SPE REPRINT SERIES NO.

61 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS

Heavy-Oil Recovery

Annotated Bibliography

PART 1
Significant Papers Before 1983
Mandl, G. and Volek, C.W. 1969. Heat and Mass Transport in Steam-Drive Processes. SPEJ 9 (1): 59–79; Trans.,
AIME, 246. SPE-2049-PA.
This paper describes analytical and experimental results related to steam-zone growth in a steamdrive process. Gravitational
effects were not considered in developing the steam-zone-growth theory presented in this paper. Experimental results show that
the theory gives an accurate description of steam-zone expansion before the critical time. At times relatively near critical time and
also after critical time, experimental data show theoretical steam-zone volumes to be somewhat high.

Brigham, W.E., Satman, A., and Soliman, M.Y. 1980. Recovery Correlations for In-Situ Combustion Field Projects and
Application to Combustion Pilots. JPT 32 (12): 2132–2138. SPE-7130-PA.
This paper presents two correlations developed to predict the fieldwide oil recovery of dry in-situ combustion processes. The
correlations are based on a combination of engineering and statistical approaches. This work also discusses extension of the
second correlation to pilot projects and concludes that correlation parameters used for fieldwide projects seem reasonable for use
in pilot projects.

Coats, K.H. 1978. A Highly Implicit Steamflood Model. SPEJ 18 (5): 369–383. SPE-6105-PA.
This paper describes a 3D, highly implicit numerical model for simulating steamflooding with distillation or solution gas. The model
uses direct solution to simultaneously solve three and four equations for the dead-oil and two-component-oil cases, respectively.
The paper includes comparative discussion of alternative steamflood-model formulations.

Burger, J.G. 1972. Chemical Aspects of In-Situ Combustion—Heat of Combustion and Kinetics. SPEJ 12 (5): 410–422;
Trans., AIME, 253. SPE-3599-PA.
This paper presents general remarks on the oxidation reactions of hydrocarbons involved in in-situ combustion followed by estimates
of heat releases. A formula is derived for computing the heat of combustion in the high-temperature zone. The paper observes that
there is some similarity between the kinetics of reverse and partially quenched combustion processes. The influence of additives
on crude-oil oxidation in porous media is illustrated by effluent gas-analysis experiments. Some information concerning the values
of the kinetic parameters of the reaction controlling the velocity of a reverse combustion front is derived from the interpretation of
laboratory experiments, using a numerical model.

Gates, C.F. and Ramey, H.J. Jr. 1980. A Method for Engineering In-Situ Combustion Oil Recovery Projects.
JPT 32 (2): 285–294. SPE-7149-PA.
This paper provides a method for engineering in-situ combustion projects based on an oil-recovery/volume-burned relationship.
Oil rates, oil recovery, and air/oil ratios can be determined as a function of air injected. Economic limit can be determined. The
results match both laboratory and field data better than frontal-displacement calculations.

Cold Production
Tang, G.-Q. and Firoozabadi, A. 2005. Effect of GOR, Temperature, and Initial Water Saturation on Solution-Gas
Drive in Heavy-Oil Reservoirs. SPEJ 10 (1): 34–43. SPE-71499-PA.
This paper presents an extensive set of tests of solution-gas drive for Hamaca heavy oil to study the effects of initial water
saturation, temperature, and solution-gas/oil ratio (GOR). The duration for each test was approximately 3 months. Results show
that the presence of initial water saturation may decrease the recovery efficiency. Temperature increase also decreases recovery
efficiency. An increase in solution-GOR results in an increase in critical gas saturation. For all tests, oil recovery by solution-gas
drive at test termination was approximately 16% or higher.
SPE REPRINT SERIES NO. 61 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS
Heavy-Oil Recovery

Talabi, O., Pooladi-Darvish, M., and Okazawa, T. 2003. Effect of Rate and Viscosity on Gas Mobility During Solution-
Gas Drive in Heavy Oils. Paper SPE 84032 presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Denver, 5–8 October.
In this study, the authors conducted depletion experiments in a linear unconsolidated sandpack. Three oils were used, with oil
viscosities varying by a factor of 30. Experiments were conducted at two different depletion rates for each oil. Results show that
as oil viscosity or depletion rate increases, critical gas saturation increases, gas mobility decreases, and oil recovery increases.
Measured critical gas saturations were in the range of 0.2 to 5 ±1%. They also found that relative permeability to gas decreased
as depletion rate or oil viscosity increased. The effects of oil viscosity and withdrawal rate were combined in the form of a depletion
index, in which oil recovery increased with the depletion index.

