It8201-Information Technology Essentials

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
IT8201-INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ESSENTIALS
HANDOUTS
UNIT-1
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WEB ESSENTIALS
CREATING A WEBSITE
Introduction:
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A website is a collection of related web pages, including multimedia content, typically identified
with a common domain name, and published on at least one web server. Notable examples are
wikipedia.org, google.com, and amazon.com. Today roughly 380 new websites are created every
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minute across the World Websites comes in a nearly endless variety, including educational sites, news
sites, social media sites, e-commerce sites, and so on. The pages within a website are usually a mix of
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text and other media. That said, there are no rules dictating the form of a website. A person could create
a website of nothing but black and white photos of roses, or the word "cat" linked to another Web page
with the word "mouse”.
A website may be accessible via a public Internet Protocol (IP) network, such as the Internet, or a
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private local area network (LAN), by referencing a uniform resource locator (URL) that identifies the
site.
Websites can have many functions and can be used in various fashions; a website can be a personal
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website, a corporate website for a company, a government website, an organization website, etc.
Websites are typically dedicated to a particular topic or purpose, ranging from entertainment and social
networking to providing news and education. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the
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World Wide Web, while private websites, such as a company's website for its employees, are typically a
part of an intranet.
Web pages, which are the building blocks of websites, are documents, typically composed in plain text
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interspersed with formatting instructions of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML, XHTML). They may
incorporate elements from other websites with suitable markup anchors. Web pages are accessed and
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transported with the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which may optionally employ encryption
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(HTTP Secure, HTTPS) to provide security and privacy for the user. The user's application, often a web
browser, renders the page content according to its HTML markup instructions onto a display terminal.
Definition:
A website is a collection of publicly accessible, interlinked Web pages that share a single domain name.
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Websites can be created and maintained by an individual, group, business or organization to serve a
variety of purposes. Together, all publicly accessible websites constitute the World Wide Web.
However, many sites follow a standard pattern of a homepage that links off to other categories and
content within the website. Originally, websites were categorized by their top-level domains.
Some examples include:
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Government agency websites = .gov
Educational institutions’ websites = .edu
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Nonprofit organizations’ websites = .org
Commercial websites = .com
Information sites = .info
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Steps for creating Web sites:
Following steps are followed for creating a web site:
Step 1: Hosting Your Site

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Web hosting is like rent for your website, including the pages, images, documents, and other resources
needed to display that site. Web hosting uses a web server, which is where you put those website
resource so others can access the through the Web. You can build a fully functional website on your
personal computer, but if you want other people to be able to see it, you will need to use a web host.
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There are several types of web hosting options you can choose from, and while many new web designers
will gravitate to free web hosting, there can be significant drawbacks to those no-cost services,
including:
 You may get less server space where your pages will be stored. Depending on the size of your
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site and the resources it needs (video, audio, images, etc), that storage space may not be
sufficient.
 You may be required to run ads on your site.
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 There may be bandwidth limits that could be too restrictive if you get a lot of traffic. In some
cases, if you exceed your monthly limit, they may even turn your site off.
 There are sometimes limitations on the kinds of content you can put on a free hosting provider.
For example, some don't allow Ecommerce websites.
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 Some free hosting providers tack on maintenance and renewal fees to their “free” accounts.
Step 2: Registering a Domain Name
A domain name is a friendly URL people can type into their browser to get to your website. Some
examples of domain names include:
 webdesign.about.com
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 whitehouse.gov
 pumpkin-king.com
A domain name provides valuable branding for your site and makes it easier for people to remember
how to get to it.
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Domain names typically cost between $8 and $35 a year and they can be registered at a number of sites
online. In many cases, you can get domain name registration and web hosting services from the same
provider, making it easier on you since those services are now contained under one account.
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Step 3: Planning Your Website
When planning your website, you will need to make a number of important decisions:
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 The type of site you need: Is this a news or informational site, a site for a company or service, a
non-profit or cause-driven site, an Ecommerce shop, etc. Each of these kinds of site has a slightly
different focus that will influence its design.
 Navigation design: How users will move around your site affects its information architecture as
well as the overall usability of that site. Plan out the pages a site, create a sitemap, and develop a
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navigational structure from there.

 Content: As the saying goes, "content is king" online. The quality of your site's content will play
an important role in it's success. Content is everything that your pages will contain, such as text,
images, video and more. Before you start designing or building pages, you should have a clear
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strategy for the content that those pages will contain.
Step 4: Designing and Building Your Website
This is easily the most complex part of the web page creation process and there are a number of topics to
be aware of at this stage, including:
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 Design Basics: The elements of good and appropriate design and how to use them on websites.
 Learning HTML: HyperText Markup Language or HTML is the building blocks of a web page.
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While there are many platforms out there that will code a page's HTML for you, you’ll do better
and have far more flexibility and control if you learn the basics of HTML.
 Learning CSS: Cascading Style Sheets dictate how web pages look. Learning CSS will help you
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change the visual appearance of a site to match the design needs of a project.
 Web Page Editors: Different web page editors will allow you to accomplish different things.
HTML and CSS can be written in simple text editors, like Notepad, or they can use software like
Adobe Dreamweaver to get some assistance with the pages you are creating. You may also
decide to use a Content Management System to build and power your website.
Step 5: Publishing Your Website
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Publishing your website is a matter of getting the pages you created in step 4 up to the hosting provider
you set up in step 1.
You can do this with either the proprietary tools that come with your hosting service or with a standard
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) software. Knowing which you can use depends upon your hosting provider,
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but most providers should have support for standard FTP. Contact that hosting provider if you are not
sure what they do, and do not, support
Step 6: Promoting Your Website
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One of the most desirable ways to promote your website is through search engine optimization or SEO.
This is because it allows your site to be found by people who are looking for the infromation, services,
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or products that your site provides.
You will want to build your web content so that it is appealing to search engines. Additionally, you will
want to ensure your site as a whole conforms to search engine best practices.
Other ways to promote your site include: word of mouth, using email marketing, social media, and more
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traditional forms of advertising.
Step 7: Maintaining Your Website

