Chemical Engineering and Processing 82 (2014) 65–70

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Chemical Engineering and Processing:

Process Intensification
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cep

Convective-intermittent drying of cherries preceded by ultrasonic

assisted osmotic dehydration
S.J. Kowalski ∗ , J. Szadzińska
Poznań University of Technology, Institute of Technology and Chemical Engineering, Department of Process Engineering, Poznań, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents the results of experimental studies on convective drying of cherries (Prunus cera-
Received 2 May 2014 sus L.) in stationary and intermittent conditions, previously pretreated with ultrasonic assisted osmotic
Accepted 31 May 2014 dehydration. The effect of a stepwise changing air temperature and osmotic pretreatment on drying
Available online 6 June 2014
kinetics and the biomaterial quality were investigated. The main aim of the studies was to find the possi-
bly best drying conditions, by which the drying time was shortened and the product quality degradation
Keywords:
was minimized. Except drying kinetics and total color and water activity changes, the effect of osmotic
Intermittent drying
pretreatment expressed by such parameters as the Solid Gain and the Water Loss were examined. It
Cherries
Ultrasounds
was proved that intermittent drying of cherries preceded by ultrasonic assisted osmotic dehydration
Color contributes to shorter drying time, better color preservation and smaller water activity.
Water activity © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Convective drying is one of the oldest methods of food preser-
vation, often realized in natural conditions as, for example, solar
drying. The hot air drying reveals several advantages that entail
its wide use in industry, and in food industry especially, as it
is relatively cheap and easy operated drying technology. On the
other hand the hot air drying is considered as a highly destructive
method, particularly for thermally sensitive materials like bioma-
terials. Therefore, in this kind of drying mode important is proper
selection of the drying conditions and a suitable choice of drying
agent parameters (temperature, humidity, velocity), as well as a
rational heat dosage. All these factors affect essentially the final
quality of bioproducts like fruits and vegetables. Strong shrinkage
and damage due to drying induced stresses, as well as the color and
flavor changes, and the reduction of nutritional value are the most
important issues related to the quality of dried bioproduct [1–3].
A method to minimize the negative effects of the hot air dry-
ing, is to carry out the process in intermittent conditions, that
is, in stepwise changing drying air parameters. Such a method
enables a controlled supply of energy affecting the efficiency of
∗ Corresponding author at: Poznań University of Technology, Institute of Tech-
nology and Chemical Engineering, Department of Process Engineering, Pl. Marii
Skłodowskiej, Curie 2, 60-965 Poznań. Tel.: +48 61 6653622; fax: +48 61 6653649.
E-mail addresses: Stefan.J.Kowalski@put.poznan.pl, s.j.kowalski@wp.pl
(S.J. Kowalski), Justyna.Szadzinska@doctorate.put.poznan.pl (J. Szadzińska).
drying, that is, the time of drying and also the quality of dried
products. A time-varying drying conditions improve the heat and
mass transfer, reduce the time required to achieve a desired mois-
ture content, and thereby minimize the energy consumption [4–6].
Several works [7–9] reported that intermittent drying prevents
overheating, which gives much higher retention of nutrition than
drying under constant mode, provided the proper cyclic variation
in drying agent parameters is selected.
