Ernest Hemingway - American Novelist and Nobel Prize Winner

26/06/2021 Ernest Hemingway - Wikipedia
Ernest Hemingway
Ernest Miller Hemingway (July 21, 1899 – July 2,
1961) was an American novelist, short-story writer, Ernest Hemingway
journalist, and sportsman. His economical and
understated style—which he termed the iceberg theory—
had a strong influence on 20th-century fiction, while his
adventurous lifestyle and his public image brought him
admiration from later generations. Hemingway produced
most of his work between the mid-1920s and the mid-
1950s, and he was awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize in
Literature. He published seven novels, six short-story
collections, and two nonfiction works. Three of his novels,
four short-story collections, and three nonfiction works
were published posthumously. Many of his works are
considered classics of American literature.
Hemingway was raised in Oak Park, Illinois. After high

school, he was a reporter for a few months for The Kansas
Hemingway working on his book For Whom
City Star before leaving for the Italian Front to enlist as an
ambulance driver in World War I. In 1918, he was the Bell Tolls at the Sun Valley Lodge,
seriously wounded and returned home. His wartime Idaho, in December 1939
experiences formed the basis for his novel A Farewell to Born July 21, 1899
Arms (1929). Oak Park, Illinois, U.S.

Died July 2, 1961 (aged 61)
In 1921, Hemingway married Hadley Richardson, the first

Ketchum, Idaho, U.S.
of four wives. They moved to Paris where he worked as a
foreign correspondent and fell under the influence of the Notable Pulitzer Prize for Fiction (1953)
awards Nobel Prize in Literature (1954)

modernist writers and artists of the 1920s' "Lost
Generation" expatriate community. His debut novel The Spouses Hadley Richardson
Sun Also Rises was published in 1926. He divorced (m. 1921; div. 1927)
Richardson in 1927. He married Pauline Pfeiffer. They Pauline Pfeiffer

divorced after he returned from the Spanish Civil War (m. 1927; div. 1940)
(1936–1939), which he covered as a journalist and which Martha Gellhorn

was the basis for his novel For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940). (m. 1940; div. 1945)
Martha Gellhorn became his third wife in 1940. He and Mary Welsh Hemingway
Gellhorn separated after he met Mary Welsh in London (m. 1946)
during World War II. Hemingway was present with Allied Children Jack Hemingway
troops as a journalist at the Normandy landings and the Patrick Hemingway
liberation of Paris. Gregory Hemingway

Signature
Hemingway maintained permanent residences in Key
West, Florida (in the 1930s) and in Cuba (in the 1940s and
1950s). He almost died in 1954 after plane crashes on
successive days, with injuries leaving him in pain and ill health for much of the rest of his life. In
1959, he bought a house in Ketchum, Idaho where, in mid-1961, he committed suicide.
Contents
Life
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway 1/26
Early life
World War I
Toronto and Chicago
Paris
Key West and the Caribbean
Spanish Civil War
Cuba
World War II
Cuba and the Nobel Prize
Idaho and suicide
Artistry
Writing style
Themes
Influence and legacy
Selected works
See also
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Life
Early life
Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park,
Illinois, an affluent suburb just west of Chicago,[1] to Clarence Edmonds
Hemingway, a physician, and Grace Hall Hemingway, a musician. His
parents were well-educated and well-respected in Oak Park,[2] a
conservative community about which resident Frank Lloyd Wright said,
"So many churches for so many good people to go to."[3] When Clarence
and Grace Hemingway married in 1896, they lived with Grace's father,
Ernest Miller Hall,[4] after whom they named their first son, the second
of their six children.[2] His sister Marcelline preceded him in 1898,
followed by Ursula in 1902, Madelaine in 1904, Carol in 1911, and
Leicester in 1915.[2] Grace followed the Victorian convention of not
differentiating children's clothing by gender. With only a year separating
the two, Ernest and Marcelline resembled one-another strongly. Grace Hemingway was the second
wanted them to appear as twins, so in Ernest's first three years she kept child and first son born to
his hair long and dressed both children in similarly frilly feminine Clarence and Grace
clothing.[5]
Hemingway's mother, a well-known musician in the village,[6] taught her son to play the cello despite
his refusal to learn; though later in life he admitted the music lessons contributed to his writing style,
evidenced for example in the "contrapuntal structure" of For Whom the Bell Tolls.[7] As an adult
Hemingway professed to hate his mother, although biographer Michael S. Reynolds points out that
he shared similar energies and enthusiasms.[6]

Each summer the
family traveled to Windemere on Walloon Lake, near Petoskey,
Michigan. There young Ernest joined his father and learned to
hunt, fish, and camp in the woods and lakes of Northern
Michigan, early experiences that instilled a life-long passion for
outdoor adventure and living in remote or isolated areas.[8]
Hemingway attended Oak Park and River Forest High School in

Oak Park from 1913 until 1917. He was a good athlete, involved
with a number of sports—boxing, track and field, water polo, and
The Hemingway family in 1905
football; performed in the school orchestra for two years with his
(from the left): Marcelline, Sunny,
Clarence, Grace, Ursula, and Ernest
sister Marcelline; and received good grades in English classes.[6]
During his last two years at high school he edited the Trapeze
and Tabula (the school's newspaper and yearbook), where he
imitated the language of sportswriters and used the pen name Ring Lardner Jr.—a nod to Ring
Lardner of the Chicago Tribune whose byline was "Line O'Type".[9] Like Mark Twain, Stephen Crane,
Theodore Dreiser, and Sinclair Lewis, Hemingway was a journalist before becoming a novelist. After
leaving high school he went to work for The Kansas City Star as a cub reporter.[9] Although he stayed
there for only six months, he relied on the Star's style guide as a foundation for his writing: "Use
short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative."[10]
World War I
In December 1917, after being rejected by the U.S. Army for poor
eyesight,[11] Hemingway responded to a Red Cross recruitment effort
and signed on to be an ambulance driver in Italy,[12] In May 1918, he
sailed from New York, and arrived in Paris as the city was under
bombardment from German artillery.[13] That June he arrived at the
Italian Front. On his first day in Milan, he was sent to the scene of a
munitions factory explosion to join rescuers retrieving the shredded
remains of female workers. He described the incident in his 1932 non-
fiction book Death in the Afternoon: "I remember that after we searched
quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected fragments."[14] A
few days later, he was stationed at Fossalta di Piave.[14]
On July 8, he was seriously wounded by mortar fire, having just

returned from the canteen bringing chocolate and cigarettes for the men
at the front line.[14] Despite his wounds, Hemingway assisted Italian
soldiers to safety, for which he was decorated with the Italian War Merit Hemingway in uniform in
Cross, the Croce al Merito di Guerra.[note 1][15] He was still only 18 at the Milan, 1918. He drove
time. Hemingway later said of the incident: "When you go to war as a ambulances for two months
until he was wounded.
boy you have a great illusion of immortality. Other people get killed; not
you ... Then when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that
illusion and you know it can happen to you."[16] He sustained severe
shrapnel wounds to both legs, underwent an immediate operation at a distribution center, and spent
five days at a field hospital before he was transferred for recuperation to the Red Cross hospital in
Milan.[17] He spent six months at the hospital, where he met and formed a strong friendship with
"Chink" Dorman-Smith that lasted for decades and shared a room with future American foreign
service officer, ambassador, and author Henry Serrano Villard.[18]
While recuperating he fell in love with Agnes von Kurowsky, a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior.
When Hemingway returned to the United States in January 1919, he believed Agnes would join him
within months and the two would marry. Instead, he received a letter in March with her
announcement that she was engaged to an Italian officer.