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Maintenance can be the most tedious part of website design, but in order to keep your site going well
and looking good, it needs regular attention and maintenance.
It's important to test your site as you’re building it, and then again after it’s been live for a while. New
devices come on the market all the time and browsers are always updating with new standards and
features, so regular testing will ensure your site continues to perform as expected for those different
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devices and browsers.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A WEBSITE

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Web working principles

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Every time you open your browsers, type some URLs and press enter, you will see beautiful web pages
appear on your screen. But do you know what is happening behind these simple actions?
Normally, your browser is a client. After you type a URL, it takes the host part of the URL and sends it
to a Domain Name Server (DNS) in order to get the IP address of the host. Then it connects to the IP
address and asks to setup a TCP connection. The browser sends HTTP requests through the connection.
The server handles them and replies with HTTP responses containing the content that make up the web
page. Finally, the browser renders the body of the web page and disconnects from the
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server.
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Figure 3.1 Processes of users visit a website
A web server, also known as an HTTP server, uses the HTTP protocol to communicate with clients. All
web browsers can be considered clients.
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We can divide the web's working principles into the following steps:
 Client uses TCP/IP protocol to connect to server.

 Client sends HTTP request packages to server.
 Server returns HTTP response packages to client. If the requested resources include dynamic
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scripts, server calls script engine first.

 Client disconnects from server, starts rendering HTML.
This is a simple work flow of HTTP affairs -notice that the server closes its connections after it sends
data to the clients, then waits for the next request.
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DNS is an abbreviation of Domain Name System. It's the naming system for computer network services,
and it converts domain names to actual IP addresses, just like a translator.
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Figure 3.2 DNS working principles
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To understand more about its working principle, let's see the detailed DNS resolution process as follows.
1. After typing the domain name www.qq.com in the browser, the operating system will check if
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there are any mapping relationships in the hosts' files for this domain name. If so, then the
domain name resolution is complete.
2. If no mapping relationships exist in the hosts' files, the operating system will check if any cache
exists in the DNS. If so, then the domain name resolution is complete.
3. If no mapping relationships exist in both the host and DNS cache, the operating system finds the
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first DNS resolution server in your TCP/IP settings, which is likely your local DNS server. When
the local DNS server receives the query, if the domain name that you want to query is contained
within the local configuration of its regional resources, it returns the results to the client. This
DNS resolution is authoritative.
4. If the local DNS server doesn't contain the domain name but a mapping relationship exists in the
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cache, the local DNS server gives back this result to the client. This DNS resolution is not
authoritative.
5. If the local DNS server cannot resolve this domain name either by configuration of regional
resources or cache, it will proceed to the next step, which depends on the local DNS server's
settings. -If the local DNS server doesn't enable forwarding, it routes the request to the root DNS
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server, then returns the IP address of a top level DNS server which may know the domain name,
.com in this case. If the first top level DNS server doesn't recognize the domain name, it again
reroutes the request to the next top level DNS server until it reaches one that recognizes the
domain name. Then the top level DNS server asks this next level DNS server for the IP address
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corresponding to www.qq.com. -If the local DNS server has forwarding enabled, it sends the
request to an upper level DNS server. If the upper level DNS server also doesn't recognize the
domain name, then the request keeps getting rerouted to higher levels until it finally reaches a
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DNS server which recognizes the domain name.

Whether or not the local DNS server enables forwarding, the IP address of the domain name always
returns to the local DNS server, and the local DNS server sends it back to the client.
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Figure 3.3 DNS resolution work flow
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Recursive query process simply means that the enquirers change in the process. Enquirers do not change
in Iterative query processes.
Now we know clients get IP addresses in the end, so the browsers are communicating with servers
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through IP addresses.
HTTP protocol
The HTTP protocol is a core part of web services. It's important to know what the HTTP protocol is
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before you understand how the web works.
HTTP is the protocol that is used to facilitate communication between browser and web server. It is
based on the TCP protocol and usually uses port 80 on the side of the web server. It is a protocol that
utilizes the request-response model -clients send requests and servers respond. According to the HTTP
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protocol, clients always setup new connections and send HTTP requests to servers. Servers are not able
to connect to clients proactively, or establish callback connections. The connection between a client and
a server can be closed by either side. For example, you can cancel your download request and HTTP
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connection and your browser will disconnect from the server before you finish downloading.
The HTTP protocol is stateless, which means the server has no idea about the relationship between the
two connections even though they are both from same client. To solve this problem, web applications
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use cookies to maintain the state of connections.

Because the HTTP protocol is based on the TCP protocol, all TCP attacks will affect HTTP
communications in your server. Examples of such attacks are SYN flooding, DoS and DDoS attacks.
HTTP request package (browser information)
Request packages all have three parts: request line, request header, and body. There is one blank line
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between header and body.
GET /domains/example/ HTTP/1.1 // request line: request method, URL, protocol and its version
Host：www.iana.org // domain name
User-Agent：Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 6.1) AppleWebKit/537.4 (KHTML, like Gecko)
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Chrome/22.0.1229.94 Safari/537.4 // browser information
Accept：text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,*/*;q=0.8 // mime that clients can
accept
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Accept-Encoding：gzip,deflate,sdch // stream compression
Accept-Charset：UTF-8,*;q=0.5 // character set in client side
// blank line
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// body, request resource arguments (for example, arguments in POST)
We use fiddler to get the following request information.