The quality of dried bioproduct is possible to preserve not
only through a suitable arrangement of drying conditions but also
through a product pretreatment before drying as, for example,
osmotic dehydration. Osmotic dehydration (OD) enables moisture
removal from fruits and vegetables up to 50%. It relies on water
diffusion from food product immersed in a hypertonic solution of
a higher osmotic pressure. Usually, an aqueous solution of salt or
sugar agent is used. The experiences of many researchers [10–13]
suggest that reduction of water content in foods due to osmotic
dehydration has a significant influence on physical and chemi-
cal properties of the final product. It extends the bioproduct shelf
life and improves its storage capacity due to lowering the water
activity (aw ). The water activity is defined in terms of thermody-
namic quantities such as the chemical potential, and is related to
the osmotic pressure of an aqueous solution. The aw of a food or
solution is the ratio of the water vapor pressure over the food or
solution surface to the vapor pressure over the surface of pure
water at the same temperature. Since the food stability usually
decreases with an increase of water activity, a number of differ-
ent procedures (e.g., drying, osmotic dewatering, addition of salt,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2014.05.006
0255-2701/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
66 S.J. Kowalski, J. Szadzińska / Chemical Engineering and Processing 82 (2014) 65–70

etc.) have long been used to preserve foods. However, the level of
water activity obtained after osmotic dehydration does not ensure
the total microbiological stability of biomaterials. It was stated that
by value of aw above 0.6 some undesirable changes (deterioration)
inside the bioproducts may occur. Therefore, in order to prolong
the stability of bioproducts they should be subjected to further
drying to make them fully safe from the microbiological changes
[14,15].
The benefit of osmo-convective drying of food is, first of all, to
maintain a natural color, flavor, aroma, and also to inhibit the oxida-
tive reactions and enzymatic degradation reactions. Thus, apart
from the color, the water activity is also a useful parameter for
defining the final quality of dried products. Degradation of the nat-
ural dyes in food processing leads to the formation of biologically
less active forms and sensorial changes such as discoloration, but
also to the appearance of characteristic odor. But still, the measure
of total color change (E) is one of the most frequently analyzed
indicators of quality. The mentioned feature is very relevant as it
makes the product acceptable for consumers [16,17].
Due to the adverse effects of heat treatment, the combination
of novel and traditional technologies have become very popular in
the food industry in past years. Recently, the use of ultrasounds in
drying is of great interest because it does not influence the main
characteristics and quality of the products. Application of alterna-
tive techniques in drying of foods, such ultrasounds, accelerates
the moisture removal and improves nutritional aspect of bioprod-
ucts by drying at lower temperatures than in conventional methods
[18]. The effect of ultrasound used to product pretreatment can
also be consider as an alternative to blanching assisting the dry-
ing process [19–21]. Nowacka et al. [22] have recently shown that
ultrasounds facilitate the water loss during drying of apples, result-
ing in reduction of the drying time by 31–40%. Osmotic dehydration
is often used to remove water from biomaterials, but it is usu-
ally time-consuming. One of the possibilities to increase the rate
of mass transfer during osmotic dehydration is the enhancement
of this process with ultrasounds. The ultrasonic assisted osmotic
dehydration is mainly used to increase the effective water diffusiv-
ity, however, as demonstrated by Fernandes et al. [23], the water
diffusivity decreases with increasing the sugar concentration in the
osmotic aqueous solution. Of course, one may generally expect an
increase in drying time but this reflects in compensating increase
in Water Loss (WL) and Solid Gain (SG) and enhancement of pro-
ductquality, i.e. greater content of nutritive components, as well as
better flavor and color.
Sour cherries (Prunus cerasus L.), called also tart cherries, are
currently grown in most of the countries with a mild and Mediter-
ranean climate. The top cherry producing countries in Europe are
Turkey and Poland. Sour cherries, intended for processing, are
mainly used by the canning industry for canned fruit and jam
production, juices, concentrates, syrups, and production of food
colorants, they can also be processed as dried fruit. Sour cherries
are very important culinary, and due to a lot of anthocyanins, they
possess strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. They
are a good source of dietary fiber, folic acid, potassium, vitamin A,
C, and also protect human organisms against unfavorable effects
of the environment. Anthocyanins are one class of flavonoid com-
pounds, that are responsible for the pink, red, purple, or blue color of
many fruits, e.g. grapes, plums, strawberries, raspberries, cherries,
and other types of berries. Sour cherries as high acidic and tart
flavor fruits through the combination of osmotic dehydration and
convective drying become similar to raisins and can be consumed
as healthy and attractive snacks [24–26].
Many papers concerning various drying methods of soft tissue
fruits can be found, but there is not much literature on the use of
ultrasound assisted osmotic dehydration pretreatment before step-
wise (intermittent) air drying applied to sour cherries. The aim of
Table 1
Programs of drying.