Tang, G.-Q., Leung, T., Castanier, L.M. et al. 2006. An Investigation of the Effect of Oil Composition on Heavy-Oil
Solution Gas Drive. SPEJ 11 (1): 58–70. SPE-84197-PA.
This study examines experimentally the effect of oil composition on heavy-oil solution-gas drive. Depletion experiments were
conducted using two heavy-crude oils and two viscous mineral oils, with the mineral oils having viscosity similar to crude oil at
reservoir temperature. In addition to X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning of the sandpack, a visualization cell was installed
at the outlet of the sandpack to monitor the flowing-gas-bubble behavior. Both depletion rate and oil composition were found to
affect the size of mobile bubbles in the visualization cell. At a high depletion rate (0.035 PV/hr), a foam-like flow of relatively small
pore-sized bubbles dominates production of both crude oils. Conversely, at a low depletion rate (0.0030 PV/hr), foam-like flow is
not observed in the less-viscous crude oil; however, it is still found for the more-viscous crude oil. No foam-like flow is observed for
the mineral oils. CT imaging shows that the gas-saturation distribution along the sandpack is not uniform. Finally, results show that
solution-gas drive is effective even at reservoir temperatures as high as 80°C. Oil recovery ranges from 12 to 30% of original oil in
place; the higher the depletion rate, the greater the recovery.

Tremblay, V., Sedgwick. G., and Forshner, K. 1997. Simulation of Cold Production in Heavy-Oil Reservoirs: Wormhole
Dynamics. SPERE 12 (2): 110–117. SPE-35387-PA.
The production of oil and sand into a perforation for cold heavy-oil production with sand (CHOPS) was simulated using a sandpack
with an orifice at one end. The pack was imaged throughout the experiment with a CT X-ray scanner. The experiment showed that
(1) stable wormholes can develop in unconsolidated oil sands, (2) they likely develop in the weaker sands (which normally contain
the most oil) within a formation, and (3) a critical flow rate is required for the wormholes to grow. The high sand cuts observed in
the field at the start of cold production may indicate the growth of wormholes; on the other hand, the decrease in sand-production
rate observed in the field may indicate that the wormholes have stopped developing.

Thermal Recovery
Kovscek, A.R., Johnston, R.M., and Patzek, T.W. 1997. Evaluation of Rock/Fracture Interactions During Steam Injection
Through Vertical Hydraulic Fractures. SPEPF 12 (2): 100–105. SPE-29622-PA.
This paper presents the design and analysis of a steamdrive pilot in the South Belridge diatomite, Kern County, California, USA. Pilot
results demonstrate that steam can be injected across a majority of the 1,000-ft-tall diatomite column using hydraulically fractured
wells and that significant incremental oil is produced in response to the steam injection. A computationally simple numerical model,
incorporating first-order physics, is used to analyze reservoir heating and volumetric sweep by steam. Results from the analysis
show that hydraulic fractures undergoing steam injection can be dynamic and asymmetrical.

Briggs, P.J., Beck, D.L., Black, C.J.J., and Bissell, R. 1992. Heavy Oil From Fractured Carbonate Reservoirs. SPERE
7 (2): 173–179. SPE-19671-PA.
This paper presents interim ideas and results of an investigation of the recovery mechanisms for steam injection into naturally
fractured, carbonate, heavy-oil reservoirs. Laboratory and simulation studies are presented, and topics for further investigation
are suggested. Results indicate that both imbibition and internal gasdrive are effective at driving oil into the fracture network. At
temperatures above 392°F, CO2 generation increases significantly and is determined largely by the amount of silica present (as
clays or silts in the reservoir matrix) and the temperature.
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Boone, T.J., Gallant, R.J., and Kry, P.R. 1995. Exploiting High-Rate Injection and Fracturing To Improve Areal Thermal
Conformance in Cyclic Steam Stimulation. SPERE 10 (1): 65–71. SPE-25796-PA.
This paper describes a field test where high-rate pulsed injection (HRPI) of steam has been used to improve areal thermal
conformance as part of an operation using cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) at Cold Lake. In this process, steam was repeatedly
injected at high rates (–2000 m3/d, cold water equivalent) for relatively short periods (hours), rather than constant injection at lower
rates (200 to 300 m3/d) for several weeks or months. The objective of the high-rate injection was to create extensive horizontal
fractures in a well. The test well was surrounded by six observation wells. In the previous 5 years of CSS, these wells had seen little
temperature change. On the other hand, within hours of commencing HRPI, significant heat was seen at three of the surrounding
observation wells. After several pulses, a fourth observation well also saw significant temperature increases. Temperature and
pressure data from both the injector and the observation wells clearly demonstrate that (1) fracturing did occur, (2) the fractures
were oriented horizontally, (3) their areal extent increased to approximately 15 000 m2 (4 acres), and (4) the fractures were not
symmetric but tended to propagate into previously unheated reservoir. The authors concluded from this test that high-rate injection
and steam-induced fracturing can be used for improving areal thermal conformance during CSS in heavy-oil reservoirs.