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Figure 3.4 Information of a GET request caught by fiddler
We can see that GET does not have a request body, unlike POST, which does.
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There are many methods you can use to communicate with servers in HTTP; GET, POST, PUT and
DELETE are the 4 basic methods that we typically use. A URL represents a resource on a network, so
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these 4 methods define the query, change, add and delete operations that can act on these resources.
GET and POST are very commonly used in HTTP. GET can append query parameters to the URL,
using ?to separate the URL and parameters and & between the arguments, like
EditPosts.aspx?name=test1&id=123456. POST puts data in the request body because the URL
implements a length limitation via the browser. Thus, POST can submit much more data than GET.
Also, when we submit user names and passwords, we don't want this kind of information to appear in
the URL, so we use POST to keep them invisible.
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BROWSER FUNDAMENTALS
Web Browser
web Browser is an application software that allows us to view and explore information on the web. User
can request for any web page by just entering a URL into address bar.Web browser can show text,
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audio, video, animation and more. It is the responsibility of a web browser to interpret text and
commands contained in the web page.Earlier the web browsers were text-based while now a days
graphical-based or voice-based web browsers are also available. Following are the most common web
browser available today:
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Browser Vendor
Internet Explorer Microsoft
Google Chrome Google
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Mozilla Firefox Mozilla
Netscape Navigator Netscape Communications Corp.
Opera Opera Software
Safari Apple
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Sea Monkey Mozilla Foundation

K-meleon K-meleon
Architecture
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There are a lot of web browser available in the market. All of them interpret and display information on
the screen however their capabilities and structure varies depending upon implementation. But the most
basic component that all web browser must exhibit are listed below:
 Controller/Dispatcher
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 Interpreter
 Client Programs
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Controller works as a control unit in CPU. It takes input from the keyboard or mouse, interpret it and
make other services to work on the basis of input it receives.
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Interpreter receives the information from the controller and execute the instruction line by line. Some
interpreter are mandatory while some are optional For example, HTML interpreter program is
mandatory and java interpreter is optional.
Client Program describes the specific protocol that will be used to access a particular service.
Following are the client programs tat are commonly used:
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 HTTP
 SMTP
 FTP
 NNTP
 POP
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Starting Internet Explorer
Internet explorer is a web browser developed by Microsoft. It is installed by default with the windows
operating system howerver, it can be downloaded and be upgraded.To start internet explorer, follow the
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following steps:
 Go to Start button and click Internet Explorer.

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The Internet Explorer window will appear as shown in the following diagram:
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Accessing Web Page
Accessing web page is very simple. Just enter the URL in the address bar as shown the following
diagram:
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Navigation
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A web page may contain hyperlinks. When we click on these links other web page is opened. These
hyperlinks can be in form of text or image. When we take the mouse over an hyperlink, pointer change
its shape to hand.
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Key Points
 In case, you have accessed many web pages and willing to see the previous webpage then just
click back button.
 You can open a new web page in the same tab, or different tab or in a new window.
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Saving Webpage
You can save web page to use in future. In order to save a webpage, follow the steps given below:
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 Click File > Save As. Save Webpage dialog box appears.
 Choose the location where you want to save your webpage from save in: list box. Then choose
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the folder where you want to save the webpage.

 Specify the file name in the File name box.
 Select the type from Save as type list box.

o Webpage, complete
o Web Archive
o Webpage HTML only
o Text File
 From the encoding list box, choose the character set which will be used with your webpage. By
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default, Western European is selected.
 Click save button and the webpage is saved.
Saving Web Elements
Web elements are the pictures, links etc. In order to save these elements follow the steps given below:
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 Right click on the webpage element you want to save. Menu options will appear. These options
may vary depending on the element you want to save.
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Save Picture As: This option let you save the picture at specific location with its name. When you click
this option, a dialog box is opened where you can sepcify its name and location.
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Favourites
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The Favourites option helps to save addresses of the webpages you visited oftenly. Hence you need not
to remember long and complex address of websites you visit often.
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In order to open any webpage, you just need to double click on the webpage that you have marked from
bookmarks list.
Adding a web page to your Favourites
In ordered to add website to your favourite list, follow the steps given below:
 Open webpage that you want to add to your favourite.

 Click on favourite menu and then click on Add to Favouritesopton. Addfavourites dialog box
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appears.
You can also click Favourites button available in the toolbar. Favourites panel will open in the left
corner of the internet explorer window. Click add button, AddFavourites dialog box will apppear.
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 In AddFavourites dialog box, the Name: text box will contains the name of the web page that
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you want to add to favourites.

 Click the Create in button, Favoutites folder will appear. Move to the folder where you want to
store the favourites by clicking on the folder name.
 Now click OK button to save the favourites.
Opening Favourites
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In order to open favourites, follow the steps given below:

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 In the Favourite Panel, take the mouse over the site that you want to open. Now click on the
address to open that site.
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 Favourite can also be opened from the Favourites menu by selecting the appropriate one.
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Organizing Favourites
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Favourites can be organized by categorizing web pages, creating folder for each category and then
storing web pages into them. In order to organize favourites, follow the steps given below:
 Click Favourites menu > Organize Favourites. Organize favourites dialog box will appears.
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 In order to organize the webpages, drag the individual webpage to the respective folder.
Similarly to delete a favourite, Click on delete button.
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Web Server
Overview
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Web server is a computer where the web content is stored. Basically web server is used to host the web
sites but there exists other web servers also such as gaming, storage, FTP, email etc.
Web site is collection of web pages whileweb server is a software that respond to the request for web
resources.
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Web Server Working
Web server respond to the client request in either of the following two ways:
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 Sending the file to the client associated with the requested URL.
 Generating response by invoking a script and communicating with database
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Key Points
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 When client sends request for a web page, the web server search for the requested page if
requested page is found then it will send it to client with an HTTP response.
 If the requested web page is not found, web server will the send an HTTP response:Error 404
Not found.
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 If client has requested for some other resources then the web server will contact to the
application server and data store to construct the HTTP response.
Architecture
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Web Server Architecture follows the following two approaches:
1. Concurrent Approach
2. Single-Process-Event-Driven Approach.
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Concurrent Approach
Concurrent approach allows the web server to handle multiple client requests at the same time. It can be
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achieved by following methods:
 Multi-process
 Multi-threaded
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 Hybrid method.
Multi-processing
In this a single process (parent process) initiates several single-threaded child processes and distribute
incoming requests to these child processes. Each of the child processes are responsible for handling
single request.
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It is the responsibility of parent process to monitor the load and decide if processes should be killed or
forked.
Multi-threaded
Unlike Multi-process, it creates multiple single-threaded process.
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Hybrid
It is combination of above two approaches. In this approach multiple process are created and each
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process initiates multiple threads. Each of the threads handles one connection. Using multiple threads in
single process results in less load on system resources.
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Database Server
It is similar to data warehouse where the website store or maintain their data and information. A
Database Server is a computer in a LAN that is dedicated to database storage and retrieval. The database
server holds the Database Management System (DBMS) and the databases. Upon requests from the
client machines, it searches the database for selected records and passes them back over the network.
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A database server is useful for organizations that have a lot of data to deal with on a regular basis. If you
have client-server architecture where the clients need process data too frequently, it is better to work
with a database server. Some organizations use the file server to store and process data. A database
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server is much more efficient than a file server.