Constant conditions Intermittent conditions
AD AD (5–30) and (10–40)
ODAD ODAD (5–30)
UDODAD UDODAD (5–30)
this study was to examine the effect of combined ultrasonic assisted
osmosis with intermittent convective drying on drying kinetics and
selected quality indicators like color and water activity.
2. Materials and methods
Frozen, pitted cherries (P. cerasus L.) with an initial water con-
tent of 85–87%, were defrosted before processing and dried to the
final moisture content of about 6%. The fruits were subjected to
air drying (single layer) at constant air temperature of 60 ◦ C and in
a stepwise changing air temperature (intermittent conditions), as
well as to osmotic dewatering and then dried convectively in the
same way (Table 1).
Experiments on hot air drying (AD) were carried out in the lab-
oratory chamber dryer SML 42/250/M Zalmed (Poland) modified
to drying in intermittent conditions [see 27]. Periodical changes
of air temperature were realized by using the cooler EVS060BED
ECO Refrigerazione (Italy) and the controller Moeller Easy 512-
AC-RC (Germany). The air temperature (AT) and the air relative
humidity in the chamber were measured with the temperature
and humidity sensor DO9861T Delta OHM (Italy) of temperature
accuracy 0.1 ◦ C and humidity accuracy of 0.01%. The sample tem-
perature (ST) was measured through the thermocouple K, CENTER
309 (Taiwan). Weight loss of the samples was recorded by the elec-
tronic balance WPS 2100/C Radwag (Poland) with accuracy 0.01 g.
The initial water content of cherry samples was determined with
the moisture analyzer XM120 Precisa (Switzerland). After drying
the samples were weighed and assessed qualitatively. In order to
evidence the difference between several modes of drying, the qual-
ity of the dried cherries was judged on the basis of the color and
water activity change. The color assessment was realized through
evaluation of the color difference (E), measured with the col-
orimeter CR-400 Konica Minolta (Japan). The color of the cherry
samples was indicated by CIELab color scale L*, a*, b*, where L* is
lightness, a* the color parameter (color space from red to green) and
b* represents color space from yellow to blue. E was calculated
according to the following formula:

2 2 2
E = (L∗ ) + (a∗ ) + (b∗ ) (1)
Water activity (aw ) was measured with the converter of tempera-
ture and humidity with the function of water activity measurement,
model 650/0628.0024 Testo (Germany), accuracy 0.001.
Osmotic dehydration (OD) was carried out in 60% aqueous solu-
tion of glucose for 30 min at about 25 ± 2 ◦ C. Volumetric proportion
of fruit and osmotic solution was 1:4. Ultrasound assisted osmotic
dehydration (UDOD) was performed in the ultrasonic bath IS-145
InterSonic (25 kHz, 700 W) with mechanical agitation under ambi-
ent osmotic solution having temperature of 28 ± 1 ◦ C. Each time
the same concentration of glucose syrup and the proportion of
fruit to osmotic solution, as well as the time of treatment were
used. The fruits after osmotic dehydration were blotted with filter
paper, weighted, spread on the scale pan and dried in the convec-
tive chamber dryer. The effectiveness of osmosis was evaluated by
two parameters: Solid Gain (SG) and Water Loss (WL) [see 12]. The
experiments were carried out in duplicate.
 S.J. Kowalski, J. Szadzińska / Chemical Engineering and Processing 82 (2014) 65–70
Fig. 1. The drying curves and the temperature profiles: (a) hot air drying at 60 ◦ C, (b) hot air drying at 60 ◦ C preceded by osmosis, (c) hot air drying at 60 ◦ C preceded by
ultrasound assisted osmosis (DC – drying curve, AT – air temperature, ST – sample temperature).