Biographer Jeffrey Meyers writes Agnes's rejection devastated
and scarred the young man; in future relationships, Hemingway
followed a pattern of abandoning a wife before she abandoned
him.[19]
Toronto and Chicago
Hemingway returned home early in 1919 to a time of

readjustment. Before the age of 20, he had gained from the war a
maturity that was at odds with living at home without a job and
with the need for recuperation.[20] As Reynolds explains,
"Hemingway could not really tell his parents what he thought
when he saw his bloody knee." He was not able to tell them how
scared he had been "in another country with surgeons who could
not tell him in English if his leg was coming off or not."[21]
Hemingway in American Red Cross
Hospital, July 1918 In September, he took a fishing and camping trip with high
school friends to the back-country of Michigan's Upper
Peninsula.[16] The trip became the inspiration for his short story
"Big Two-Hearted River", in which the semi-autobiographical character Nick Adams takes to the
country to find solitude after returning from war.[22] A family friend offered him a job in Toronto,
and with nothing else to do, he accepted. Late that year he began as a freelancer and staff writer for
the Toronto Star Weekly. He returned to Michigan the following June[20] and then moved to Chicago
in September 1920 to live with friends, while still filing stories for the Toronto Star.[23] In Chicago,
he worked as an associate editor of the monthly journal Cooperative Commonwealth, where he met
novelist Sherwood Anderson.[23]
When St. Louis native Hadley Richardson came to Chicago to visit the sister of Hemingway's
roommate, Hemingway became infatuated. He later claimed, "I knew she was the girl I was going to
marry."[24] Hadley, red-haired, with a "nurturing instinct," was eight years older than
Hemingway.[24] Despite the age difference, Hadley, who had grown up with an overprotective
mother, seemed less mature than usual for a young woman her age.[25] Bernice Kert, author of The
Hemingway Women, claims Hadley was "evocative" of Agnes, but that Hadley had a childishness
that Agnes lacked. The two corresponded for a few months and then decided to marry and travel to
Europe.[24] They wanted to visit Rome, but Sherwood Anderson convinced them to visit Paris
instead, writing letters of introduction for the young couple.[26] They were married on September 3,
1921; two months later, Hemingway was hired as a foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star, and
the couple left for Paris. Of Hemingway's marriage to Hadley, Meyers claims: "With Hadley,
Hemingway achieved everything he had hoped for with Agnes: the love of a beautiful woman, a
comfortable income, a life in Europe."[27]
Paris
Carlos Baker, Hemingway's first biographer, believes that while Anderson suggested Paris because
"the monetary exchange rate" made it an inexpensive place to live, more importantly, it was where
"the most interesting people in the world" lived. In Paris, Hemingway met American writer and art
collector Gertrude Stein, Irish novelist James Joyce, American poet Ezra Pound (who "could help a
young writer up the rungs of a career"[26]) and other writers.
The Hemingway of the early Paris years was a "tall, handsome, muscular, broad-shouldered, brown-
eyed, rosy-cheeked, square-jawed, soft-voiced young man."[28] He and Hadley lived in a small walk-
up at 74 rue du Cardinal Lemoine in the Latin Quarter, and he worked in a rented room in a nearby
building.[26] Stein, who was the bastion of modernism in Paris,[29]

became Hemingway's mentor and godmother to his son Jack;[30] she
introduced him to the expatriate artists and writers of the Montparnasse
Quarter, whom she referred to as the "Lost Generation"—a term
Hemingway popularized with the publication of The Sun Also Rises.[31]
A regular at Stein's salon, Hemingway met influential painters such as
Pablo Picasso, Joan Miró, and Juan Gris.[32] He eventually withdrew
from Stein's influence and their relationship deteriorated into a literary
quarrel that spanned decades.[33] Ezra Pound met Hemingway by
chance at Sylvia Beach's bookshop Shakespeare and Company in 1922.
The two toured Italy in 1923 and lived on the same street in 1924.[28]
They forged a strong friendship, and in Hemingway, Pound recognized
and fostered a young talent.[32] Pound introduced Hemingway to James Hemingway's 1923
Joyce, with whom Hemingway frequently embarked on "alcoholic passport photo. At this time,
sprees".[34] he lived in Paris with his
wife Hadley, and worked as
During his first 20 months in Paris, Hemingway filed 88 stories for the a foreign correspondent for
Toronto Star newspaper.[35] He covered the Greco-Turkish War, where the Toronto Star Weekly.
he witnessed the burning of Smyrna, and wrote travel pieces such as
"Tuna Fishing in Spain" and "Trout Fishing All Across Europe: Spain
Has the Best, Then Germany".[36] He described also the retreat of the Greek army with civilians from
East Thrace.[37]
Hemingway was devastated on learning that Hadley had lost a suitcase filled with his manuscripts at
the Gare de Lyon as she was traveling to Geneva to meet him in December 1922.[38] The following
September, the couple returned to Toronto, where their son John Hadley Nicanor was born on
October 10, 1923. During their absence, Hemingway's first book, Three Stories and Ten Poems, was
published. Two of the stories it contained were all that remained after the loss of the suitcase, and the
third had been written early the previous year in Italy. Within months a second volume, in our time
(without capitals), was published. The small volume included six vignettes and a dozen stories
Hemingway had written the previous summer during his first visit to Spain, where he discovered the
thrill of the corrida. He missed Paris, considered Toronto boring, and wanted to return to the life of a
writer, rather than live the life of a journalist.[39]
Hemingway, Hadley and their son (nicknamed Bumby) returned to Paris in January 1924 and moved
into a new apartment on the rue Notre-Dame des Champs.[39] Hemingway helped Ford Madox Ford
edit The Transatlantic Review, which published works by Pound, John Dos Passos, Baroness Elsa
von Freytag-Loringhoven, and Stein, as well as some of Hemingway's own early stories such as
"Indian Camp".[40] When In Our Time was published in 1925, the dust jacket bore comments from
Ford.[41][42] "Indian Camp" received considerable praise; Ford saw it as an important early story by a
young writer,[43] and critics in the United States praised Hemingway for reinvigorating the short
story genre with his crisp style and use of declarative sentences.[44] Six months earlier, Hemingway
had met F. Scott Fitzgerald, and the pair formed a friendship of "admiration and hostility".[45]
Fitzgerald had published The Great Gatsby the same year: Hemingway read it, liked it, and decided
his next work had to be a novel.[46]
With his wife Hadley, Hemingway first visited the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona, Spain, in
1923, where he became fascinated by bullfighting.[47] It is at this time that he began to be referred to
as "Papa", even by much older friends. Hadley would much later recall that Hemingway had his own
nicknames for everyone and that he often did things for his friends; she suggested that he liked to be
looked up to. She didn't remember precisely how the nickname came into being; however, it certainly
stuck.[48][49] The Hemingways returned to Pamplona in 1924 and a third time in June 1925; that year
they brought with them a group of American and British expatriates: Hemingway's Michigan
boyhood friend Bill Smith, Donald Ogden Stewart, Lady Duff Twysden (recently divorced), her lover
Pat Guthrie, and Harold Loeb.[50] A few

days after the fiesta ended, on his birthday
(July 21), he began to write the draft of
what would become The Sun Also Rises,
finishing eight weeks later.[51] A few
months later, in December 1925, the
Hemingways left to spend the winter in
Schruns, Austria, where Hemingway
began revising the manuscript extensively.
Pauline Pfeiffer joined them in January
and against Hadley's advice, urged
Hemingway to sign a contract with
Scribner's. He left Austria for a quick trip
to New York to meet with the publishers,
and on his return, during a stop in Paris,
Ernest, Hadley, and their son Ernest Hemingway with Lady began an affair with Pfeiffer, before
Jack ("Bumby") in Schruns, Duff Twysden, Hadley, and returning to Schruns to finish the
Austria, 1926, just months friends, during the July 1925 trip
before they separated
revisions in March.[52] The manuscript
to Spain that inspired The Sun
arrived in New York in April; he corrected
Also Rises
the final proof in Paris in August 1926,
and Scribner's published the novel in
October.[51][53][54]
The Sun Also Rises epitomized the post-