Vittoratos, E., Scott, G.R., and Beattie, C.I. 1990. Cold Lake Cyclic Steam Stimulation: A Multiwell Process. SPERE
5 (1): 19–24. SPE-17422-PA.
CSS typically is thought of as a single-well process. However, at Cold Lake, where steam injectivity is achieved by fracturing the
formation, considerable interwell communication is observed. Usually, this results in the watering out of a producer by condensed
steam from a neighboring injector. Field experience indicates that steaming rows of wells sequentially with 50% overlap in injection
time between adjacent rows reduces water transfer between wells significantly, increases the conformance of the injected heat,
and reduces the field’s tendency to form communicating well couplets. Exploratory numerical simulations show that the impact of
steaming strategy on bitumen production is not significant until later cycles.

In-Situ Combustion
Belgrave, J.D.M., Moore, R.G., Ursenbach, M.G., and Bennion, D.W. 1993. A Comprehensive Approach to In-Situ
Combustion Modeling. SPE Advanced Technology Series 1 (1): 98–107. SPE-20250-PA.
This paper describes a unified pseudomechanistic reaction model for mathematical modeling of in-situ combustion of Athabasca
bitumen. The model represents a consolidation of individual experimental kinetic studies on thermal cracking and low-temperature
oxidation of Athabasca bitumen and reported data for the high-temperature oxidation of coke. The formulation allows bitumen to
undergo density and viscosity increases, as well as reduced reactivity to oxidation, with increased oxidation extent. Hydrocarbon
bypassing caused by quenching of the combustion front is also permitted with the proposed kinetic model. The paper includes
application of the reaction model in numerical simulations of adiabatic combustion-tube tests performed on Athabasca bitumen.
A significant feature of the model is its ability to predict the dual oxidation uptake peaks associated with ramped-temperature
oxidation experiments.

Moore, R.G., Belgrave, J.D.M., Mehta, R., Ursenbach, M., Laureshen, C.J., and Xi, K. 1992. Some Insights into the
Low-Temperature and High-Temperature In-Situ Combustion Kinetics. Paper SPE/DOE 24174 presented at the SPE/
DOE Enhanced Oil Recovery Symposium, Tulsa, 22–24 April.
This paper presents the results of a comprehensive study of low- and high-temperature oxidation kinetics to understand the
mechanisms associated with in-situ combustion. The most important observation arising from the work is the recognition of the
significance of the low-reaction-rate region at temperatures intermediate between those associated with low-temperature oxidation
and high-temperature combustion reactions.

Abu-Khamsin, S.A., Brigham, W.E., and Ramey, H.J. Jr. 1988. Reaction Kinetics of Fuel Formation for In-Situ
Combustion. SPERE 3 (4): 1308–1316. SPE-15736-PA.
This paper discusses the results of an experimental modeling of fuel formation for in-situ combustion. The analysis shows that
pyrolysis of crude oil in porous media goes through three overlapping stages of distillation, mild cracking, and severe cracking
(coking). A numerical-simulation model, matching the experimental data, showed that fuel formation was a result of two successive
cracking reactions that the oil undergoes at temperatures above 280°C.
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Lin, C.Y., Chen, W.H., and Culham, W.E. 1987. New Kinetic Models for Thermal Cracking of Crude Oils in In-Situ
Combustion Processes. SPERE 2 (1): 54–66. SPE-13074-PA.
This paper presents two kinetic models for the thermal cracking of crude oils, incorporating the cracking-rate parameters and
stoichiometric coefficients to correlate experimental data. The authors conclude that three corrections to the existing first-order
model are needed for modeling thermal cracking. These include the apparent reaction order and its dependency on temperature,
as well as coke formation from intermediate oil components.