3. Results
3.1. Drying in stationary conditions
First, the hot air drying tests with defrosted cherries at stable air
temperature of 60 ◦ C were carried out. At the beginning of the pro-
cess a relatively high drying rate was observed, so the dehydration
occurred fairly rapidly. This definitely affected the moisture distri-
bution and caused shrinkage, giving the dried material of rather
bad quality (Fig. 3). The second series of the experiments was car-
ried out at the same stable air temperature but with preliminary
osmotic dehydration of cherries in 60% glucose solution for 30 min.
The third series of the drying tests was similar to the second one,
but the osmotic dewatering was additionally assisted with power
ultrasound. The dried fruits achieved each time the final moisture
content of about 6%, however, after 454, 438 and 400 min on aver-
age for above mentioned drying tests. Fig. 1 presents the drying
kinetics of cherry samples dried in: (a) stationary conditions with-
out pretreatment (AD), (b) with osmotic dehydration (ODAD), and
(c) with ultrasound assisted osmotic dehydration (UDODAD).
Due to the high initial water content of 6.40 [kg kg−1 db] on
average a rather long drying time was observed for drying under
stationary conditions, however, a slightly different for cherries with
osmotic pretreatment. In the drying test with stable air tempera-
ture a very short period of constant drying rate (CDRP) amounting
to about 30 min can be noted on drying curves. Therefore, dry-
ing of cherries proceeded mainly in the falling drying rate period
(FDRP), as it follows from both the drying curve (DC) and the
sample temperature curve (ST). Application of osmotic dehydra-
tion caused the reduction of an initial water content to about
3.26 and 2.31 [kg kg−1 db], in cherry samples preceded by osmosis
and dewatering assisted with ultrasounds, respectively. Thus, the
power ultrasound increases the water diffusion from the biomate-
rial immersed in an osmotic agent solution. As it follows from Fig. 1,
the sample temperature profiles of dried cherries with preliminary
OD and UDOD were also changed with respect to that without OD.
67
After OD and UDOD treatment the first period of drying was signif-
icantly reduced, so the cherries reached the wet bulb temperature
of about 40 ±2 ◦ C much faster. The values of characteristic osmotic
parameters as Solid Gain (SG) and Water Loss (WL) are given in
Table 2.
There is a significant difference between the values of SG and WL
obtained after pretreatment with and without ultrasound enhance-
ment. Ultrasonic enhancement of osmotic dehydration increased
the water loss from 18 [% wb] to 24 [% wb], i.e. 6 [% wb] on average,
as well as the sugar gain by 3 [% wb]. Thus, drying with previous
UDOD clearly increases the efficiency of total dehydration. It means
that, ultrasonic waves influence both the dewatering kinetics and
the physical properties of cherries, especially the structure of tis-
sues induced by the so called “sponge effect” [28]. Moreover, this
phenomenon accelerates diffusion of moisture from the dried bio-
material to the surrounding hot air and reduces total drying time
by about 1 h, compared with hot air drying without OD.
3.2. Drying in intermittent conditions
In the second stage of the studies the drying tests in intermit-
tent conditions were investigated. The purpose of intermittency
is to equalize the moisture distribution in dried products during
tempering periods (no heat supply) and thus to improve the effi-
ciency of drying, as well as the product quality. As the intermittent
drying is associated with the modification of drying conditions, it
was decided based on previous experiments [27] to apply a short-
lived cooling cycles. A stepwise changing air temperature with two
Table 2
Osmotic dehydration parameters.
Process conditions SG [kg kg−1 wb] WL [kg kg−1 wb]
OD 10 ± 5.74 × 10−2 18 ± 7.77 × 10−2
UDOD 13 ± 5.75 × 10−2 24 ± 7.66 × 10−2
68 S.J. Kowalski, J. Szadzińska / Chemical Engineering and Processing 82 (2014) 65–70
Fig. 2. The drying curves and the temperature profiles: (a) hot air drying with mode (5–30), (b) hot air drying with mode (5–30) preceded by osmosis, (c) hot air drying with
mode (5–30) preceded by ultrasound assisted osmosis (DC – drying curve, AT – air temperature, ST – sample temperature).
kind of modes were tested, namely 5 min heating and 30 min cool-
ing (5–30), and also 10 min heating and 40 min cooling (10–40).