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UNIT-2
SCRIPTING ESSENTIALS
Need for Scripting languages
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Scripting languages are becoming more popular due to the emergence of web-based applications. The
market for producing dynamic web content is now expanding extremely rapidly such that new scripting
languages have been developed to allow users with little or no programming expertise to develop
interactive web pages with minimum effort.
Also the increases in computer performance over the past few years has promoted a increase in the
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power and sophistication of scripting languages that, unlike conventional programming languages, can
even have certain security features built-in.
Major advantages of scripting languages include:
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 easy to learn and use
 minimum programming knowledge or experience required

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 allow complex tasks to be performed in relatively few steps
 allow simple creation and editing in a variety of text editors

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 allow the addition of dynamic and interactive activities to web pages
 editing and running code is fast.

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Types of scripting languages
Specialised scripting languages include:
Perl (Practical Extraction and Report Language). This is a popular string processing language for
writing small scripts for system administrators and web site maintainers. Much web development is now
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done using Perl.
Hypertalk is another example. It is the underlying scripting language of HyperCard.

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Lingo is the scripting language of Macromedia Director, an authoring system for develop high-
performance multimedia content and applications for CDs, DVDs and the Internet.
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AppleScript, a scripting language for the Macintosh allows the user to send commands to the operating
system to, for example open applications, carry out complex data operations.
JavaScript, perhaps the most publicized and well-known scripting language was initially developed by
Netscape as Live Script to allow more functionality and enhancement to web page authoring that raw
HTML could not accommodate. A standard version of JavaScript was later developed to work in both
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Netscape and Microsoft's Internet Explorer, thus making the language to a large extent, universal. This
means that JavaScript code can run on any platform that has a JavaScript interpreter.
VBScript, a cut-down version of Visual Basic, used to enhance the features of web pages in Internet
Explorer.
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Client side scripting
There is overlap between the two technologies as they work in tandem, but there are core differences.
Server-side scripting works in the back end of a site, which the user doesn’t see. It creates scaffolding
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for the site to access its database, all the behind-the-scenes mechanics that organize and power a
website. Client-side code, however, handles what the user does see.
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 Scripts are embedded within and interact with the HTML of your site, selecting elements of it,
then manipulating those elements to provide an interactive experience.
 Scripts interact with a cascading style sheet (CSS) file that styles the way the page looks.
 It dictates what work the server-side code is going to have to accomplish (where utility should be
built around these front-end functions), and returns data that’s pulled from the site in a way that’s
readable by the browser. For example: If there’s a form for updating a profile, the back end is
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built to pull specific data from the database to populate that form, while front-end scripts
populate the form with that information.
 Scripts put less stress on the server because they don’t require processing on the server once
they’re downloaded, just when post-backs are made. “Post-backs” perform specific call-and-
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answers with the server-side code, and respond to the user immediately.
CLIENT-SIDE PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES & FRAMEWORKS
Now that you’ve got a broad view of what front-end technology is and does, here’s a look at some of the
most widely used scripting languages and front-end frameworks. Languages are almost always used in
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the context of their frameworks, which make quick work of complicated code with libraries of pre-
packaged, shareable code, and lots of add-ons. Your developer may use one or a combination of these
when building the front end of your site.
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 HTML and CSS: These are the core building blocks of any site. HTML dictates a site’s
organization and content. CSS comprises the code for every graphic element—from backgrounds
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to fonts—that make up the look and feel of a website. Learn more about HTML and markup
languages.
 JavaScript: JavaScript is client-side scripting. The most widely used client-side script—nearly
every site’s front end is a combination of JavaScript and HTML and CSS. JavaScript is fueled by
an array of excellent frameworks that simplify it and give it more agility.
JavaScript Frameworks:
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 AngularJS: An incredibly robust JavaScript framework for data-heavy sites
 JQuery, jQuery Mobile: A fast, small, JS object library that streamlines how JavaScript behaves
across different browsers
 Node.js: A server-side platform that uses JavaScript, and is changing the way real-time
applications can communicate with the server for faster response times and a more seamless user
experience. It works with another JavaScript framework, Express.js, to build server-side
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Web applications.
 Bootstrap: A mobile-first framework that uses HTML, CSS, and JavaScript to facilitate rapid
responsive app development
 React, for user interface design
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 Express.js, Backbone.js, Ember.js, MeteorJS, and more
 TypeScript: A compile-to-JavaScript language that is a superset of JavaScript, created by

