Case Studies in Construction Materials 6 (2017) 177–191

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

j ou r n al ho m e p a ge: w ww . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / c s c m

Case study

Thermal properties of adobe employed in Peruvian rural

areas: Experimental results and numerical simulation of a
traditional bio-composite material
Giné s A. Abantoa, Mustapha Karkrib, Gilles Lefebvreb, Manfred Horna,
Jose L. Solisa, Mó nica M. Gó meza,*
a
Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería, Av. Túpac Amaru 210, Rímac, Lima 25, Peru
b
Centre d’Étude et de Recherche en Thermique, Environnement et Systèmes (CERTES), Université Paris-Est, Av. Général de Gaulle 94010
Créteil Cedex, France

A R T I C L E IN F O
A B S T R A C T

Article history:
Received 14 October 2016
The adobe is a widely used traditional material in popular constructions in rural areas of
Received in revised form 20 February 2017
Accepted 28 February 2017 Peru and more generally in Andean countries. In order to increase comfort and energy
Available online 18 March 2017 efficiency of constructions, it is necessary to better know the thermal characteristics of
the adobe, seen as a bio-composite material.
Keywords: Different adobes have been studied. Effective thermal conductivity and heat capacity
Adobe were measured by means of a hot parallel-plate method. Density was estimated using a
Bio-composite materials pycnometer and measuring physical dimensions and mass of each sample, which allowed
Thermal properties the calculation of thermal effusivity and diffusivity. Some numerical simulation results
Heat transfer displayed good agreement with experimental outcomes. The work presented here has
Andean rural areas implications for future studies of this traditional building material and might potentially
help solving the problem of sustainable housing.
© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

Soil as mud bricks has been used in the construction of dwellings for thousands of years [1,2], and approximately 30% of
the world’s current population still lives in earthen structures [3]. It is affordable, environmentally friendly and abundantly
available. Mud bricks have been used as a building material around the world, especially in developing countries [4,5]. In
Peru, earth is an important element in people’s life as a material and symbolic resource; mud brick is known as adobe. Chan
Chan is America’s greatest pre-Columbian town in northern Peru built in adobe, a building technique which is still used in
many parts of the Peruvian rural areas. [6,7]. It is well known that mud bricks present low thermal conductivity [8–11] and
could be a good option for thermal insulation. However, adobe constructions not properly designed and strengthened might
present a deficient response when subjected to seismic actions, suffering severe structural damage and often reaching
collapse [12,13]. Therefore mechanical properties of abode bricks have been extensively studied in Peru [14,15]. Several
efforts to raise awareness in the population have been implemented so they build earthquake resistant houses. A standard

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mgomez@uni.edu.pe (M.M. Gó mez).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2017.02.001
2214-5095/© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 G.A. Abanto et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 6 (2017) 177–191
17
Nomenclature

e Thickness (m)
m Measured mass (kg)
T Time (s, h)
A Thermal diffusivity (m2 s-1)
Cp Specific heat (J kg-1 K-1, J kg-1 oC-1)
V Volume of composite (m3)
T Temperature (K,oC)
q Heat flux (W m-2)
u Uncertainty
rc Kapitza resistance (m W-1)

Subscripts
eff Effective thermal conductivity
m Matrix, mass
f Filler
c Composite, contact
v Volume fraction
exp Experimental
ini Initial
end Final
exch Heat exchanger
sup Upper face
inf Lower face

