., Zhao, H., and Hu, Z.,
"Thermal Throttling Effect of EGR". SAE Paper No. 98....
(1998).
6. Ahmad, T., Plee, S. L., and Myers, J. P., "Diffusion Flame
Temperature - Its Influence on Diesel Particulate and
hydrocarbon Emissions", IMechE Paper No. C101/82.
(1982).

5
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Figure 1. Heat release analysis for test with carbon dioxide replacing oxygen in the inlet charge

6
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Figure 2a. Heat release rate with inlet charge Figure 3a. Variation in combustion duration with the
composition of 18.3%m O2, 5 %m CO2 and increase in the percentage of carbon dioxide in
76.7%mN2 (5 %m CO2 replacing O2 in the inlet the inlet charge
charge)

Figure 3b. Variation in combustion duration of the pre-

mixed and the diffusion phases with the
Figure 2b. Heat release rate with baseline of inlet
increase in carbon dioxide replacing oxygen in
composition of 23.3 %m and 76.7 %m N2
the inlet charge
( 0.0 %m CO2)

7
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Figure 4. Heat release analysis for test with water vapour replacing oxygen in the inlet charge

8
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Figure 6a. Variation in combustion duration with the

increase in the percentage of water vapour in
Figure 5a. Heat release rate with inlet charge
the inlet charge
composition of 20.3 %m O2, 3 %m H2O and
76.7 %m N2 (3 %m H2O)

Figure 6b. Variation in combustion duration of the pre-

mixed and the diffusion phases with the
increase in water vapour replacing oxygen in
Figure 5b. Heat release rate with baseline of inlet of inlet the inlet charge
charge composition of 23.3 %m O2, and 76.7
%m N2 (0.0 %m H2O)

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Figure 8. Effect of inlet charge temperature on heat release analysis with constant inlet charge mass 9 g/s and reduced
inlet charge oxygen concentration 17 %m

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Figure 7. Effect of inlet charge temperature on ignition

Figure 9b. Influence on the duration of pre-mixed and
delay period (constant inlet charge mass 9 g/s
diffusion burning of inlet charge temperature at
and constant O2 concentration 17.3 %m)
constant inlet charge mass and oxygen
concentration (17.3 %m)

Figure 9a. Variation in combustion duration with increase

in inlet charge temperature (constant inlet
charge mass 9 g/s and constant O2
concentration 17.3 %m)

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Figure 10. Heat release analysis for inlet air throttling test

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Figure 11. Heat release analysis for inlet charge throttling test at fixed oxygen mass flow rate of 2.33 g/s and constant
specific heat capacity equal to that of air

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Figure 12a. Heat release with baseline of inlet charge

mass flow rate of 10 g/s of air (23.3 %m O2 Figure 12c. Heat release rate with inlet charge mass flow
and 76.7 %m N2) rate of 9.0 g/s and oxygen mass flow rate
equal to that of the baseline (2.33 g/s) and
specific heat capacity equal that of air

Figure 12b. Heat release rate with inlet charge mass flow Figure 13a.Variation in combustion duration for inlet air
rate of 9.0 g/s of air (23.3 %m O2 and 76.7 %m throttling test
N2 )

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Figure 14b.Variation in combustion duration of pre-mixed

Figure 13b.Variation in combustion duration of pre-mixed
and diffusion burning with the reduction of inlet
and diffusion burning with the reduction in the
charge mass flow rate at constant oxygen flow
inlet air mass flow rate
rate (9 g/s) and constant specific heat capacity
equal to that of air

Figure 14a.Variation in combustion duration with

reduction in inlet charge mass flowrate at
constant oxygen mass flowrate (2.33 g/s) and
constant specific heat capacity equal to that of
air

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