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Microsoft
 AJAX (JavaScript + XML)—a technology that allows specific parts of a site to be updated
without a full-page refresh by asynchronously connecting to the database and pulling JSON– or
XML-based chunks of data.
 VBScript &JScript are Microsoft’s front-end scripts that run on the ASP.NET framework.
JScript is Microsoft’s reverse-engineered version of JavaScript.
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 ActionScript, which creates animated interactive web applications for Adobe Flash Play
 Java (as “applets”) snippets of back-end code that run independently with a run-time
environment in the browser
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Server side scripting
 Runs on a server, embedded in the site’s code
 Designed to interact with back-end permanent storage, like databases, and process information
from the server to access the database—like a direct line from user to database
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 Facilitates the transfer of data from server to browser, bringing pages to life in the browser,
e.g., processing and then delivering a field that a user requests or submits in a form
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 Runs on-call. When a webpage is “called up,” or when parts of pages are “posted back” to the
server with AJAX, server-side scripts process and return data
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 Powers functions in dynamic web applications, such as user validation, saving and retrieving
data, and navigating between other pages
 Plays a big role in how a database is built from the ground up and managed afterwards—an
example of how roles often overlap in all aspects of development
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 Build application programming interfaces (APIs), which control what data and software a site
shares with other apps
Popular server-side languages
 PHP: The most popular server-side language on the web, PHP is designed to pull and edit
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information in the database. It’s most commonly bundled with databases written in the SQL
language. PHP was designed strictly for the web and remains one of the most widely used
languages around. It’s easy to install and deploy, is staying competitive with lots of modern
frameworks, and is the foundation for a number of content-management systems. PHP-powered
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sites: WordPress, Wikipedia, Facebook
 Python: With fewer lines of code, the Python programming language is fast, making it ideal for
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getting things to market quickly. The emphasis is on readability and simplicity, which makes it
great for beginners. It’s the oldest of the scripting languages, is powerful, and works well in
object-oriented designs. Python-powered sites: YouTube, Google, The Washington Post
 Ruby: If you’re expecting complicated logic on the database side of your site, the Ruby
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programming language is an excellent option. Unlike Python, Ruby is equal parts simplicity and
complexity, pairing simple code with more flexibility and extra tools. Ruby bundles the back end
with database functionality that PHP and SQL can offer as a pair—it’s great for startups, easy
maintenance, and high-traffic demands. It requires developers to use the Ruby on Rails
framework, which has vast libraries of code to streamline back-end development. Ruby-powered
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sites: Hulu, Twitter (originally), Living Social, Basecamp
 C#: The language of Microsoft’s .NET Framework—the most popular framework on the web—
C# combines productivity and versatility by blending the best aspects of the C and C++
languages. It’s excellent for developing Windows applications, and can be used to build iOS,
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Android mobile apps with the help of a cross-platform technology like Xamarin.
 C++: Great for complex applications also built on the .NET Framework, the C++ programming
language is a difficult but high-powered language that works well for data-heavy sites. Speed is
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central to C++, and it runs well alongside other languages like Java and Python.
 Java: A subset of the C language, Java comes with a huge ecosystem of add-on software
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components. At its core, Java is a variation of C++ with an easier learning curve, plus, it’s
platform independent thanks to the Java Virtual Machine. “Compile once, run anywhere” is its
motto—and it’s excellent for enterprise-level applications, high-traffic sites, and Android apps.
Java sites: Twitter, Verizon, AT&T, Salesforce
 Erlang: A general-purpose programming language, Erlang is also a concurrent language, which

means several processes can run simultaneously on the language-level without external library
support. It’s used in the LYME and LYCE stacks, numerous CMS and databases, GitHub,
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Facebook chat, and Goldman Sachs, supporting its high-frequency trading requirements.
…and their server-side frameworks
 Ruby on Rails: This Ruby framework is the overriding way to implement Ruby. Its “gems”
include plug-ins and libraries of code that streamline development.
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 ASP.NET: This Microsoft framework is the most popular enterprise-level framework—it
supports multiple programming languages simultaneously for one project. So, the same
application can be built with both C# and C++, via CLI (common language interface). It’s most
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recent iteration, ASP.NET 5, is now open to non-Windows platforms for the first time.
 Django: This Python framework was developed to meet the needs of development in a fast-
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paced environment. Django sites: Pinterest, Nasa, Pitchfork
 Node.js: JavaScript is typically a front-end script, but with the Node.js framework, it can be used
in server-side technology, from APIs to entire stacks. Its core selling point is how it handles
client-server communication—it’s fast, doesn’t bottleneck, and is ideal for real-time apps like
chat rooms, data-heavy applications, and any software that requires the streaming of fresh
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content, like a news feed. Node.js sites: Dow Jones, PayPal, LinkedIn
 Express.js&Koa: These JavaScript-powered middleware frameworks work on top of the

Node.js development environment and control the flow of information on the back end of a site.
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Working principle of PHP
In order to develop and run PHP Web pages three vital components need to be installed on your
computer system.
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 Web Server − PHP will work with virtually all Web Server software, including Microsoft's
Internet Information Server (IIS) but then most often used is freely available Apache Server.
Download Apache for free here − https://httpd.apache.org/download.cgi
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 Database − PHP will work with virtually all database software, including Oracle and Sybase but
most commonly used is freely available MySQL database. Download MySQL for free here −
https://www.mysql.com/downloads/
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 PHP Parser − In order to process PHP script instructions a parser must be installed to generate
HTML output that can be sent to the Web Browser. This tutorial will guide you how to install
PHP parser on your computer.
PHP Parser Installation
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Before you proceed it is important to make sure that you have proper environment setup on your
machine to develop your web programs using PHP.
Type the following address into your browser's address box.
http://127.0.0.1/info.php
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If this displays a page showing your PHP installation related information then it means you have PHP
and Webserver installed properly. Otherwise you have to follow given procedure to install PHP on your
computer.
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This section will guide you to install and configure PHP over the following four platforms −
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 PHP Installation on Linux or Unix with Apache
 PHP Installation on Mac OS X with Apache
 PHP Installation on Windows NT/2000/XP with IIS
 PHP Installation on Windows NT/2000/XP with Apache
Apache Configuration
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If you are using Apache as a Web Server then this section will guide you to edit Apache Configuration
Files.
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Just Check it here − PHP Configuration in Apache Server
PHP.INI File Configuration
The PHP configuration file, php.ini, is the final and most immediate way to affect PHP's functionality.
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Just Check it here − PHP.INI File Configuration
Windows IIS Configuration

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To configure IIS on your Windows machine you can refer your IIS Reference Manual shipped along
with IIS.
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This chapter will give you an idea of very basic syntax of PHP and very important to make your PHP
foundation strong.
Escaping to PHP
The PHP parsing engine needs a way to differentiate PHP code from other elements in the page. The
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mechanism for doing so is known as 'escaping to PHP'. There are four ways to do this −
Canonical PHP tags
The most universally effective PHP tag style is −
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<?php...?>
If you use this style, you can be positive that your tags will always be correctly interpreted.
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Short-open (SGML-style) tags
Short or short-open tags look like this −

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<?...?>
Short tags are, as one might expect, the shortest option You must do one of two things to enable PHP to
recognize the tags −
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 Choose the --enable-short-tags configuration option when you're building PHP.