Greek symbols
l Effective thermal conductivity (W m-1 K-1)
r Density (kg m-3)
f Mass fraction (%)
D Difference of arbitrary parameters
V Spatial domain

has been published on adobe construction, focused on the strengthening of earth buildings, like the Adobe Peruvian
Standard published in 2006 [16].
Unfortunately, Peruvian adobe thermal properties have not been thoroughly studied. It is well known that the highlands,
or the Andes, are exposed to rough weather conditions. Low temperatures, heavy rain, and strong winds combine with little
or none thermal insulating techniques, poor housing design or planning and health problems, such as malnutrition, among
other social issues; all together leads to a critical situation in several isolated villages. Thousands of highlanders, especially
children and elderly, die every year due to chronic respiratory infections, produced by the crude temperatures to which they
are exposed [17–20]. This is in clear contrast with the availability of solar radiation as is shown in Fig. 1 [21].
Lately, a number of governmental, non-governmental and academic institutions in the country have taken interest and
action [22]. Specifically, the Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería (through the Faculty of Science and the Center of Renewable
Energy) is strongly involved in thermal calculations and the design of houses for rural areas [23,24]. The goal is to achieve
indoor healthy thermal conditions for the inhabitants, adapting local resources, pre-existing techniques and empirical
knowledge. The aim of this work is to characterize the thermal conductivity of traditional un-stabilized Peruvian adobe,
obtained by mixing different soils and straw. In order to contribute to the background knowledge of the physical properties
of adobe, the results presented in this paper will also participate to enhance the insulation and efficiency of traditional
buildings.
This work is one of the first few ones which have been done in order to improve the building performance within the
Peruvian rural context [17,22]. The final aim is to allow the inhabitants of the high Andes region of Peru to overcome the
harsh scene where they are settled.
The experimental used techniques and the modelling approach are based on the fact that the adobe is clearly a bio-
composite material.
Fig. 1. Comparison between the Peruvian maps of (a) annual average of daily incident solar energy [20] and (b) historical record of lowest temperatures [19].

2. Adobe sample preparation

Several techniques may be used for preparing mud bricks, some of which have been developed recently [25]. Because of
seismic activity in the area, the Peruvian Standard also includes building suggestions according the speci fic Peruvian area
and the type of construction [16]. Some techniques use stabilizers in the mixture, such as asphalt or cement [26]. It was tried
here to respect the traditional way of preparing adobe or un-stabilized mud brick, as much as possible, and the Peruvian
Standard [16] was followed except for the size of the sample due to the limitation of the instrument. It was started with the
selection of the soil. The best soils must present a suitable amount of clay and no organic compounds. The samples were
made with three types of soils from Peru. The geographic origin of each soil is presented in a map shown in Fig. 2.
Water was added to the soils, just enough to get wet mud, after that it was let rest for a couple of days. The mud was later
mixed with regular fine sand at different fractions, in order to get good workability, following empirical and traditional
methods, because it is well known that sand stabilizes the adobe to reduce the size of the cracks [27]. Enough water was
added to the mix in order to obtain a uniformized mass with appropriate workability. Finally, short strips of wheat and
barley dry straw were added in an amount equivalent to one fifth of the mud volume as presented in Fig. 3.
The mixture was put in squared wooden molds specially adapted for the desired size of the samples: 4.5 cm x
4.5 cmx1.2 cm. Bricks were demolded and left to dry for several days. The samples were then polished to get a smooth
surface and to reduce their size when needed. Three kinds of soils (A, B, and C) were used for which several samples were
prepared corresponding to the different sand proportions. The exact composition of each mixture in mass fraction (f) is
reported in Table 1.
 Fig. 2. Soil origin for the samples used in this work.

According to the Peruvian adobe standard the final soil composition should be 10–20% clay, 15–25% silt and 55–70% sand
[16].

3. Structural and surface morphological characterization

The mineralogy of the soils were determined by X-ray diffraction using a Rigaku Mini flex II Desktop diffractometer
o
operating with CuKa radiation (0.15056 nm wavelength) at 30 kV and 20 mA with a scan speed of 3 min-1. Fig. 4 shows the
X-ray diffractograms of the three types of soils and they are mainly quartz, montmorillonite and feldspar. The soils A and B
are quite similar, the soil B has and additional phase corresponding to calcite. The soils have a lot of quartz and between 10
and 20 wt% of clay (montmorillonite).
 Fig. 3. Adobe composition (a) sample preparation and (b) picture of sample B1.