war expatriate generation,[55] received
good reviews and is "recognized as
Hemingway's greatest work".[56]
Hemingway himself later wrote to his
editor Max Perkins that the "point of the
book" was not so much about a generation
being lost, but that "the earth abideth forever"; he believed the characters in The Sun Also Rises may
have been "battered" but were not lost.[57]
Hemingway's marriage to Hadley deteriorated as he was working on The Sun Also Rises.[54] In early
1926, Hadley became aware of his affair with Pfeiffer, who came to Pamplona with them that
July.[58][59] On their return to Paris, Hadley asked for a separation; in November she formally
requested a divorce. They split their possessions while Hadley accepted Hemingway's offer of the
proceeds from The Sun Also Rises.[60] The couple were divorced in January 1927, and Hemingway
married Pfeiffer in May.[61]
Pfeiffer, who was from a wealthy Catholic Arkansas family, had

moved to Paris to work for Vogue magazine. Before their
marriage, Hemingway converted to Catholicism.[62] They
honeymooned in Le Grau-du-Roi, where he contracted anthrax,
and he planned his next collection of short stories,[63] Men
Without Women, which was published in October 1927,[64] and
included his boxing story "Fifty Grand". Cosmopolitan magazine
editor-in-chief Ray Long praised "Fifty Grand", calling it, "one of
the best short stories that ever came to my hands ... the best
prize-fight story I ever read ... a remarkable piece of realism."[65] Ernest and Pauline Hemingway in
Paris, 1927
By the end of the year Pauline, who was pregnant, wanted to
move back to America. John Dos Passos recommended Key West,
and they left Paris in March 1928. Hemingway suffered a severe injury in their Paris bathroom when
he pulled a skylight down on his head thinking he was pulling on a toilet chain. This left him with a
prominent forehead scar, which he carried for the rest of his life. When Hemingway was asked about
the scar, he was reluctant to answer.[66] After his departure from Paris, Hemingway "never again
lived in a big city".[67]
Key West and the Caribbean
Hemingway and Pauline traveled to Kansas City, where their son

Patrick was born on June 28, 1928. Pauline had a difficult
delivery; Hemingway fictionalized a version of the event as a part
of A Farewell to Arms. After Patrick's birth, Pauline and
Hemingway traveled to Wyoming, Massachusetts, and New
York.[68] In the winter, he was in New York with Bumby, about to
board a train to Florida, when he received a cable telling him that
his father had killed himself.[note 2][69] Hemingway was
The Hemingway House in Key
devastated, having earlier written to his father telling him not to West, Florida, where he lived
worry about financial difficulties; the letter arrived minutes after between 1931 and 1939 and where
the suicide. He realized how Hadley must have felt after her own he wrote To Have and Have Not
father's suicide in 1903, and he commented, "I'll probably go the
same way."[70]
Upon his return to Key West in December, Hemingway worked on the draft of A Farewell to Arms
before leaving for France in January. He had finished it in August but delayed the revision. The
serialization in Scribner's Magazine was scheduled to begin in May, but as late as April, Hemingway
was still working on the ending, which he may have rewritten as many as seventeen times. The
completed novel was published on September 27.[71] Biographer James Mellow believes A Farewell
to Arms established Hemingway's stature as a major American writer and displayed a level of
complexity not apparent in The Sun Also Rises.(The story was turned into a play by war veteran
Laurence Stallings which was the basis for the film starring Gary Cooper.)[72] In Spain in mid-1929,
Hemingway researched his next work, Death in the Afternoon. He wanted to write a comprehensive
treatise on bullfighting, explaining the toreros and corridas complete with glossaries and appendices,
because he believed bullfighting was "of great tragic interest, being literally of life and death."[73]
During the early 1930s, Hemingway spent his winters in Key West and summers in Wyoming, where
he found "the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West" and hunted deer, elk, and
grizzly bear.[74] He was joined there by Dos Passos, and in November 1930, after bringing Dos Passos
to the train station in Billings, Montana, Hemingway broke his arm in a car accident. The surgeon
tended the compound spiral fracture and bound the bone with kangaroo tendon. Hemingway was
hospitalized for seven weeks, with Pauline tending to him; the nerves in his writing hand took as long
as a year to heal, during which time he suffered intense pain.[75]
His third son, Gregory Hancock Hemingway, was born a year later on November 12, 1931, in Kansas
City.[76][note 3] Pauline's uncle bought the couple a house in Key West with a carriage house, the
second floor of which was converted into a writing studio.[77] While in Key West, Hemingway
frequented the local bar Sloppy Joe's.[78] He invited friends—including Waldo Peirce, Dos Passos,
and Max Perkins[79]—to join him on fishing trips and on an all-male expedition to the Dry Tortugas.
Meanwhile, he continued to travel to Europe and to Cuba, and—although in 1933 he wrote of Key
West, "We have a fine house here, and kids are all well"—Mellow believes he "was plainly
restless".[80]
In 1933, Hemingway and Pauline went on safari to Kenya. The 10-week trip provided material for
Green Hills of Africa, as well as for the short stories "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" and "The Short
Happy Life of Francis Macomber".[81] The couple visited Mombasa, Nairobi, and Machakos in Kenya;
then moved on to Tanganyika Territory, where they hunted in the Serengeti, around Lake Manyara,
and west and southeast of present-day Tarangire National Park.

Their guide was the noted "white hunter" Philip Percival who had
guided Theodore Roosevelt on his 1909 safari. During these
travels, Hemingway contracted amoebic dysentery that caused a
prolapsed intestine, and he was evacuated by plane to Nairobi, an
experience reflected in "The Snows of Kilimanjaro". On
Hemingway's return to Key West in early 1934, he began work on
Green Hills of Africa, which he published in 1935 to mixed
reviews.[82]
Ernest, Pauline, Bumby, Patrick,

Hemingway bought a boat in 1934, named it the Pilar, and began
and Gregory Hemingway pose with sailing the Caribbean.[83] In 1935 he first arrived at Bimini,
marlins after a fishing trip to Bimini where he spent a considerable amount of time.[81] During this
in 1935 period he also worked on To Have and Have Not, published in
1937 while he was in Spain, the only novel he wrote during the
1930s.[84]
Spanish Civil War
In 1937, Hemingway left for Spain to cover the Spanish Civil War
for the North American Newspaper Alliance (NANA), despite
Pauline's reluctance to have him working in a war zone.[85] He
and Dos Passos both signed on to work with Dutch filmmaker
Joris Ivens as screenwriters for The Spanish Earth.[86] Dos
Passos left the project after the execution of José Robles, his
friend and Spanish translator,[87] which caused a rift between the
two writers.[88]
Hemingway (center) with Dutch
Hemingway was joined in Spain by journalist and writer Martha filmmaker Joris Ivens and German
Gellhorn, who he had met in Key West a year earlier. Like writer Ludwig Renn (serving as an
Hadley, Martha was a St. Louis native, and like Pauline, she had International Brigades officer) in
worked for Vogue in Paris. Of Martha, Kert explains, "she never Spain during Spanish Civil War,
1937
catered to him the way other women did".[89] In July 1937 he
attended the Second International Writers' Congress, the
purpose of which was to discuss the attitude of intellectuals to the
war, held in Valencia, Barcelona and Madrid and attended by many writers including André Malraux,
Stephen Spender and Pablo Neruda.[90] Late in 1937, while in Madrid with Martha, Hemingway
wrote his only play, The Fifth Column, as the city was being bombarded by Francoist forces.[91] He
returned to Key West for a few months, then back to Spain twice in 1938, where he was present at the
Battle of the Ebro, the last republican stand, and he was among the British and American journalists
who were some of the last to leave the battle as they crossed the river.[92][93]
Cuba
In early 1939, Hemingway crossed to Cuba in his boat to live in the Hotel Ambos Mundos in Havana.
This was the separation phase of a slow and painful split from Pauline, which began when
Hemingway met Martha Gellhorn.[94] Martha soon joined him in Cuba, and they rented "Finca Vigía"
("Lookout Farm"), a 15-acre (61,000 m2) property 15 miles (24 km) from Havana. Pauline and the
children left Hemingway that summer, after the family was reunited during a visit to Wyoming; when
his divorce from Pauline was finalized, he and Martha were married on November 20, 1940 in
Cheyenne, Wyoming.[95]
Hemingway moved his primary summer