 Set the short_open_tag setting in your php.ini file to on. This option must be disabled to parse
XML with PHP because the same syntax is used for XML tags.
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ASP-style tags
ASP-style tags mimic the tags used by Active Server Pages to delineate code blocks. ASP-style tags
look like this −
<%...%>
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To use ASP-style tags, you will need to set the configuration option in your php.ini file.
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HTML script tags
HTML script tags look like this −

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<scriptlanguage="PHP">...</script>
Commenting PHP Code
A comment is the portion of a program that exists only for the human reader and stripped out before
displaying the programs result. There are two commenting formats in PHP −
Single-line comments − They are generally used for short explanations or notes relevant to the local
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code. Here are the examples of single line comments.
<?
# This is a comment, and
# This is the second line of the comment
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// This is a comment too. Each style comments only
print"An example with single line comments";
?>
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Multi-lines printing − Here are the examples to print multiple lines in a single print statement −
<?
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# First Example
print<<<END
This uses the "here document" syntax to output
multiple lines with $variable interpolation.Note
that the here document terminator must appear on a
linewith just a semicolon no extra whitespace!
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END;
# Second Example
print"This spans
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multiple lines. The newlines will be

output as well";
?>
Multi-lines comments − They are generally used to provide pseudocode algorithms and more detailed
explanations when necessary. The multiline style of commenting is the same as in C. Here are the
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example of multi lines comments.
<?
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/* This is a comment with multiline

Author : Mohammad Mohtashim
Purpose: Multiline Comments Demo
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Subject: PHP
*/
print"An example with multi line comments";

?>
PHP is whitespace insensitive
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Whitespace is the stuff you type that is typically invisible on the screen, including spaces, tabs, and
carriage returns (end-of-line characters).
PHP whitespace insensitive means that it almost never matters how many whitespace characters you
have in a row.one whitespace character is the same as many such characters.
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For example, each of the following PHP statements that assigns the sum of 2 + 2 to the variable $four is
equivalent −
$four =2+2;// single spaces
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$four <tab>=<tab2<tab>+<tab>2;// spaces and tabs
$four =
2+
2;// multiple lines
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PHP is case sensitive
Yeah it is true that PHP is a case sensitive language. Try out following example −
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<html>
<body>
<?php
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$capital =67;
print("Variable capital is $capital ");
print("Variable CaPiTaL is $CaPiTaL ");
?>
</body>
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</html>
This will produce the following result −

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Variable capital is 67
Variable CaPiTaL is
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Statements are expressions terminated by semicolons
A statement in PHP is any expression that is followed by a semicolon (;).Any sequence of valid PHP
statements that is enclosed by the PHP tags is a valid PHP program. Here is a typical statement in PHP,
which in this case assigns a string of characters to a variable called $greeting −
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$greeting = "Welcome to PHP!";
Expressions are combinations of tokens
The smallest building blocks of PHP are the indivisible tokens, such as numbers (3.14159), strings
(.two.), variables ($two), constants (TRUE), and the special words that make up the syntax of PHP itself
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like if, else, while, for and so forth
Braces make blocks
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Although statements cannot be combined like expressions, you can always put a sequence of statements
anywhere a statement can go by enclosing them in a set of curly braces.
Here both statements are equivalent −

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if(3==2+1)
print("Good - I haven't totally lost my mind. ");
if(3==2+1){
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print("Good - I haven't totally");

print("lost my mind. ");
}
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Running PHP Script from Command Prompt
Yes you can run your PHP script on your command prompt. Assuming you have following content in
test.php file
<?php
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echo"Hello PHP!!!!!";
?>
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Now run this script as command prompt as follows −
$ phptest.php
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It will produce the following result −

Hello PHP!!!!!
PHP Variables
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name (age, carname,
total_volume).
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Rules for PHP variables:
 A variable starts with the $ sign, followed by the name of the variable
 A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character
 A variable name cannot start with a number
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 A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _ )
 Variable names are case-sensitive ($age and $AGE are two different variables)
Output Variables
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The PHP echo statement is often used to output data to the screen.
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The following example will show how to output text and a variable:
Cookies
Cookies are text files stored on the client computer and they are kept of use tracking purpose. PHP
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transparently supports HTTP cookies.
There are three steps involved in identifying returning users −
 Server script sends a set of cookies to the browser. For example name, age, or identification
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number etc.
 Browser stores this information on local machine for future use.
 When next time browser sends any request to web server then it sends those cookies information
to the server and server uses that information to identify the user.
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This chapter will teach you how to set cookies, how to access them and how to delete them.
The Anatomy of a Cookie

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Cookies are usually set in an HTTP header (although JavaScript can also set a cookie directly on a
browser). A PHP script that sets a cookie might send headers that look something like this −
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HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Date: Fri, 04 Feb 2000 21:03:38 GMT
Server: Apache/1.3.9 (UNIX) PHP/4.0b3