Surface morphologies of the adobe samples were studied with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) using FEI Quanta 200
instrument operated at 30 kV. Fig. 5a–c show SEM images of the adobe surfaces for the three samples with different
compositions. The composition variation of soil, sand and straw cannot be identified with this technique; all surfaces were
very rough and composed of particles of a wide range of size (Fig. 5a), with protruding pieces of fiber (Fig. 5b). The porosity
of adobe was easily identified in Fig. 5c where a detail of hollow fiber piece is displayed.

Table 1
Mixture proportions of adobe bricks.

Adobe samples Composition (wt.%)

Soil Mixture fsoil fsand fstraw

A 1 77.7 19.8 2.5
B 1 60.5 38.0 1.5
2 71.3 26.9 1.8
C 1 62.7 33.6 3.7
2 68.8 28.7 2.5
3 70.5 27.4 2.1
Fig. 4. X-ray diffractograms for soils A, B and C used for the adobe samples. The diffraction peaks are assigned to quartz (q), montmorillonite (m), feldspar (f)
and calcite (c).

4. Determination of thermal conductivity

To determine the specific heat and latent heat of materials, a number of methods such as differential thermal analysis
(DTA) or differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) are commonly used [28]. These methods are very well developed but they
use only small micro-samples of the test material. For larger size samples, testing using a noninvasive method for thermal
properties and specific heat determination is necessary. For this reason, a new guarded hot plate apparatus was designed
and built for the purpose of the presented investigation in order to be able to conduct dynamic thermal experiments [29].
Fig. 6 displays the experimental set up.
The proposed test bench for the parallelepiped-shape of composite provides temperature and heat flux measurements at
the material boundaries. Every tested sample was inserted between two horizontal aluminum plates. The dimensions of the
plates were 250 mm x 250 mm; however, the measurements of the samples were performed on a core square of
45 mm x45 mm only. The difference between the measuring area and the total area of plates was the guarding zone that
surrounds the tested specimen and protected it from the influence of the surrounding temperature. The protection area
around the sample was filled with highly insulating material. By this way, the isotherms through the test specimen were
parallel to the hot and cold plates of the apparatus, and this indicates that the whole heat flux was transferred from the hot
to
the cold plates without heat losses. Thermo-regulated baths, supplying the plates, allow a fine regulation of the temperature
o
of the H10 injected oil with a precision of about 0.1 C. Heat flux sensors CAPTEC [30] and thermocouples (T type ones)
were placed on each side of the composite. The used heat flux film had a sensitivity of 202 mVW-1 m2 [29]. The 0.2
mm thick sensor was sandwiched between two highly conductive and very thin copper plates; the active surface area was
2025 mm2.
The various sensors were connected to a Labview1 program designed for the measurements of temperature fluctuations and
heat flux exchanged during the heat dynamic processes. Experimental data were recorded every 6s. Expanded polyethylene
foam was placed on the lateral side faces in order to insulate and then reduce the multidimensional heat transfer
phenomena to a 1D one.

5. Results

This section presents the measured average heat flux and average temperature of the investigated specimens. Presented
results are the average of three series of measurements performed on each of the investigated samples. The effective
thermal conductivity and heat capacity of each investigated specimen were calculated as the average measured value
obtained from all sensors and from the all three series of measurements.

5.1. Density measurement

The determination of the composite density is important not only for the specific thermal capacity estimation but for
checking the quality of the samples. Two methods were adopted for measuring the densities of composite (Table 2):
 Fig. 5. Scanning electron micrographs of adobe samples (a) A1, (b) B1 and (c) C1.

• The first one is the pycnometer method; in this method the measurements are carried out with a balance and a
pycnometer for small quantities of different composites. The density of the composite rc1 is obtained by using the
following equation:

rc1 m1
¼ water ð1Þ
m1 þ m2 -
:r
m3
Where m1 is the sample weight, m2 is the weight of the pycnometer filled with water and m3 is the weight of the pycnometer
containing the sample and filled with water with density, rwater.