The air temperature during intermittent drying ranged between
52 and 68 ◦ C and between 44 and 66 ◦ C on average, for modes 5–30
and 10–40 respectively. The aim of these studies was to examine the
relation between pretreatment (OD and UDOD) and variable drying
conditions. For cherry samples dried at changeable air tempera-
ture the time of drying was 395 min for mode (5–30) and 423 min
for mode (10–40) on average. Because the second process lasted
longer, it was decided to perform further tests with shorter cool-
ing cycles only. Fig. 2 shows the drying curves and the temperature
plots for drying in changeable conditions with and without osmotic
dehydration (AD (5–30), ODAD (5–30) and UDODAD (5–30)).
In the case of osmotically dehydrated cherries the total drying
time amounted to 374 min, but for cherries pretreated with ultra-
sounds it was only 330 min on average. As it follows from the graphs
in Fig. 2, the supply of cooler air into the chamber as well as the
osmotic dehydration affected the drying kinetics. Due to periodical
changes of air temperature it was managed to keep the samples
temperature at a safe level for a long time. The temperature curves
of the samples are slightly different for the tests presented in Fig. 2.
The biomaterials dehydrated by osmosis due to the sugar gain in
tissues were characterized by lower average temperature during
intermittent drying. The most efficient drying method for cherries
seems to be the third one (Fig. 2c), where the drying time was short-
ened by about 2 h, compared with that gained during air drying at
constant temperature (AD). Therefore, the combination of UDOD
and AD (5–30) significantly accelerated the moisture removal, and
what is important, giving at the same time a better quality of dried
material (Fig. 3).
3.3. Quality assessment
Fig. 3 presents the photos of cherry samples dried convectively
in stationary and intermittent conditions with and without osmotic
dehydration, assisted or not with ultrasounds. The samples dried
purely convectively both in constant air temperature or stepwise
changing air temperature were characterized by significant shrink-
age, hardening and discoloration (darkening), so the cherries dried
in this way were of poor quality. Sensory assessment of osmot-
ically dehydrated cherries showed that those samples possessed
better texture, while maintaining the soft flesh and aroma. But, in
the case of color, the quality of cherries dried in variable air tem-
perature preceded by osmosis was much better. However, the most
attractive appearance had the samples dried with stepwise chang-
ing air temperature and preceded by ultrasonic assisted osmosis.
These cherries had pleasant sweetish smell and preserved soft flesh
much more than cherries pretreated only in sugar solution and
dried intermittently.
The evaluation of cherries quality was based on the mea-
surement of color change (E) and water activity (aw ). Several
randomly chosen defrosted and dried cherry samples were
grounded in a mill IKA–Werke GmbH & Co. KG (Germany) to obtain
a homogeneous pulp. The color of prepared in this way material
was determined with the colorimeter. The anthocyanins being the
natural dyes of cherries provide their red color. They are highly
temperature sensitive, and the hue decreases rapidly with temper-
ature increase or oxidizing reactions, as well as due to the activity
of enzymes [29]. The results of color change between not processed
cherries and those subjected to osmotic dehydration and convec-
tive drying are presented in Fig. 4.
Degradation of anthocyanins revealed as a color change, and in
particular in decrease of lightness L* and color parameter a*, was
observed for all cherries after drying. The value of E obtained
for the samples dried solely convectively was the highest of all
other performed drying tests. It proves that a long-lasting hot
air drying in a high temperature causes a meaningful color alter-
ation. The results of E for the samples dried in intermittent
conditions are smaller than those dried at constant air temper-
ature. Furthermore, the osmotic pretreatment resulted in better
quality preservation after intermittent drying. However, the best
quality cherries from the color point of view were obtained after
 S.J. Kowalski, J. Szadzińska / Chemical Engineering and Processing 82 (2014) 65–70
Fig. 3. Appearance of cherry samples dried with different modes (please denote the three bottom figures: d, e, f instead e, f, g): (a) AD, (b) ODAD, (c) UDODAD, (d) AD (5–30),
(e) ODAD (5–30) and (f) UDODAD (5–30).
application of ultrasound assisted osmotic dehydration. It means,
that ultrasonic assisted osmotic dehydration combined with drying
in stepwise changing air temperature retains valuable antho-
cyanins and preserves attractive color by about 46%.