Set-Cookie: name=xyz; expires=Friday, 04-Feb-07 22:03:38 GMT;
path=/; domain=tutorialspoint.com
Connection: close
Content-Type: text/html
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As you can see, the Set-Cookie header contains a name value pair, a GMT date, a path and a domain.
The name and value will be URL encoded. The expires field is an instruction to the browser to "forget"
the cookie after the given time and date.
If the browser is configured to store cookies, it will then keep this information until the expiry date. If
the user points the browser at any page that matches the path and domain of the cookie, it will resend the
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cookie to the server.Thebrowser's headers might look something like this −
GET / HTTP/1.0
Connection: Keep-Alive
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User-Agent: Mozilla/4.6 (X11; I; Linux 2.2.6-15apmac ppc)
Host: zink.demon.co.uk:1126
Accept: image/gif, */*
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Accept-Encoding: gzip
Accept-Language: en
Accept-Charset: iso-8859-1,*,utf-8
Cookie: name=xyz
A PHP script will then have access to the cookie in the environmental variables $_COOKIE or
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$HTTP_COOKIE_VARS[] which holds all cookie names and values. Above cookie can be accessed
using $HTTP_COOKIE_VARS["name"].
Setting Cookies with PHP

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PHP provided setcookie() function to set a cookie. This function requires upto six arguments and should
be called before <html> tag. For each cookie this function has to be called separately.
setcookie(name, value, expire, path, domain, security);

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Here is the detail of all the arguments −
 Name − This sets the name of the cookie and is stored in an environment variable called
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HTTP_COOKIE_VARS. This variable is used while accessing cookies.

 Value − This sets the value of the named variable and is the content that you actually want to
store.
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 Expiry − This specify a future time in seconds since 00:00:00 GMT on 1st Jan 1970. After this
time cookie will become inaccessible. If this parameter is not set then cookie will automatically
expire when the Web Browser is closed.
 Path − This specifies the directories for which the cookie is valid. A single forward slash
character permits the cookie to be valid for all directories.
 Domain − This can be used to specify the domain name in very large domains and must contain
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at least two periods to be valid. All cookies are only valid for the host and domain which created
them.
 Security − This can be set to 1 to specify that the cookie should only be sent by secure
transmission using HTTPS otherwise set to 0 which mean cookie can be sent by regular HTTP.
Following example will create two cookies name and age these cookies will be expired after one hour.
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<?php
setcookie("name","John Watkin", time()+3600,"/","",0);
setcookie("age","36", time()+3600,"/","",0);
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?>
<html>
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<head>
<title>Setting Cookies with PHP</title>
</head>
<body>
<?php echo "Set Cookies"?>
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</body>
</html>
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Accessing Cookies with PHP
PHP provides many ways to access cookies. Simplest way is to use either $_COOKIE or
$HTTP_COOKIE_VARS variables. Following example will access all the cookies set in above
example.
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<html>
<head>
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<title>Accessing Cookies with PHP</title>

</head>
<body>
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<?php
echo $_COOKIE["name"]." ";
/* is equivalent to */
echo $HTTP_COOKIE_VARS["name"]." ";
echo $_COOKIE["age"]." ";
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/* is equivalent to */
echo $HTTP_COOKIE_VARS["age"]." ";
?>
</body>
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</html>
You can use isset() function to check if a cookie is set or not.
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<html>
<head>
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<title>Accessing Cookies with PHP</title>
</head>
<body>
<?php
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if(isset($_COOKIE["name"]))
echo"Welcome ". $_COOKIE["name"]." ";
else
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echo"Sorry... Not recognized"." ";

?>
</body>
</html>
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Deleting Cookie with PHP
Officially, to delete a cookie you should call setcookie() with the name argument only but this does not
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always work well, however, and should not be relied on.
It is safest to set the cookie with a date that has already expired −
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<?php
setcookie("name","", time()-60,"/","",0);
setcookie("age","", time()-60,"/","",0);
?>
<html>
<head>
<title>Deleting Cookies with PHP</title>
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</head>
<body>
<?php echo "Deleted Cookies"?>
</body>
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</html>
UNIT-3
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NETWORKING ESSENTIALS
A computer network is :
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• A set of computers connected together
• For the purpose of sharing resources through internet or network
• Shares resources include printers, file servers and internet itself is a network,
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Computer network:
Definition :
•
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“A group of computer systems and other computing hardware devices that are linked together
through communication channels to facilitate communication and resource-sharing among a
wide range of users”.
• A computer network consists of two or more computing devices that are connected in order to
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share the components of your network (its resources) and the information
• expand and become more usable when additional computers join and add their resources to those
being shared.
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• all computers can be connected to a single printer. You can connect your computer to other
computers to share information and hardware components.
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Advantages of computer network:

• Sharing of devices such as printer, scanner, etc.
• Sharing of program/files
• Sharing of data
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• Sharing of information
• Sharing of single internet connection
• Can access server centric database
Components of Computer network
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 including servers, clients, transmission media, shared data, shared printers and other hardware
and software resources, network interface card(NIC)
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• Sharing of equipment like printers, scanners, fax machines, copiers, storage drives, network
connection and other resources
•
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hardware components involve cable, Hub, Switch, NIC (network interface card), modem and
router.
Major Computer Network Components
• Servers
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• Workstations
• Communication channel
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• Network Interface Card (NIC)

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• Hub
• Switches
• Router
• Modem
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• Cables and connectors
• Software
Servers
• The main computer on a network that provides services to other computers on the network.
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• A server decides which computers are to be allowed to access the resources..
Workstations
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• A computer connected to a network. You use a workstation to access the hardware and software
on the network.
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Communication channel
• A path or link that connects computers or peripherals devices, such as printers and disk drivers to
transfer information.
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• Cables are commonly used as communication channels in a network, but networks can also
transfer information through wireless connection.
Network Interface Card

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• NIC is a device which allows a computer to communicate with other computer/network.
• MAC address programmed on the card chip, the data-link protocol uses these addresses to detect
other systems on the net-work.
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• it can transfer data to the correct destination via the wired or wireless network.
• two forms of network cards:
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• wired and wireless
• Wired-NIC employs cables and connectors as a medium to transfer data.