Schulte, W.M. and de Vries, A.S. 1985. In-Situ Combustion in Naturally Fractured Heavy Oil Reservoirs. SPEJ 25 (1):
67–77. SPE-10723-PA.
This paper presents the results of an experimental modeling of in-situ combustion in a naturally fractured heavy-oil reservoir
supported by a 2D numerical-simulation model to understand the process better. The main oil-production mechanisms were found
to be thermal expansion and evaporation with subsequent condensation of the oil from the matrix. The numerical model predicts
that in-situ combustion in fractured reservoirs is feasible and results in high recovery efficiency in the swept zone.

Laboratory Investigations
Frizzell, D.F. 1990. Analysis of 15 Years of Thermal Laboratory Data: Relative Permeability and Saturation Endpoint
Correlations for Heavy Oils. Paper SPE 20528 presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
New Orleans, 23–26 September.
This paper analyzes 15 years of laboratory high-temperature relative permeability and endpoint-saturation data. Equations are
developed for estimating irreducible water and residual-oil saturation to water, gas, and steam based on temperature, crude-oil API
gravity, and absolute permeability to water. Other equations provide estimates of the permeability endpoints. These equations are
applicable for heavy oils in the gravity range of 7 to 20°API, the temperature range of 75 to 400°F, and unconsolidated sands. The
calculated estimates should serve as initial input for reservoir computations; they do not substitute for measured laboratory data. In
addition, others have shown that some of the observed temperature dependence may be measurement artifacts.

Sibbald, L.R., Moore, R.G., and Bennion, D.W. 1991. In-Situ Combustion Process Study With a Combined Experimental/
Analytical Approach. SPERE 6 (3): 295–302. SPE-18074-PA.
This paper describes an approach that uses a differential moving-frame descriptive model to analyze data from stabilized
combustion processes produced in combustion-tube experiments. The approach is applied to a set of dry-air combustion runs. This
study revealed consistent values for the fuel-combustion-reaction-kinetics parameters, showed that oxygen consumption was not
confined to the high-temperature (300°C) combustion zone, and gave insight into the relationship between injected-gas flux and
the distribution of energy-liberation rate with implications for process stability.

Bennion, D.B., Sarioglu, G., Chan, M.Y.S., Hirata, T., Courtnage, D., and Wansteeben, J. 1993. Steady-State Bitumen-
Water Relative Permeability Measurements at Elevated Temperatures in Unconsolidated Porous Media. Paper SPE
25803 presented at the SPE International Thermal Operations Symposium, Bakersfield, California, 8–10 February.
This paper documents two complete water/bitumen steady-state drainage and imbibition tests conducted at a temperature of
200°C at full reservoir-pressure and overburden conditions, using composite core stacks of actual, preserved reservoir core
material. The test results indicate substantial hysteresis effects in the nonwetting (bitumen) phase and provide insight into the
wettability, displacement efficiency, residual saturation, endpoint permeability, and relative permeability for an unconsolidated
heavy-oil sandstone reservoir.

Schembre, J.M., Tang, G.-Q., and Kosvcek, A.R. 2006. Interrelationship of Temperature and Wettability on the Relative
Permeability of Heavy Oil in Diatomaceous Rocks. SPEREE 9 (3): 239–250. SPE-93831-PA.
This paper uses a novel method to estimate relative permeability and capillary pressure simultaneously (including possible
nonequilibrium effects) from in-situ aqueous-phase saturation profiles obtained from X-ray CT scanning during high-temperature
imbibition experiments. Results obtained show a systematic shift toward increased water-wettability with increasing temperature
for diatomite reservoir core. The measured changes in relative permeability are linked to the effect of temperature on the adhesion
of oil-coated fines to rock surfaces and, ultimately, to rock/fluid interactions.
SPE REPRINT SERIES NO. 61 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS
Heavy-Oil Recovery

PART 2
Emerging Recovery Processes
Brigham, W.E., Marcou, J.A., Sanyal, S.K., Malito, O.P., and Castanier, L.M. 1989. A Field Experiment of Improved
Steamdrive With In-Situ Foaming. SPEPE 4 (3): 239–248. SPE-12784-PA.
This paper describes a field test of injecting a commercial surfactant and N2 with steam in the Kern River field, California.
Changes in injection pressure, injection profile, and temperatures at the producers are recorded and analyzed. Qualitative data
are also obtained from tracer studies, well logging, and well tests. Oil- and water-production volumes of the test patterns are
checked by an independent third party to see if the process is economically viable. This test is based on the result of successful
laboratory studies.