• In the second method, the density measurements were achieved using square-plate samples. OHAUS1 PioneerTM balance
was used to measure the mass of the samples and the sample sizes were measured using a micrometer. Then, the density
of square-plate samples rc2 is deduced from the mass divided by the volume of the composites. The uncertainty on the
density measurement uðrÞ is obtained from the following:
Fig. 6. Experimental set-up for thermal properties: (a) scheme [29] and (b) picture.
Table 2
Mixture rule and measured density of samples.

Adobe samples Composite densities (kg m-3)

rc1 rc2 rc1

Soil Mixture Method 1 Method 2 rc ¼
þ rc2
Uncertainty uðrÞ (%)
A2 1 1814.7 1717.7 1766.2 2.9
B 1 1715.0 1702.3 1708.6 2.4
2 1756.0 1676.4 1716.2 3.7
C 1 1640.8 1616.6 1628.7 1.7
2 1647.3 1688.0 1667.6 2.0
3 1723.6 1679.0 1701.3 2.2

u
qffiu¼
ffiffi ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Dr ¼uffiffiffi
þffiffiffiffiffi ffiffiffiffiffi
2 2 ð2Þ
ðmÞ ðVÞ
Where r
ðrÞ D2V D2ðL1Þ D2ðL2Þ D2e
2
uðVÞ þ þ ð2:1Þ
V
2 L2 1 2 e2
¼ 2
L

5.2. Effective thermal conductivity

To determine experimentally the effective thermal conductivity of a composite (l), the sample was initially in an
isothermal state (Texch,1 = Texch,2 = Tini); then a temperature difference (DT) was imposed between the top and bottom sides
of the composite (Texch,2 = Tend) until a new steady state was observed, when the incoming and outcoming fluxes were
equal (fluxes are estimated relatively to oriented unique axis for both sides of the sample; one side corresponds to the
thermodynamic convention, the other one is opposite). The effective thermal conductivity was calculated using the
following expression:
e X q!
l ¼ 2 ð3Þ
DT
where e is the thickness of the specimen and, in order to reduce measurements uncertainties, Sq/2 is the heat flux which
crosses the sample, calculated as the mean value of the absolute value of measured heat fluxes at the top and the bottom
faces of the sample (incoming by the hot side and outcoming by the cold side).

Fig. 7. Temperature and heat flux of top and bottom faces vs. time of B2 composite.
 Fig. 8. Temperature and heat flux of top and bottom faces vs. time of A1 composites.

Fig. 7 shows the results for the samples B2. A similar experiment was carried out for the samples A1 (Fig. 8). Several tests
were carried out on the material in order to check the reproducibility of the measurement. The results were found to be
satisfactory and provided values of effective thermal conductivities listed in Table 3.

5.3. Specific heat and thermal diffusivities of the composites

The method used to measure specific heat of the composites consists in simultaneously measuring the heat flux q1 and q2,
and the temperatures T1 and T2 on the two top and bottom faces of the sample (T1 and T2 are measured by the two
thermocouples respectively integrated in both heat flux sensors). When t < 0 s, the exchangers were maintained at the
same
constant temperature Texch,1 = Texch,2 = Tini until established a null flux density through the top and bottom sample faces;
then when t > 0 s, the temperatures of the exchangers were increased and maintained at Texch,1 = Texch,2 = Tend until
reaching a new steady state (the transitory heat fluxes are then incoming ones by both sides of the sample and then one has
a positive value and the other one a negative value). Between these two isothermal states, the sample stores an energy
quantity Qsens which represents the internal energy variation of the sample. Sensible heat stored is then given by the
following equation:
tend

Q Z¼sens
1
r:e Dq:dt ¼ Cp:ðTend - TiniÞ ð4Þ
tini

Wit
h
Cp: specific heat,
Dq: difference of fluxes (or sum of their absolute values) measured with each step of time of acquisition dt,
r: density of the sample,
e: sample thickness.