The second important indicator in the quality assessment
was the water activity, which affects many factors determining
the product stability, e.g. the development of microflora. Basi-
cally, a microbiologically safe biomaterial is characterized by the
water activity less than 0.6, however, this value does not exclude
enzymatic browning. The Maillard reactions appear unfortunately
mostly in the water activity ranged from 0.5 to 0.8. Nevertheless,
a reduction in aw value due to drying, minimizes the loss of food
quality caused by microbial activity [14,30]. Water activity of cherry
samples was measured before and after drying (3 h from the end
of the process). For this purpose a few cherries were grinded in a
mortar, then were placed in the converter chamber until the equi-
librium was reached. The measurements of aw changes are shown
in Fig. 5.
As it follows from the results showed in Fig. 5, the water activ-
ity values after drying for all drying tests was below 0.6. Therefore,
many harmful biochemical reactions responsible for rot and mold
growth slowed down. An average aw for all dried materials was
0.501 ± 0.006. However, the cherries preceded by osmotic dehy-
dration, and especially those with ultrasound assisted osmotic
dehydration, were revealed a significant decrease in water activ-
ity, i.e. by about 18% with respect to purely convective drying. In
the case of the intermittent drying test with ultrasound assisted
Fig. 4. Colorimetric data of cherry samples.
69
Fig. 5. Water activity data of cherry samples.
osmotic dewatering (UDODAD (5–30)), the dried cherries were
characterized by water activity of 0.440 ± 0.006.
4. Conclusions
The experiments presented in this article proved that the con-
vective drying tests of cherries preceded by osmotic dehydration in
sugar solution performed in constant conditions (ODAD) as well as
with intermittent mode (ODAD (5–30)) assisted with ultrasounds
were characterized by shorter drying time. In the case of continu-
ous mode with application of ultrasound energy the overall drying
time was shortened by about 40 min, i.e. from 438 min (ODAD) to
400 min (UDODAD) on average (Fig. 1b and c). Similarly, in the case
of cherries dried at a stepwise changing air temperature (5 min
on–30 min off) the total drying time was shortened due to ultra-
sounds from 374 min to 330 min on average, for the tests carried
out without (ODAD (5–30)) and with ultrasound assisted osmotic
dehydration (UDODAD (5–30)) respectively (Fig. 2b and c). As it
follows from the presented data, application of ultrasonic assisted
osmosis enabled to shorten the drying time by about 40 min, both
in stable and in intermittent conditions. However, the combination
of osmotic pretreatment with ultrasounds and convective inter-
mittent drying shortened the drying time more than an hour (i.e.
about 70 min), compared to continuous air drying preceded by
assisted UD osmosis. Moreover, a noticeable difference between
osmotic dehydration without and with power ultrasound, is shown
in Table 2, where the osmotic dehydration parameters such Water
70 S.J. Kowalski, J. Szadzińska / Chemical Engineering and Processing 82 (2014) 65–70
Loss (WL) and Solid Gain (SG) were presented. The values of WL
obtained for cherries after osmotic pretreatment with and without
ultrasounds differ from each other by 6 [% wb] and in the case of SG
it is 3 [% wb]. Thus, this is another proof except the drying time of
improvement in the drying process with ultrasound enhancement.