residence to Ketchum, Idaho, just
outside the newly built resort of Sun
Valley, and moved his winter residence
to Cuba.[96] He had been disgusted
when a Parisian friend allowed his cats
to eat from the table, but he became
enamored of cats in Cuba and kept
dozens of them on the property.[97]
Descendants of his cats live at his Key
West home. Hemingway with his third wife
Hemingway and sons
Martha Gellhorn, posing with
Patrick (left) and Gregory,
Gellhorn inspired him to write his most General Yu Hanmou, Chungking,
with three cats at Finca Vigía
famous novel For Whom the Bell Tolls, China, 1941
c. mid-1942
which he started in March 1939 and
finished in July 1940. It was published
in October 1940.[98] His pattern was to
move around while working on a manuscript, and he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls in Cuba,
Wyoming, and Sun Valley.[94] It became a Book-of-the-Month Club choice, sold half a million copies
within months, was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize and, in the words of Meyers, "triumphantly re-
established Hemingway's literary reputation".[99]
In January 1941, Martha was sent to China on assignment for Collier's magazine.[100] Hemingway
went with her, sending in dispatches for the newspaper PM, but in general he disliked China.[100] A
2009 book suggests during that period he may have been recruited to work for Soviet intelligence
agents under the name "Agent Argo".[101] They returned to Cuba before the declaration of war by the
United States that December, when he convinced the Cuban government to help him refit the Pilar,
which he intended to use to ambush German submarines off the coast of Cuba.[16]
World War II
Hemingway was in Europe from May 1944 to March 1945. When he

arrived in London, he met Time magazine correspondent Mary Welsh,
with whom he became infatuated. Martha had been forced to cross the
Atlantic in a ship filled with explosives because Hemingway refused to
help her get a press pass on a plane, and she arrived in London to find
him hospitalized with a concussion from a car accident. She was
unsympathetic to his plight; she accused him of being a bully and told
him that she was "through, absolutely finished".[102] The last time that
Hemingway saw Martha was in March 1945 as he was preparing to
return to Cuba,[103] and their divorce was finalized later that year.[102]
Meanwhile, he had asked Mary Welsh to marry him on their third
meeting.[102]
Hemingway with Col.
Hemingway accompanied the troops to the Normandy Landings wearing Charles "Buck" Lanham in
a large head bandage, according to Meyers, but he was considered Germany, 1944, during the
"precious cargo" and not allowed ashore.[104] The landing craft came fighting in Hürtgenwald,
within sight of Omaha Beach before coming under enemy fire and after which he became ill
with pneumonia.
turning back. Hemingway later wrote in Collier's that he could see "the
first, second, third, fourth and fifth waves of [landing troops] lay where
they had fallen, looking like so many heavily laden bundles on the flat
pebbly stretch between the sea and first cover".[105] Mellow explains that, on that first day, none of
the correspondents were allowed to land and Hemingway was returned to the Dorothea Dix.[106]
Late in July, he attached himself to "the 22nd Infantry Regiment commanded by Col. Charles "Buck"
Lanham, as it drove toward Paris", and Hemingway became de facto leader to a small band of village
militia in Rambouillet outside of Paris.[107] Paul Fussell remarks: "Hemingway got into considerable
trouble playing infantry captain to a group of Resistance people that he gathered because a
correspondent is not supposed to lead troops, even if he does it well."[16] This was in fact in
contravention of the Geneva Convention, and Hemingway was brought up on formal charges; he said
that he "beat the rap" by claiming that he only offered advice.[108]
On August 25, he was present at the liberation of Paris as a journalist; contrary to the Hemingway
legend, he was not the first into the city, nor did he liberate the Ritz.[109] In Paris, he visited Sylvia
Beach and Pablo Picasso with Mary Welsh, who joined him there; in a spirit of happiness, he forgave
Gertrude Stein.[110] Later that year, he observed heavy fighting in the Battle of Hürtgen Forest.[109]
On December 17, 1944, he had himself driven to Luxembourg in spite of illness to cover The Battle of
the Bulge. As soon as he arrived, however, Lanham handed him to the doctors, who hospitalized him
with pneumonia; he recovered a week later, but most of the fighting was over.[108]
In 1947, Hemingway was awarded a Bronze Star for his bravery during World War II. He was
recognized for having been "under fire in combat areas in order to obtain an accurate picture of
conditions", with the commendation that "through his talent of expression, Mr. Hemingway enabled
readers to obtain a vivid picture of the difficulties and triumphs of the front-line soldier and his
organization in combat".[16]
Cuba and the Nobel Prize
Hemingway said he "was out of business as a writer" from 1942 to 1945 during his residence in
Cuba.[111] In 1946 he married Mary, who had an ectopic pregnancy five months later. The Hemingway
family suffered a series of accidents and health problems in the years following the war: in a 1945 car
accident, he "smashed his knee" and sustained another "deep wound on his forehead"; Mary broke
first her right ankle and then her left in successive skiing accidents. A 1947 car accident left Patrick
with a head wound and severely ill.[112] Hemingway sank into depression as his literary friends began
to die: in 1939 William Butler Yeats and Ford Madox Ford; in 1940 F. Scott Fitzgerald; in 1941
Sherwood Anderson and James Joyce; in 1946 Gertrude Stein; and the following year in 1947, Max
Perkins, Hemingway's long-time Scribner's editor, and friend.[113] During this period, he suffered
from severe headaches, high blood pressure, weight problems, and eventually diabetes—much of
which was the result of previous accidents and many years of heavy drinking.[114] Nonetheless, in
January 1946, he began work on The Garden of Eden, finishing 800 pages by June.[115][note 4] During
the post-war years, he also began work on a trilogy tentatively titled "The Land", "The Sea" and "The
Air", which he wanted to combine in one novel titled The Sea Book. However, both projects stalled,
and Mellow says that Hemingway's inability to continue was "a symptom of his troubles" during these
years.[116][note 5]
In 1948, Hemingway and Mary traveled to Europe, staying in Venice for several months. While there,
Hemingway fell in love with the then 19-year-old Adriana Ivancich. The platonic love affair inspired
the novel Across the River and into the Trees, written in Cuba during a time of strife with Mary, and
published in 1950 to negative reviews.[117] The following year, furious at the critical reception of
Across the River and Into the Trees, he wrote the draft of The Old Man and the Sea in eight weeks,
saying that it was "the best I can write ever for all of my life".[114] The Old Man and the Sea became a
book-of-the-month selection, made Hemingway an international celebrity, and won the Pulitzer Prize
in May 1952, a month before he left for his second trip to Africa.[118][119]
In 1954, while in Africa, Hemingway was almost fatally injured in two successive plane crashes. He
chartered a sightseeing flight over the Belgian Congo as a Christmas present to Mary. On their way to
photograph Murchison Falls from the air, the plane struck an abandoned utility pole and "crash
landed in heavy brush". Hemingway's injuries included a head wound, while Mary broke two
ribs.[120] The next day, attempting to

reach medical care in Entebbe, they
boarded a second plane that exploded at
take-off, with Hemingway suffering
burns and another concussion, this one
serious enough to cause leaking of
cerebral fluid.[121] They eventually
arrived in Entebbe to find reporters
covering the story of Hemingway's
death. He briefed the reporters and
spent the next few weeks recuperating
Hemingway and Mary in Africa Hemingway showing crash and
and reading his erroneous
before the two plane accidents brushfire injuries to hand and
obituaries.[122] Despite his injuries, head
Hemingway accompanied Patrick and
his wife on a planned fishing expedition
in February, but pain caused him to be
irascible and difficult to get along with.[123] When a bushfire broke out, he was again injured,
sustaining second-degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm.[124] Months
later in Venice, Mary reported to friends the full extent of Hemingway's injuries: two cracked discs, a
kidney and liver rupture, a dislocated shoulder and a broken skull.[123] The accidents may have
precipitated the physical deterioration that was to follow. After the plane crashes, Hemingway, who
had been "a thinly controlled alcoholic throughout much of his life, drank more heavily than usual to
combat the pain of his injuries."[125]
In October 1954, Hemingway received the Nobel Prize in