Patzek, T.W. 1996. Field Applications of Steam Foam for Mobility Improvement and Profile Control. SPERE 11 (2):
79–86. SPE-29612-PA.
This paper reviews several important field tests of foams, compares their performance, and critically evaluates the economic
benefits from foam injection. It is shown that early, transient, and usually small oil-production responses to surfactant injection are
real, often quite profitable, and related to the improvements of gas-injection profile by foam; they also depend critically on reservoir
architecture and gasflood implementation. The delayed, but larger, oil-production responses are caused by foam propagation into
the reservoir and could be very profitable, depending on the injection policy. An outline of an ideal future foam pilot is presented,
and important advances in rigorous modeling of foam processes are discussed.

Mendoza, H.A., Finol, J.J., and Butler, R.M. 1999. SAGD, Pilot Test in Venezuela. Paper SPE 53687 presented at the SPE
Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference, Caracas, 21–23 April.
This paper discusses the first SAGD pilot test in the Tia Juana field, western Venezuela, where reservoir fluids are highly viscous
(typically, 20,000 cp under reservoir conditions). The pilot wells consisted of two pairs of infill wells within an original seven-spot
pattern with a well spacing of 231 m. The drilling stage of the pilot required the use of a “magnetic guidance tool” to drill the
horizontal wells with a 5-m distance between producer and injector along the horizontal section. The paper shows pressure and
temperature data acquired during the SAGD process from both conventional single-point gauges and the latest generation of fiber-
optic distributed-temperature measurements, providing real-time thermal profiles along the complete wellbore. The production
results during the first year of operation show an average production rate of 700 BOPD, which is above the initial production
expected. A history match was performed with a thermal simulator, and a final recovery on the order of 60% of stock-tank oil initially
in place has been estimated.

Garnett, R.L. 2001. Recovery of Heavy Oil From the Monterey Formation in Offshore California by Cyclic Injection of
Light-Oil Diluent. SPEREE 4 (1): 51–58. SPE-70992-PA.
This paper presents the results of cyclic injection of light-oil diluent into a single well completed in the Monterey formation, which
consists of highly fractured and well-connected thin beds. The purpose of this pilot is to validate laboratory data, which suggest
that this strategy could result in a significant increase in production rate by reducing the emulsion viscosity. After 65 cycles of using
different combinations of injection rate/time/volume and flowback time, production improvement is confirmed and an injection/
production strategy is developed.

Das, S.K. 1998. Vapex: An Efficient Process for the Recovery of Heavy Oil and Bitumen. SPEJ 3 (3): 232–237.
SPE-50941-PA.
This paper gives a comprehensive review of the VAPEX process, whereby vaporized hydrocarbon is injected into heavy-oil and
bitumen reservoirs and the solvent-diluted oil is produced from a horizontal well. Experimental results, theoretical analysis, and some
of the uncertainties regarding field predictions are presented. This nonsteam-based process has potential as an efficient alternative
to thermal processes such as SAGD, especially in thin reservoirs, reservoirs with bottom aquifer, and offshore environments.
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Karmaker, K. and Maini, B.B. 2003. Experimental Investigation of Oil Drainage Rates in the Vapex Process for Heavy
Oil and Bitumen Reservoirs. Paper SPE 84199 presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Denver, 5–8 October.
This paper reinvestigates oil-drainage rates and thereby examines the scaleup method in the VAPEX process. An extensive
experimental study was carried out with three different physical models of varying sizes that were partially scaled. These models
were packed with the sand grains of three different size distributions. The VAPEX experiments were performed to investigate the
effects of laboratory-model size and sand-grain size on the observed performance of the VAPEX process. The results show that
much higher oil rates in field processes are possible compared to those predicted by previous investigators on the basis of the
results from Hele-Shaw cell experiments and the available scaleup procedure.