We can conclude then that convective drying with stepwise
changing air temperature preceded by ultrasonic assisted osmotic
dehydration minimizes the negative effects of hot air drying of heat
sensitive biomaterials like soft-tissue cherry fruit. The presented
results document that this method positively influences the drying
kinetics (reduces the overall drying time) as well as the bioproduct
quality. On the basis of the performed drying tests it can be con-
cluded that the most preferred drying method for cherries is the
intermittent drying with preliminary ultrasound assisted osmotic
dehydration. This drying method can reduce the total drying time
by about 2 h, with respect to drying in constant conditions with-
out osmotic pretreatment, and preserves the color as well as it can
extend the shelf life of dried fruits because of decrease in water
activity. In addition, the combination of the osmotic pretreatment
and the intermittent drying decreases also the total energy con-
sumption due to shortening the total drying time in hot air drying.
The studies presented in this paper clearly show that application
of ultrasounds in OD significantly increased its dewatering effi-
ciency (higher WL). Therefore, ultrasonic enhancement of osmotic
dehydration is an excellent additional power source to air drying
influencing positively the quality characteristics of dried biomate-
rials. It is also a relevant alternative to other preliminary treatments
before drying processes.
Due to osmotic pretreatment enhanced ultrasonically, the dehy-
dration of cherries was not only more efficient process (higher WL)
but it also led to a better durability of cherries.
Acknowledgments
This work was carried out as part of a research project; No.
2012/05/B/ST8/01773 sponsored by the National Science Center
Poland.
References
[1] K.S. Jayaraman, D.K. Das Gupta, Drying of fruits and vegetables, in: A.S. Mujum-
dar (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial Drying, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2006, pp.
606–631.
[2] S.P. Ong, C.L. Law, Hygrothermal properties of various foods, vegetables
and fruits, in: S.V. Jangam, C.L. Law, A.S. Mujumdar (Eds.), Drying of Foods,
Vegetables and Fruits, vol. 1, TPR Group, Singapore, 2010, pp. 31–58, ISBN-
978-981-08-6759-1.
[3] M.K. Krokida, C.T. Kiranoudis, Z.B. Maroulis, D. Marinos-Kouris, Drying related
properties of apple, Dry. Technol. 18 (6) (2000) 1251–1267.
[4] K.J. Chua, A.S. Mujumdar, S.K. Chou, Intermittent drying of bioproducts – an
overview, Bioresour. Technol. 90 (3) (2003) 285–295.
[5] J.C. Ho, S.K. Chou, K.J. Chua, A.S. Mujumdar, M.N.A. Hawlader, Analytical of cyclic
temperature drying: effect on drying kinetics and product quality, J. Food Eng.
51 (2002) 65–75.
[6] C. Kumar, M.A. Karim, M.U.H. Joardder, Intermittent drying of food products: a
critical review, J. Food Eng. 121 (2014) 48–57.
[7] Y.K. Pan, L.J. Zhao, Z.X. Dong, A.S. Mujumdar, T. Kudra, Intermittent drying of
carrot in a vibrated fluid bed: effect on product quality, Dry. Technol. 17 (1999)
2323–2340.
[8] O. Thomkapanich, P. Suvarnakuta, S. Devahastin, Study of intermittent low-
pressure superheated steam and vacuum drying of a heat-sensitive material,
Dry. Technol. 25 (1) (2007) 205–223.
[9] S.P. Ong, C.L. Law, C.L. Hii, Optimization of heat pump-assisted intermittent
drying, Dry. Technol. 30 (15) (2012) 1676–1687.
[10] Y.H. Hui, Handbook of Fruits and Fruit Processing, Blackwell Publishing, Ames,
IA, 2006.
[11] R.K. Moazzam, Osmotic dehydration technique for fruits preservation – a
review, Pak. J. Food Sci. 22 (2) (2012) 71–85.
[12] S.J. Kowalski, D. Mierzwa, Influence of osmotic pretreatment on kinetics of
convective drying and quality of apples, Dry. Technol. 31 (2013) 1849–1855.
[13] Y.K. Pan, L.J. Zhao, Y. Zhang, G. Chen, A.S. Mujumdar, Osmotic dehydration
pretreatment in drying of fruits and vegetables, Dry. Technol. 21 (6) (2003)
1101–1114.