Literature. He modestly told the press that Carl Sandburg, Isak
Dinesen and Bernard Berenson deserved the prize,[126] but he
gladly accepted the prize money.[127] Mellow says Hemingway
"had coveted the Nobel Prize", but when he won it, months after
his plane accidents and the ensuing worldwide press coverage,
"there must have been a lingering suspicion in Hemingway's
mind that his obituary notices had played a part in the academy's
decision."[128] Because he was suffering pain from the African
accidents, he decided against traveling to Stockholm.[129] Instead
he sent a speech to be read, defining the writer's life:
Hemingway in the cabin of his boat

Pilar, off the coast of Cuba, c. 1950
Writing, at its best, is a lonely life. Organizations for
writers palliate the writer's loneliness but I doubt if
they improve his writing. He grows in public stature
as he sheds his loneliness and often his work
deteriorates. For he does his work alone and if he is a
good enough writer he must face eternity, or the lack
of it, each day.[130][note 6]
From the end of the year in 1955 to early 1956, Hemingway was bedridden.[131] He was told to stop
drinking to mitigate liver damage, advice he initially followed but then disregarded.[132] In October
1956, he returned to Europe and met Basque writer Pio Baroja, who was seriously ill and died weeks
later. During the trip, Hemingway became sick again and was treated for "high blood pressure, liver
disease, and arteriosclerosis".[131]
In November 1956, while staying in Paris, he was reminded of trunks he had stored in the Ritz Hotel
in 1928 and never retrieved. Upon re-claiming and opening the trunks, Hemingway discovered they
were filled with notebooks and writing from his Paris years. Excited about the discovery, when he
returned to Cuba in early 1957, he began to shape the recovered work into his memoir A Moveable
Feast.[133] By 1959 he ended a period of intense activity: he finished A Moveable Feast (scheduled to
be released the following year); brought True at First Light to 200,000 words; added chapters to The
Garden of Eden; and worked on Islands in the Stream. The last three were stored in a safe deposit
box in Havana, as he focused on the finishing touches for A Moveable Feast. Author Michael
Reynolds claims it was during this period that Hemingway slid into depression, from which he was
unable to recover.[134]
The Finca Vigía became crowded with guests and tourists, as Hemingway, beginning to become
unhappy with life there, considered a permanent move to Idaho. In 1959 he bought a home
overlooking the Big Wood River, outside Ketchum, and left Cuba—although he apparently remained
on easy terms with the Castro government, telling The New York Times he was "delighted" with
Castro's overthrow of Batista.[135][136] He was in Cuba in November 1959, between returning from
Pamplona and traveling west to Idaho, and the following year for his 61st birthday; however, that
year he and Mary decided to leave after hearing the news that Castro wanted to nationalize property
owned by Americans and other foreign nationals.[137] On July 25, 1960, the Hemingways left Cuba for
the last time, leaving art and manuscripts in a bank vault in Havana. After the 1961 Bay of Pigs
Invasion, the Finca Vigía was expropriated by the Cuban government, complete with Hemingway's
collection of "four to six thousand books".[138] President Kennedy arranged for Mary Hemingway to
travel to Cuba where she met Fidel Castro and obtained her husband's papers and painting in return
for donating Finca Vigía to Cuba.[139]
Idaho and suicide
Hemingway continued to rework the material that was published as A Moveable Feast through the
1950s.[133] In mid-1959, he visited Spain to research a series of bullfighting articles commissioned by
Life magazine.[140] Life wanted only 10,000 words, but the manuscript grew out of control.[141] He
was unable to organize his writing for the first time in his life, so he asked A. E. Hotchner to travel to
Cuba to help him. Hotchner helped him trim the Life piece down to 40,000 words, and Scribner's
agreed to a full-length book version (The Dangerous Summer) of almost 130,000 words.[142]
Hotchner found Hemingway to be "unusually hesitant, disorganized, and confused",[143] and
suffering badly from failing eyesight.[144]
Hemingway and Mary left Cuba for the last time on July 25,
1960. He set up a small office in his New York City apartment
and attempted to work, but he left soon after. He then traveled
alone to Spain to be photographed for the front cover of Life
magazine. A few days later, the news reported that he was
seriously ill and on the verge of dying, which panicked Mary until
she received a cable from him telling her, "Reports false. Enroute
Madrid. Love Papa."[145] He was, in fact, seriously ill, and
believed himself to be on the verge of a breakdown.[142] Feeling
lonely, he took to his bed for days, retreating into silence, despite Hemingway bird-hunting at Silver
having the first installments of The Dangerous Summer Creek, near Picabo, Idaho, January
published in Life in September 1960 to good reviews.[146] In 1959; with him are Gary Cooper and
October, he left Spain for New York, where he refused to leave Bobbie Peterson
Mary's apartment, presuming that he was being watched. She
quickly took him to Idaho, where physician George Saviers met
them at the train.[142]
At this time, Hemingway was constantly worried about money and his safety.[144] He worried about
his taxes and that he would never return to Cuba to retrieve the manuscripts that he had left in a bank
vault. He became paranoid, thinking that the FBI was actively monitoring his movements in
Ketchum.[147][148] The FBI had, in fact, opened a file on him during World War II, when he used the
Pilar to patrol the waters off Cuba, and J. Edgar Hoover had an agent in Havana watch him during
the 1950s.[149] Unable to care for her husband, Mary had Saviers fly Hemingway to the Mayo Clinic in
Minnesota at the end of November for hypertension treatments, as he told his patient.[147] The FBI
knew that Hemingway was at the Mayo Clinic, as an agent later documented in a letter written in
January 1961.[150]
Hemingway was checked in under Saviers's name to maintain anonymity.[146] Meyers writes that "an
aura of secrecy surrounds Hemingway's treatment at the Mayo" but confirms that he was treated with
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) as many as 15 times in December 1960 and was "released in ruins" in
January 1961.[151] Reynolds gained access to Hemingway's records at the Mayo, which document ten
ECT sessions. The doctors in Rochester told Hemingway the depressive state for which he was being
treated may have been caused by his long-term use of Reserpine and Ritalin.[152]
Hemingway was back in Ketchum in April 1961, three months after being released from the Mayo
Clinic, when Mary "found Hemingway holding a shotgun" in the kitchen one morning. She called
Saviers, who sedated him and admitted him to the Sun Valley Hospital;[153] and once the weather
cleared Saviers flew again to Rochester with his patient. Hemingway underwent three electroshock
treatments during that visit.[154] He was released at the end of June and was home in Ketchum on
June 30. Two days later he "quite deliberately" shot himself with his favorite shotgun in the early
morning hours of July 2, 1961.[155] He had unlocked the basement storeroom where his guns were
kept, gone upstairs to the front entrance foyer, and shot himself with the "double-barreled shotgun
that he had used so often it might have been a friend".[156]
Mary was sedated and taken to the hospital, returning home the next day where she cleaned the
house and saw to the funeral and travel arrangements. Bernice Kert writes that it "did not seem to her
a conscious lie" when she told the press that his death had been accidental.[157] In a press interview
five years later, Mary confirmed that he had shot himself.[158]
Family and friends flew to Ketchum for the funeral, officiated by

the local Catholic priest, who believed that the death had been
accidental.[157] An altar boy fainted at the head of the casket
during the funeral, and Hemingway's brother Leicester wrote: "It
seemed to me Ernest would have approved of it all."[159] He is
buried in the Ketchum cemetery.[160]
Hemingway's behavior during his final years had been similar to