Recovery-Process Modeling—Analytical and/or Numerical

Hagoort, J. 2004. Ramey’s Wellbore Heat Transmission Revisited. SPEJ 9 (4): 465–474. SPE-87305-PA.
This paper shows that Ramey’s method is an excellent approximation to calculate temperatures in injection and production wells,
except for an early transient period in which the calculated temperatures are significantly overestimated. The author presents a
simple graphical correlation to estimate the length of this early transient period. He also shows that Ramey’s procedure for the
estimation of overall heat-transfer coefficients is valid only for large values of the Fourier dimensionless time. Results of this work
are illustrated by an example calculation of wellhead temperature in a flowing oil well.

Van Wunnik, J.N.M. and Wit, K. 1992. Improvement of Gravity Drainage by Steam Injection Into a Fractured Reservoir:
An Analytical Evaluation. SPERE 7 (1): 59–66. SPE-20251-PA.
This paper uses analytical techniques to study improvement of gas/oil gravity drainage by steam injection in a densely fractured
dome-shaped, low-permeability reservoir containing viscous oil. Aspects of the process studied include mixing of the steam and
hydrocarbon gas, the temperature distribution in the caprock and reservoir, and oil production by thermal expansion and gravity
drainage. The models developed are applied to the Qarn Alam reservoir of Oman, which may be a candidate reservoir. The steam-
injection process appears very attractive for this reservoir; an oil/steam ratio of 0.5 m3/Mg may be achieved.

Aziz, K., Ramesh, A.B., and Woo, P.T. 1987. Fourth SPE Comparative Solution Project: Comparison of Steam Injection
Simulators. JPT 39 (12): 1576–1584. SPE-13510-PA.
This paper presents three related steam-injection problems, along with simulation results obtained from six organizations. The
problems selected for comparison were intended to exercise many of the features of thermal models that are of practical and
theoretical interest. The first problem deals with three cycles of cyclic steam injection, and the other two problems deal with steam
injection in an inverted nine-spot pattern. The first two problems are of “black-oil” type, and the third is of compositional type.
Complete data are presented for these problems. The comparison of solutions indicates good agreement for most of the results of
importance in field operations.

Denbina, E.S., Boberg, T.C., and Rottor, M.B. 1991. Evaluation of Key Reservoir Drive Mechanisms in the Early Cycles
of Steam Stimulation at Cold Lake. SPERE 6 (2): 207–211. SPE-16737-PA.
A history-matched, 2D, single-well numerical model was used to evaluate the contributions of four key drive mechanisms to early
CSS oil recovery at Cold Lake, Alberta, Canada. Formation compaction was found to be the dominant producing mechanism.
Solution-gas drive was the second-most-important mechanism. Fluid expansion had a relatively minor role. Gravity drainage
contributed little to the oil produced in the first two cycles, but increased in importance in subsequent cycles.

Christensen, J.R., Darche, G., Dechelette, B., Ma, H., and Sammon, P.H. 2004. Applications of Dynamic Gridding
to Thermal Simulations. Paper SPE 86969 presented at the SPE International Thermal Operations and Heavy Oil
Symposium and Western Regional Meeting, Bakersfield, California, 16–18 March.
This paper proposes a dynamic gridding approach to keep a fine-scale representation around the thermal front and a coarser grid
away from the front, thus leading to less-expensive computations. Simulation starts with an original fine grid but will reamalgamate
its cells, while keeping some regions (e.g., around wells) always finely gridded. The gridding identifies the moving front through large
gradients of specific properties (temperatures, fluid saturations, and compositions). This dynamic gridding technique is illustrated
with simulation examples on combustion and SAGD. Examples show that CPU time for thermal simulations can be cut by a factor
of 2 to 3, without loss of accuracy, by using dynamic gridding.
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Process Monitoring and Management

Jones, J. 2003. Casing Vapor Recovery Systems: An Open or Shut Case. Paper SPE 83475 presented at the SPE
Western Regional/AAPG Pacific Section Joint Meeting, Long Beach, California, 19–24 May.
This paper concludes that a casing vapor recovery (CVR) effectively improves the performance of steam enhanced-oil-recovery
projects. The author points to a possibly significant amount of noncondensable gas buildup in the formation that may adversely
impact the oil mobility in the absence of CVR.