Table 3
Effective thermal conductivities, l, and their uncertainties, uðlÞ ð%Þ for adobe bricks used in this work.

Adobe samples Conductivity l (W m-1 K-1) Uncertainty u ð%Þ

ðlÞ

soil mixture
A 1 0.316 2.3
B 1 0.334 3.2
2 0.283 0.2
C 1 0.324 3.1
2 0.255 4.2
3 0.312 0.2
 Figs. 9 and 10 show the variations of the heat fluxes for the two samples (A1 and B2), respectively. We can observe in
both cases that the temperatures evolved in an asymptotic manner toward the new set point. In addition, the fluxes evolved
very quickly at the beginning and reached a constant value that corresponded to the steady state attained at the end of the
test. The stored internal energy is proportional to the area limited by the heat fluxes evolution curves. The obtained sample
heat capacities are summarized in Table 4. The thermal diffusivities of the bio-composites and their associated uncertainties
/
were calculated using the following equation definition A ¼ l rCp. Based on the knowledge of the matrix (only soil), a similar
decrease is observed in all sample composite cases when the straw concentration increases.

6. Discussion

The adobe is a composite material in which the matrix is the wet soil and the filler is a set of tubular straws. The effective
property of the adobe is then a complex weighting of the elementary properties of its components.
Fig. 11 shows a representation of a 3D-Representative Volume Element (3D-RVE) modelling used for the calculation of
effective properties of soil/straw composites. The composite is considered as a periodic repetition of 3D-RVE called V3D-RVE
of volume b3. The 3D-RVE consists of a set of volume filler, Vf, randomly distributed [31].
A program was developed under MATLAB TM to randomize the position and orientation of these straw inclusions and the
simulations were performed using COMSOLTM software. Inclusions and matrix temperatures were noted Tf and Tm,
respectively. The lateral faces were considered adiabatic and temperatures T1 and T2 were imposed on the bottom (x3 = 0)
and
on the top face (x3 = b). lm and lf are the matrix and filler thermal conductivity, respectively. The mathematical equations
representing the physical model are given by the following equations system (5–11).
In matrix (respectively in the filler), the heat equation which describes the capacitive and conductive phenomena is
discretized by COMSOLTM by using the finite element method.
@T i ðtÞ
divðli gradðT i ÞÞ ¼ r C i ; ð5Þ
i
@t
Where index i is equal to m or f.
With the following boundary conditions, applying to a matrix or a filler element, depending on the corresponding
boundary piece was inside the matrix or the filler:

@T
-li i ¼ 0; lateral faces ð6Þ
@n

Ti ¼ T2; x3 ¼ 0 ð7Þ

Ti ¼ T1; x3 ¼ b ð8Þ

Fig. 9. Temperature and heat flux for top and bottom faces of A1 composites.
 Fig. 10. Temperature and heat flux for top and bottom faces of B2 composites.

Table 4
Specific heat capacities, Cp, diffusivities, A, and their uncertainties, u% for adobe bricks used in this work.

Adobe samples Cp(J kg-1 K-1) Uncertainty (%) Diffusivity A (m2/s) Uncertainty u ð%Þ
ðlÞ

Soil Mixture
A 1 613.7 7.2 2.9E-07 8.0
B 1 573.2 7.7 3.4E-07 10.9
2 609.2 8.4 2.7E-07 10.5
C 1 609.9 6.9 3.2E-07 8.8
2 559.8 8.3 2.8E-07 11.5
3 587.3 11.7 3.2E-07 14.1