that of his father before he killed himself;[161] his father may have
had hereditary haemochromatosis, whereby the excessive
accumulation of iron in tissues culminates in mental and physical
deterioration.[162] Medical records made available in 1991
confirmed that Hemingway had been diagnosed with
hemochromatosis in early 1961.[163] His sister Ursula and his
brother Leicester also killed themselves.[164] Other theories have Hemingway Memorial, Sun Valley,
arisen to explain Hemingway's decline in mental health, Idaho
including that multiple concussions during his life may have
caused him to develop chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE),
leading to his eventual suicide.[165][166][167] Hemingway's health was further complicated by heavy
drinking throughout most of his life.[114]
A memorial to Hemingway just north of Sun Valley is inscribed on the base with a eulogy Hemingway
had written for a friend several decades earlier:[168]
Best of all he loved the fall

the leaves yellow on cottonwoods
leaves floating on trout streams

and above the hills
the high blue windless skies
...Now he will be a part of them forever.
Artistry
Writing style
The New York Times wrote in 1926 of Hemingway's first novel, "No amount of analysis can convey
the quality of The Sun Also Rises. It is a truly gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative
prose that puts more literary English to shame."[169] The Sun Also Rises is written in the spare, tight
prose that made Hemingway famous, and, according to James Nagel, "changed the nature of
American writing."[170] In 1954, when Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, it was
for "his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently demonstrated in The Old Man and the Sea, and
for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary style."[171]
Henry Louis Gates believes Hemingway's style was

fundamentally shaped "in reaction to [his] experience of If a writer of prose knows enough of what
world war". After World War I, he and other modernists he is writing about he may omit things
"lost faith in the central institutions of Western that he knows and the reader, if the writer
civilization" by reacting against the elaborate style of is writing truly enough, will have a feeling
of those things as strongly as though the
19th-century writers and by creating a style "in which writer had stated them. The dignity of
meaning is established through dialogue, through movement of an ice-berg is due to only
action, and silences—a fiction in which nothing crucial— one-eighth of it being above water. A
writer who omits things because he does
or at least very little—is stated explicitly."[16] not know them only makes hollow places
in his writing.
Hemingway's fiction often used grammatical and
stylistic structures from languages other than —Ernest Hemingway in Death in
[173]
English. Critics Allen Josephs, Mimi Gladstein, and the Afternoon[172]
Jeffrey Herlihy-Mera have studied how Spanish
influenced Hemingway's prose,[174][173] which
sometimes appears directly in the other language (in
italics, as occurs in The Old Man and the Sea) or in English as literal translations. He also often used
bilingual puns and crosslingual wordplay as stylistic devices.[175][176][177]
Because he began as a writer of short stories, Baker believes Hemingway learned to "get the most
from the least, how to prune language, how to multiply intensities and how to tell nothing but the
truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth."[178] Hemingway called his style the
iceberg theory: the facts float above water; the supporting structure and symbolism operate out of
sight.[178] The concept of the iceberg theory is sometimes referred to as the "theory of omission".
Hemingway believed the writer could describe one thing (such as Nick Adams fishing in "The Big
Two-Hearted River") though an entirely different thing occurs below the surface (Nick Adams
concentrating on fishing to the extent that he does not have to think about anything else).[179] Paul
Smith writes that Hemingway's first stories, collected as In Our Time, showed he was still
experimenting with his writing style.[180] He avoided complicated syntax. About 70 percent of the
sentences are simple sentences—a childlike syntax without subordination.[181]
Jackson Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices about life in
general—not only about his life. For example, Benson postulates that Hemingway used his
experiences and drew them out with "what if" scenarios: "what if I were wounded in such a way that I
could not sleep at night? What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent
back to the front?"[182] Writing in "The Art of the Short Story", Hemingway explains: "A few things I
have found to be true. If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is
strengthened. If you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless.
The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit."[183]
The simplicity of the prose is deceptive. Zoe Trodd believes Hemingway crafted skeletal sentences in
response to Henry James's observation that World War I had "used up words". Hemingway offers a
"multi-focal" photographic reality. His iceberg theory of omission is the foundation on which he
builds. The syntax, which lacks subordinating conjunctions, creates static sentences. The
photographic "snapshot" style creates a collage of images. Many types of internal punctuation
(colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses) are omitted in favor of short declarative sentences. The
sentences build on each other, as events build to create a sense of the whole. Multiple strands exist in
one story; an "embedded text" bridges to a different angle. He also uses other cinematic techniques of
"cutting" quickly from one scene to the next; or of "splicing" a scene into another. Intentional
omissions allow the reader to fill the gap, as though responding to instructions from the author and
create three-dimensional prose.[184]
Hemingway habitually used the word "and" in place of

commas. This use of polysyndeton may serve to convey In the late summer that year we lived in a
immediacy. Hemingway's polysyndetonic sentence—or house in a village that looked across the
in later works his use of subordinate clauses—uses river and the plain to the mountains. In
conjunctions to juxtapose startling visions and images. the bed of the river there were pebbles and
boulders, dry and white in the sun, and
Benson compares them to haikus.[186][187] Many of the water was clear and swiftly moving
Hemingway's followers misinterpreted his lead and and blue in the channels. Troops went by
frowned upon all expression of emotion; Saul Bellow the house and down the road and the dust
they raised powdered the trees.
satirized this style as "Do you have emotions? Strangle
them."[188] However, Hemingway's intent was not to —Opening passage of A Farewell to
eliminate emotion, but to portray it more scientifically. Arms showing Hemingway's use of
Hemingway thought it would be easy, and pointless, to
the word and[185]
describe emotions; he sculpted collages of images in
order to grasp "the real thing, the sequence of motion
and fact which made the emotion and which would be as
valid in a year or in ten years or, with luck and if you
stated it purely enough, always".[189] This use of an image as an objective correlative is characteristic
of Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Marcel Proust.[190] Hemingway's letters refer to Proust's
Remembrance of Things Past several times over the years, and indicate he read the book at least
twice.[191]
Themes
Hemingway's writing includes themes of love, war, travel, wilderness, and loss.[192] Hemingway often
wrote about Americans abroad. “In six of the seven novels published during his lifetime,” writes
Jeffrey Herlihy in Hemingway's Expatriate Nationalism, ”the protagonist is abroad, bilingual, and
bicultural.”[193] Herlihy calls this “Hemingway’s Transnational Archetype” and argues that the
foreign settings, “far from being mere exotic backdrops or cosmopolitan milieus, are motivating
factors in-character action.”[193] Critic Leslie Fiedler sees the theme he defines as "The Sacred
Land"—the American West—extended in Hemingway's work to include mountains in Spain,
Switzerland and Africa, and to the streams of Michigan. The American West is given a symbolic nod
with the naming of the "Hotel Montana" in The Sun Also Rises and For Whom the Bell Tolls.[194]
According to Stoltzfus and Fiedler, in Hemingway's work, nature is a place for rebirth and rest; and it
is where the hunter or fisherman might experience a moment of transcendence at the moment they
kill their prey.[195] Nature is where men exist without women: men fish; men hunt; men find
redemption in nature.[194] Although Hemingway does write about sports, such as fishing, Carlos
Baker notes the emphasis is more on the athlete than the sport.[196] At its core, much of Hemingway's
work can be viewed in the light of American naturalism, evident in detailed descriptions such as those
in "Big Two-Hearted River".[8]
Fiedler believes Hemingway inverts the American literary theme of the evil "Dark Woman" versus the
good "Light Woman". The dark woman—Brett Ashley of The Sun Also Rises—is a goddess; the light
woman—Margot Macomber of "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber"—is a murderess.[194]
Robert Scholes says early Hemingway stories, such as "A Very Short Story", present "a male character
favorably and a female unfavorably".[197] According to Rena Sanderson, early Hemingway critics
lauded his male-centric world of masculine pursuits, and the fiction divided women into "castrators
or love-slaves". Feminist critics attacked Hemingway as "public enemy number one", although more
recent re-evaluations of his work "have given new visibility to Hemingway's female characters (and
their strengths) and have revealed his own sensitivity to gender issues, thus casting doubts on the old
assumption that his writings were one-sidedly masculine."[198] Nina Baym believes that Brett Ashley
and Margot Macomber "are the two outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women.' "[199]
The theme of women and death is evident in stories as