Masse, P.J., Gosney, T.C., and Long, D.L. 1991. The Use of Pulsed Neutron Capture Logs To Identify Steam
Breakthrough—Case Study: South Belridge Middle Expansion Steamflood Project. SPEFE 6 (3): 319–326. SPE-
20252-PA.
In this paper, the authors demonstrate the utility of pulsed-neutron-capture logs in the identification of potential steam-breakthrough
zones. Combined with information from replacement wells and detailed geologic analysis, these data can be used to modify
operational guidelines to reduce or eliminate steam breakthroughs.

Zahedi, A., Johnson, R., and Rueda, C. 2004. Heat Management in Coalinga—New Insight to Manage Heat in an
Oil Field. Paper SPE 86984 presented at the SPE International Thermal Operations and Heavy Oil Symposium and
Western Regional Meeting, Bakersfield, California, 16–18 March.
This paper discusses the development and the utility of new monitoring tools in production surveillance of a mature steamflood.
The authors propose operational guidelines to optimally manage the heat injection and distribution that incorporate data collection
and evaluation, heat adjustment, and follow-up monitoring.

Fram, J.H., Dailey, W.H., and Walker, C.J. 2002. Turn Down the Burner: Impact of Heat Management on the Potter
Reservoir, MWSS Field, California. Paper SPE 76726 presented at the SPE Western Regional/AAPG Pacific Section
Joint Meeting, Anchorage, 20–22 May.
This paper discusses the theory and approach taken in setting lower steam targets. The authors demonstrate the impact of
lower steam-injection rates on the mature steamflood and discuss the relationship between reservoir temperatures and oil-
production rates.

Harness, P., Shotts, N., Hemingway, J., Rose, D., and van der Sluis, R. 1998. Accurate Oil Saturation Determination and
Monitoring in a Heavy Oil Reservoir. Paper SPE 46245 presented at the SPE Western Regional Meeting, Bakersfield,
California, 10–13 May.
This paper presents methodologies to determine oil-saturation changes through time in a mature steamflood oil field. Carbon/
oxygen-ratio logs are used to replace cutting cores and to generate 4D time-lapse oil-saturation images from a grid of several
hundred temperature-observation wells. The authors compare log-to-core data as well as time-lapse 4D images showing
reservoir dynamics.

Kumar, M. and Ziegler, V.M. 1993. Injection Schedules and Production Strategies for Optimizing Steamflood
Performance. SPERE 8 (2): 101–107. SPE-20763-PA.
This paper investigates methods to optimize steamflood performance of a California heavy-oil reservoir numerically. Simulation
and field results show that a linear heat (steam)-reduction schedule after steam breakthrough results in the highest discounted net
oil production, with less steam injection compared with the constant-injection schedule. Rate-reduction schedules are affected by
pattern confinement. For unconfined patterns, steam migrates and drains oil from outside the pattern boundaries.
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Miscellaneous
De Ghetto, G., Paone, F., and Villa, M. 1995. Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlations for Heavy and Extra Heavy
Oils. Paper SPE 30316 presented at the SPE International Heavy Oil Symposium, Calgary, 19–21 June.
This paper evaluates the reliability of the most common empirical correlations for bubblepoint pressure, solution-GOR, bubblepoint
oil formation volume factor, isothermal compressibility, dead-oil viscosity, gas-saturated oil viscosity, and undersaturated-oil
viscosity against a set of approximately 65 heavy- and extra-heavy-oil samples. Approximately 1,200 measured data points have
been collected and investigated. The functional forms of the correlations that gave the best results for each oil property have been
used for finding a better correlation, with errors reduced, on average, by 10% for the data set of this study.

Chien, S-F. 1996. Phase Splitting of Wet Steam in Annular Flow Through a Horizontal Branching Tee. SPEPF 11 (2):
83–88. SPE-28542-PA.
This paper derives a phase-splitting equation for flow of a two-phase fluid through a tee junction. This equation applies to any tee
junction regardless of its geometry, orientation, and inclination. In the second part of the paper, experimental data for wet steam
flowing through a standard branching tee of 2- and 4-in. sizes in a horizontal plane were analyzed to develop a correlation between
the vapor-extraction ratio of the run stream and the liquid-extraction ratio of the same stream as a function of steam quality,
superficial vapor velocity, and critical velocity at the inlet to the tee. Using this correlation and the phase-split equation, steam
qualities exiting from horizontal branching tees were predicted to within ±15% of the experimental values, which is more accurate
than other phase-splitting models.