[14] Z.E. Sikorski, Food Chemistry (Vol. 1) Food Ingredients, WNT, Warsaw, 2007.
[15] T. Labuza, S. Tannenbaum, M. Karel, Water content and stability of low-
moisture and intermediate-moisture foods, Food Technol. 24 (5) (1970)
543–544, 546–548, & 550.
[16] P.P. Lewicki, A. Lenart, Osmotic dehydration of fruits and vegetables, in: A.S.
Mujumdar (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial Drying, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2006,
pp. 665–681.
[17] C. Bonazzi, E. Dumoulin, Quality changes in food materials as influenced by
drying processes, in: E. Tsotsas, A.S. Mujumdar (Eds.), Modern Drying Technol-
ogy Volume 3: Product Quality and Formulation, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH &
Co. KGaA, Weinheim, Germany, 2011, pp. 1–20.
[18] T.J. Mason, E. Riera, A. Vercet, P. Lopez-Buesa, Application of ultrasound, in:
D.-W. Sun (Ed.), Emerging Technologies for Food Processing, Academic Press,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2005, pp. 323–351.
[19] J. Frias, E. Peñas, M. Ullate, C. Vidal-Valverde, Influence of drying by convec-
tive air dryer or power ultrasound on the vitamin C and ˇ-carotene content of
carrots, J. Agric. Food Chem. 58 (2010) 10539–10544.
[20] A. Rawson, B.K. Tiwari, M.G. Tuohy, C.P. O’Donnell, N. Brunton, Effect of ultra-
sound and blanching pretreatments on polyacetylene and carotenoid content of
hot air and freeze dried carrot discs, Ultrason. Sonochem. 18 (2011) 1172–1179.
[21] H.T. Sabarez, J.A. Gallego-Juarez, E. Riera, Ultrasonic-assisted convective drying
of apple slices, Dry. Technol. 30 (9) (2012) 989–997.
[22] M. Nowacka, A. Wiktor, M. Śledź, N. Jurek, D. Witrowa-Rajchert, Drying of ultra-
sound pretreated apple and its selected physical properties, J. Food Eng. 113
(2012) 427–433.
[23] F.A.N. Fernandes, M.I. Gallão, S. Rodrigues, Effect of osmosis and ultrasound
on pineapple cell tissue structure during dehydration, J. Food Eng. 90 (2009)
186–190.
[24] M. Stéger-Máté, Speciality fruits unique to Hungary, in: Y.H. Hui (Ed.), Hand-
book of Fruits and Fruit Processing, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2006, pp.
665–670.
[25] H. Wang, M.G. Nair, G.M. Strasburg, Y.-C. Chang, A.M. Booren, J.I. Gray, D.L.
Dewitt, Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of anthocyanins and their
aglycon, cyanidin, from tart cherries, J. Nat. Prod. 62 (1999) 294–296.
[26] D. Konopacka, K. Jesionkowska, R. Klewicki, C. Bonazzi, The effect of different
osmotic agent on sensory perception of osmo-treated dried fruit, J. Hortic. Sci.
Biotechnol. (2009) 80–84 (ISAFRUIT special issue) www.jhortscib.com/isafruit/
isa pp080 084.pdf
[27] S.J. Kowalski, J. Szadzińska, J. Łechtańska, Non-stationary drying of carrot: effect
on product quality, J. Food Eng. 118 (4) (2013) 393–399.
[28] S. Fuente-Blanco, E.R.F. Sarabia, V.M. Acosta-Aparicio, A. Blanco- Blanco, J.A.
Gallego- Juárez, Food drying process by power ultrasound, Ultrason. Sonochem.
44 (2006) 523–527.
[29] S. Zalewski, Fundamentals of Gastronomic Technology, WNT, Warszawa, 2009
(in Polish).
[30] M. Saltmarch, T.P. Labuza, Nonenzymatic browning via the Maillard reaction
in foods, Diabetes 31 (3) (1982) 29–36.