early as "Indian Camp". The theme of death permeates The world breaks everyone and afterward
Hemingway's work. Young believes the emphasis in many are strong in the broken places. But
"Indian Camp" was not so much on the woman who those that will not break it kills. It kills the
gives birth or the father who kills himself, but on Nick very good and the very gentle and the very
brave impartially. If you are none of these
Adams who witnesses these events as a child, and you can be sure it will kill you too but
becomes a "badly scarred and nervous young man". there will be no special hurry.
Hemingway sets the events in "Indian Camp" that shape
the Adams persona. Young believes "Indian Camp" —Ernest Hemingway in A Farewell
holds the "master key" to "what its author was up to for to Arms[200]
some thirty-five years of his writing career". [201]
Stoltzfus considers Hemingway's work to be more
complex with a representation of the truth inherent in
existentialism: if "nothingness" is embraced, then redemption is achieved at the moment of death.
Those who face death with dignity and courage live an authentic life. Francis Macomber dies happy
because the last hours of his life are authentic; the bullfighter in the corrida represents the pinnacle of
a life lived with authenticity.[195] In his paper The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary
Field, Timo Müller writes that Hemingway's fiction is successful because the characters live an
"authentic life", and the "soldiers, fishers, boxers and backwoodsmen are among the archetypes of
authenticity in modern literature".[202]
The theme of emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway's work, notably in God Rest You Merry,
Gentlemen and The Sun Also Rises. Emasculation, according to Fiedler, is a result of a generation of
wounded soldiers; and of a generation in which women such as Brett gained emancipation. This also
applies to the minor character, Frances Clyne, Cohn's girlfriend in the beginning of The Sun Also
Rises. Her character supports the theme not only because the idea was presented early on in the novel
but also the impact she had on Cohn in the start of the book while only appearing a small number of
times.[194] In God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen, the emasculation is literal, and related to religious
guilt. Baker believes Hemingway's work emphasizes the "natural" versus the "unnatural". In "Alpine
Idyll" the "unnaturalness" of skiing in the high country late spring snow is juxtaposed against the
"unnaturalness" of the peasant who allowed his wife's dead body to linger too long in the shed during
the winter. The skiers and peasant retreat to the valley to the "natural" spring for redemption.[196]
Descriptions of food and drink feature prominently in many of Hemingway's works. In the short story
Big Two-Hearted River Hemingway describes a hungry Nick Adams cooking a can of pork and beans
and a can of spaghetti over a fire in a heavy cast iron pot. The primitive act of preparing the meal in
solitude is a restorative act and one of Hemingway's narratives of post-war integration.[203]
Susan Beegel has written that some more recent critics—writing through the lens of a more modern
social and cultural context several decades after Hemingway's death, and more than half a century
after his novels were first published—have characterized the social era portrayed in his fiction as
misogynistic and homophobic.[204] In her 1996 essay, "Critical Reception", Beegel analyzed four
decades of Hemingway criticism and found that "critics interested in multiculturalism", particularly
in the 1980s, simply ignored Hemingway, although some "apologetics" of his work were written.[205]
Typical, according to Beegel, is an analysis of Hemingway's 1926 novel, The Sun Also Rises, in which
a critic contended: "Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew, not an unattractive
character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew." Also
during the 1980s, according to Beegel, criticism was published that focused on investigating the
"horror of homosexuality" and the "racism" typical of the social era portrayed in Hemingway's
fiction.[204] In an overall assessment of Hemingway's work Beegel has written: "Throughout his
remarkable body of fiction, he tells the truth about human fear, guilt, betrayal, violence, cruelty,
drunkenness, hunger, greed, apathy, ecstasy, tenderness, love and lust."[206]
Influence and legacy

Hemingway's legacy to American literature is his style: writers
who came after him either emulated or avoided it.[207] After his
reputation was established with the publication of The Sun Also
Rises, he became the spokesperson for the post-World War I
generation, having established a style to follow.[170] His books
were burned in Berlin in 1933, "as being a monument of modern
decadence", and disavowed by his parents as "filth".[208]
Reynolds asserts the legacy is that "[Hemingway] left stories and
novels so starkly moving that some have become part of our
cultural heritage."[209] Life-sized statue of Hemingway by
José Villa Soberón, at El Floridita
Benson believes the details of Hemingway's life have become a bar in Havana
"prime vehicle for exploitation", resulting in a Hemingway
industry.[210] Hemingway scholar Hallengren believes the "hard-
boiled style" and the machismo must be separated from the author himself.[208] Benson agrees,
describing him as introverted and private as J. D. Salinger, although Hemingway masked his nature
with braggadocio.[211] During World War II, Salinger met and corresponded with Hemingway, whom
he acknowledged as an influence. In a letter to Hemingway, Salinger claimed their talks "had given
him his only hopeful minutes of the entire war" and jokingly "named himself national chairman of
the Hemingway Fan Clubs."[212]
The extent of his influence is seen from the enduring and varied tributes to Hemingway and his
works. 3656 Hemingway, a minor planet discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Chernykh,
was named for Hemingway,[213] and in 2009, a crater on Mercury was also named in his honor.[214]
The Kilimanjaro Device by Ray Bradbury featured Hemingway being transported to the top of Mount
Kilimanjaro,[76] while the 1993 motion picture Wrestling Ernest Hemingway explored the friendship
of two retired men, played by Robert Duvall and Richard Harris, in a seaside Florida town.[215] His
influence is further evident from the many restaurants bearing his name and the proliferation of bars
called "Harry's", a nod to the bar in Across the River and Into the Trees.[216] Hemingway's son Jack
(Bumby) promoted a line of furniture honoring his father,[217] Montblanc created a Hemingway
fountain pen,[218] and multiple lines of clothing inspired by Hemingway have been produced.[219] In
1977, the International Imitation Hemingway Competition was created to acknowledge his distinct
style and the comical efforts of amateur authors to imitate him; entrants are encouraged to submit
one "really good page of really bad Hemingway" and the winners are flown to Harry's Bar in
Italy.[220]
In 1965, Mary Hemingway established the Hemingway Foundation and in the 1970s she donated her
husband's papers to the John F. Kennedy Library. In 1980, a group of Hemingway scholars gathered
to assess the donated papers, subsequently forming the Hemingway Society, "committed to
supporting and fostering Hemingway scholarship", publishing The Hemingway
Review. [221][222][223][224] Numerous awards have been established in Hemingway's honor to
recognize significant achievement in the arts and culture, including the Hemingway Foundation/PEN
Award and the Hemingway Award.[225][226]
In 2012, he was inducted into the Chicago Literary Hall of Fame.[227]
Almost exactly 35 years after Hemingway's death, on July 1, 1996, his granddaughter Margaux
Hemingway died in Santa Monica, California.[228] Margaux was a supermodel and actress, co-
starring with her younger sister Mariel in the 1976 movie Lipstick.[229] Her death was later ruled a
suicide, making her "the fifth person in four generations of her family to commit suicide".[230]
Three houses associated with Hemingway are listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places:
the Ernest Hemingway Cottage on Walloon Lake, Michigan, designated in 1968; the Ernest
Hemingway House in Key West, designated in 1968; and the Ernest and Mary Hemingway House in
Ketchum, designated in 2015. His boyhood home, in Oak Park, Illinois, is a museum and archive
dedicated to Hemingway.[231] Hemingway's childhood home in Oak Park and his Havana residence
were also converted into museums.[232][233]
On April 5, 2021, Hemingway, a three-episode, six-hour documentary, a recapitulation of