@T m Tf - Tm @T
lm ¼( ) ¼ -lf f ; at matrix filler surfaces contacts: ð9Þ
@ r
@n flux through the top face of the 3D-RVE in the x3–direction (Fig. 8) is given by the
The expression ofc the total heat
following equation:
0 b b
Z Z 1 0 b bdT 1
¼ - dT Z Z
lm@ - lf @ A
f
qtop
3 jx 3
m
3jx3 ¼bdx1dx2 ð10Þ
0 0 dx A matri 0 0 dx f iller
¼b dx 1dx2 x

Where the left side (resp. right-side) surface integral was calculated only when points correspond to the matrix (resp. the
filler).
The effective thermal conductivity was then given by the general definition equation:

q
l ¼ D ; DT ¼ ðTtop - TbottomÞ ð11Þ

Where Ttop and Tbottom were the temperatures imposed on the top and bottom faces respectively and q is the heat flux
incoming by the hot side or outcoming by the cold side.

6.1. Comparison between numerical and experimental results

The numerical simulations were carried out by using the above mentioned thermophysical properties and the measured
temperatures (T1, T2) as boundary conditions in order to study the thermal behavior of the composites charged with straw.
The Kapitza thermal resistance rc describes the thermal contact between the matrix and the filler.
 Fig. 11. Random distribution of cylindrical inclusions in the 3D-RVE [31].

6.1.1. Effective thermal conductivities and heat capacity of the composite

Effective thermal conductivities of the composite (soil/straw of cylindrical geometry) were determined depending on the
mean heat flux and the temperature difference using Eq. (11). In Figs. 12 and 13, the temperature variations on each side of
the composite (top surface temperature T2 and the bottom surface temperature T1) are represented. Fig. 12 shows the
evolution of the effective thermal conductivity against time during the heating period. The composite initially holds at
o
T1 = T2 = Tini = 29 C. This temperature was maintained until reaching a next steady state. At time t > 0, the composite
was
o
heated by modifying the temperature on a single face only (T1 = Tend = 34 C). It was possible to observe that the
experimental and simulated results are very close. To illustrate the difference between the numerical and the experimental
heat capacity measurement, in Fig. 13 has been plotted the variation of the heat fluxes and temperatures vs. time for B2
samples. The measured and simulated heat capacities are presented in Table 5. The examination of these results shows that
the difference between the model and the measured heat capacity lies between 0.2% for samples B2 and about 4.2% for
samples C2.

Fig. 12. Comparison between numerical and experimental temperatures and heat fluxes of B2 composites.
 Fig. 13. Comparison between numerical and experimental temperatures and heat fluxes of B2 composites.

Table 5
Experimental and simulation numerical calculations for specific heat capacities, C and their uncertainties, u
ð p Þ ð%Þ, for adobe bricks used in this work.
p

Adobe samples
Specific heat capacity (J kg-1
o
C-1) Uncertainty u c ð%Þ
ð pÞ
Soil Mixture Model
Exp.
A 1 613.7 627.8 2.3
B 1 573.2 591.5 3.2
2 609.2 610.4 0.2
C 1 609.9 628.8 3.1
2 559.8 583.3 4.2
3 587.3 588.5 0.2

7. Conclusions

Some first experimental and numerical characterizations of different adobes coming from several Peruvian regions have
been performed. These first studies showed that the employed tools and methods were pertinent ones and that the
produced numerical model results were in good agreement with the experimental data.
The heat conductivity varied from 0.25 to 0.33 W m-1 K-1, when the heat capacity range was 460–620 J kg-1 K-1 and
agree well with the results from the literature [10,27,32].
Further studies will have to evaluate the sensibility of these characteristics to the water and straw contents, using the
methodology presented in this paper, as well as correlations of the heat conductivity with mechanical properties.

Acknowledgement

The authors acknowledge the support from the General Research Institute of National University of Engineering (IGI-
UNI), the Peruvian National Council for Science and Technology (Cienciactiva-CONCYTEC) and the French Embassy in Lima.
The authors wish to thank Dr. Gladys Ocharan for scanning electron microscopy analysis.

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