Hemingway's life, labors, and loves, debuted on the Public Broadcasting System. It was co-produced
and directed by Ken Burns and Lynn Novick.[234]
Selected works
(1925) In Our Time
(1926) The Sun Also Rises
(1929) A Farewell to Arms
(1937) To Have and Have Not
(1940) For Whom the Bell Tolls
(1952) The Old Man and the Sea
See also
Family tree showing Ernest Hemingway's parents, siblings, wives, children and grandchildren
Notes
1. On awarding the medal, the Italians wrote of Hemingway: "Gravely wounded by numerous pieces
of shrapnel from an enemy shell, with an admirable spirit of brotherhood, before taking care of
himself, he rendered generous assistance to the Italian soldiers more seriously wounded by the
same explosion and did not allow himself to be carried elsewhere until after they had been
evacuated." See Mellow (1992), p. 61
2. Clarence Hemingway used his father's Civil War pistol to shoot himself. See Meyers (1985), 2
3. Gregory Hemingway would undergo sex reassignment surgery in the mid-1990s and took the
name Gloria Hemingway. See "Hemingway legacy feud 'resolved'" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ent
ertainment/3160646.stm). BBC News. October 3, 2003. Retrieved April 26, 2011.
4. The Garden of Eden was published posthumously in 1986. See Meyers (1985), 436
5. The manuscript for The Sea Book was published posthumously as Islands in the Stream in 1970.
See Mellow (1992), 552
6. The full speech is available at The Nobel Foundation (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/
laureates/1954/hemingway-speech.html)
References
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5. Meyers (1985), 9 37. Lecouras, Peter (September 22, 2001).
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Müller, Timo. (2010). "The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, 1926–1936".
Journal of Modern Literature. Volume 33, issue 1. 28–42
Nagel, James. (1996). "Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises". in Donaldson, Scott
(ed). The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-
521-45574-9
Oliver, Charles. (1999). Ernest Hemingway A to Z: The Essential Reference to the Life and Work
(https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FuOvQgAACAAJ). New York: Checkmark Publishing.
ISBN 978-0-8160-3467-3
Reynolds, Michael (2000). "Ernest Hemingway, 1899–1961: A Brief Biography". in Wagner-
Martin, Linda (ed). A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0-
19-512152-0
Reynolds, Michael. (1999). Hemingway: The Final Years. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-
32047-3
Reynolds, Michael. (1989). Hemingway: The Paris Years. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-
31879-1
Reynolds, Michael. (1998). The Young Hemingway. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-31776-3
Robinson, Daniel. (2005). "My True Occupation is That of a Writer: Hemingway's Passport
Correspondence". The Hemingway Review. Volume 24, issue 2. 87–93
Trogdon, Robert W. "Forms of Combat: Hemingway, the Critics and Green Hills of Africa". The
Hemingway Review. Volume 15, issue 2. 1–14
Sanderson, Rena. (1996). "Hemingway and Gender History". in Donaldson, Scott (ed). The
9
Scholes, Robert. (1990). "New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway". in
Benson, Jackson J. Decoding Papa: 'A Very Short Story' as Work and Text. 33–47. Durham, NC:
Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-1067-9
Smith, Paul (1996). "1924: Hemingway's Luggage and the Miraculous Year". in Donaldson, Scott
(ed). The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-
521-45574-9
Stoltzfus, Ben. (2005). "Sartre, "Nada," and Hemingway's African Stories". Comparative Literature
Studies. Volume 42, issue 3. 205–228
Svoboda, Frederic. (2000). "The Great Themes in Hemingway". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). A
Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0-19-512152-0
Thomas, Hugh. (2001). The Spanish Civil War. New York: Modern Library. ISBN 978-0-375-
75515-6
Trodd, Zoe. (2007). "Hemingway's Camera Eye: The Problems of Language and an Interwar
Politics of Form". The Hemingway Review. Volume 26, issue 2. 7–21
Wells, Elizabeth J. (1975). "A Statistical Analysis of the Prose Style of Ernest Hemingway: Big
Two-Hearted River". in Benson, Jackson (ed). The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway: Critical
Essays. Durham NC: Duke UP. ISBN 978-0-8223-0320-6
Young, Philip. (1964). Ernest Hemingway. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota. ISBN 978-0-
8166-0191-2
External links
Hemingway Archives: John F. Kennedy Library (http://www.jfklibrary.org/Research/The-Ernest-He
mingway-Collection.aspx)
Ernest Hemingway's Collection (http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/uthrc/00056/hrc-00056.html/) at
The University of Texas at Austin
Maurice J. Speiser papers at the University of South Carolina Department of Rare Books and
Special Collections (https://archives.library.sc.edu/repositories/5/resources/869)
Ernest Hemingway's journalism at The Archive of American Journalism (http://www.historicjournal
ism.com/ernest-hemingway-1.html)
"The Art of Fiction No. 21 (http://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4825/the-art-of-fiction-no-21-e
rnest-hemingway). The Paris Review. Spring 1958.
FBI Records: The Vault, Subject: Ernest Hemingway (https://vault.fbi.gov/ernest-miller-hemingwa
y/ernest-hemingway-part-01-of-01/view)
Hemingway legal files collection, 1899–1971 (http://www.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollecti
ons/pdf/mss18572_1.pdf) Manuscripts and Archives, New York Public Library.
Ernest Hemingway (https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/625) on Nobelprize.org
Finding aid to Adele C. Brockhoff letters, including Hemingway correspondence, at Columbia
University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library. (https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ld
pd_4079484)
Ernest Hemingway collection (https://archives.lib.umd.edu/repositories/2/resources/107) at the
University of Maryland libraries
Ernest Hemingway Collection. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and
Manuscript Library.
Audre Hanneman was a biographer of Ernest Hemingway. Her papers can be found at the
University of Maryland Libraries.
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Ernest Hemingway - American Novelist and Nobel Prize Winner

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26/06/2021 Ernest Hemingway - Wikipedia

Hemingway was raised in Oak Park, Illinois. After high

Arms (1929). Oak Park, Illinois, U.S.

In 1921, Hemingway married Hadley Richardson, the first

awards Nobel Prize in Literature (1954)

Richardson in 1927. He married Pauline Pfeiffer. They Pauline Pfeiffer

(1936–1939), which he covered as a journalist and which Martha Gellhorn

troops as a journalist at the Normandy landings and the Patrick Hemingway

liberation of Paris. Gregory Hemingway

he shared similar energies and enthusiasms.[6]

Hemingway attended Oak Park and River Forest High School in

On July 8, he was seriously wounded by mortar fire, having just

announcement that she was engaged to an Italian officer.

Toronto and Chicago

Hemingway returned home early in 1919 to a time of

building.[26] Stein, who was the bastion of modernism in Paris,[29]

Pat Guthrie, and Harold Loeb.[50] A few

The Sun Also Rises epitomized the post-

Pfeiffer, who was from a wealthy Catholic Arkansas family, had

Key West and the Caribbean

Hemingway and Pauline traveled to Kansas City, where their son

and west and southeast of present-day Tarangire National Park.

Ernest, Pauline, Bumby, Patrick,

Spanish Civil War

Hemingway moved his primary summer

Hemingway was in Europe from May 1944 to March 1945. When he

Cuba and the Nobel Prize

ribs.[120] The next day, attempting to

In October 1954, Hemingway received the Nobel Prize in

Hemingway in the cabin of his boat

Idaho and suicide

Family and friends flew to Ketchum for the funeral, officiated by

Hemingway's behavior during his final years had been similar to

Best of all he loved the fall

leaves floating on trout streams

Henry Louis Gates believes Hemingway's style was

Hemingway habitually used the word "and" in place of

The theme of women and death is evident in stories as

Influence and legacy

In 2012, he was inducted into the Chicago Literary Hall of Fame.[227]

On April 5, 2021, Hemingway, a three-episode, six-hour documentary, a recapitulation of

49. Richardson, Hadley (n.d.). "How Hemingway 79.Mellow (1992), 376–377

74. Herlihy-Mera, Jeffrey (2012). "Ernest 197. Scholes (1990), 42

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Hemingway&oldid=1030255563"

This page was last edited on 24 June 2021, at 20:39 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;

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