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• Wireless-the connection is made using antenna that uses radio wave technol-ogy.
Network Hub:
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• When a computer request information from a network or a particular computer, it transmits the
request to the hub through a cable.
• The hub receives the request and broadcasts it to the entire network.
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• Consume more bandwidth on the network and limits the amount of communication.
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Network Switches:
• Switch is like a smart Hub.

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• switch connects the source and destination directly which increases the speed of the network.
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OSI model
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seven-layer model, and a set of specific protocols.
Physical Layer
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• defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data connection.
• includes the layout of pins, voltages, line impedance, cable specifications, signal timing
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• Bit rate control is done at the physical layer.
• It may define transmission mode as simplex, half duplex, and full duplex.
• Simplex-single communication e.g radio signal

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• Half duplex-both directions but not at the same time-walkie talkie
• Full duplex-both direction at a time-telephone.

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•
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low-level networking equipment, such as some hubs, cabling,
• never concerned with protocols or other such higher-layer items.
• Examples of hardware in this layer are network adapters, repeaters.

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Data Link Layer
• node-to-node data transfer—a link between two directly connected nodes.

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• Detects possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer.
IEEE 802 divides the data link layer into two sub layers:
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• MAC-responsible for controlling how devices in a access to a medium and permission to

transmit data.
• LLC-identifying network layer protocols, and controls error checking
• MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such as 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi-Fi
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Network Layer
• Provides length data sequences (called datagrams) from one node to another connected in
different networks.
• every node has an address and which permits nodes connected to it to trans-fer messages to other
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nodes
• to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing it through intermediate nodes.
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• message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another on the data link layer between
those nodes,
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• implement message delivery by splitting the message into several fragments at one node,
Transport Layer:
• transferring variable-length data sequences from a source to a destination host via one or more
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networks.
• (TCP), usually built on top of the Internet Protocol (IP)
• connection oriented-track of the segments and re-transmit those that fail.

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• provides the acknowledgement of the successful data trans-mission and sends the next data if no
errors occurred.
• creates packets out of the message received from the application layer.
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• Packets-process of dividing the long message into smaller messages.
Session Layer
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• provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes check pointing,
termination, and restart procedures.
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Presentation Layer
• data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.
• Presentation Layer does compression and encryption.
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Application Layer
• determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to
transmit.
• two application-entities: one using
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• HTTP to communicate with its users, and one for a remote database protocol to record
reservations.
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UNIT-4
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MOBILE COMPUTING ESSENTIALS
Cell phone working fundamentals:
A mobile phone is an electronic device used for mobile telecommunications over a cellular network of
specialized base stations known as cell sites. A cell phone offers full Duplex Communication and
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transfer the link when the user moves from one cell to another. As the phone user moves from one cell
area to another, the system automatically commands the mobile phone and a cell site with a stronger
signal, to switch on to a new frequency in order to keep the link.
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Mobile phone is primarily designed for Voice communication. In addition to the standard voice
function, new generation mobile phones support many additional services, and accessories, such as SMS
for text messaging, email, packet switching for access to the Internet, gaming, Bluetooth, camera with
video recorder and MMS for sending and receiving photos and video, MP3 player, radio and GPS.
Signal Frequency in Cell Phone
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The cellular system is the division of an area into small cells.

This allows extensive frequency reuse across that area, so that many people can use cell phones
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simultaneously. Cellular networks has a number of advantages like increased capacity, reduced power
usage, larger coverage area, reduced interference from other signals etc.
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Fundamentals of Communications Access Technologies: FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, OFDMA, AND

SDMA
FDMA
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FDMA is the process of dividing one channel or bandwidth into multiple individual bands, each for use
by a single user (Fig. 1). Each individual band or channel is wide enough to accommodate the signal
spectra of the transmissions to be propagated. The data to be transmitted is modulated on to each
subcarrier, and all of them are linearly mixed together.
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TDMA
TDMA is a digital technique that divides a single channel or band into time slots. Each time slot is used
to transmit one byte or another digital segment of each signal in sequential serial data format. This
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technique works well with slow voice data signals, but it’s also useful for compressed video and other
high-speed data.
CDMA
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CDMA is another pure digital technique. It is also known as spread spectrum because it takes the
digitized version of an analog signal and spreads it out over a wider bandwidth at a lower power level.
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4.2: Cell phone frequencies & channels:
There are two common frequency bands that all cell phone carriers use. The Cellular band commonly
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referred to as 1900 uses the frequencies 1850-1990. The other band is PCS(personal communication
services) which is the 800 MHz band uses frequencies in the 824-894 range. Most of our cellular phone
signal products work on one or the other.
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Cell-phone Frequencies
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In half-duplex radio, both transmitters use the same frequency. Only one party can talk at a time.
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In the dark ages before cell phones, people who really needed mobile-communications ability installed
radio telephones in their cars. In the radio-telephone system, there was one central antenna tower per
city, and perhaps 25 channels available on that tower. This central antenna meant that the phone in your
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car needed a powerful transmitter -- big enough to transmit 40 or 50 miles (about 70 kilometers). It also
meant that not many people could use radiotelephones -- there just were not enough channels.
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A good way to understand the sophistication of a cell phone is to compare it to a CB radio or a walkie-
talkie.
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In full-duplex radio, the two transmitters use different frequencies, so both parties can talk at the
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same time.Cell phones are full-duplex.
Full-duplex vs. half-duplex - Both walkie-talkies and CB radios are half-duplex devices. That
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is, two people communicating on a CB radio use the same frequency, so only one person can talk
at a time. A cell phone is a full-duplexdevice. That means that you use one frequency for talking
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and a second, separate frequency for listening. Both people on the call can talk at once.
Channels - A walkie-talkie typically has one channel, and a CB radio has 40 channels. A typical
cell phone can communicate on 1,664 channels or more.
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Range - A walkie-talkie can transmit about 1 mile (1.6 kilometers) using a 0.25-watt transmitter.
A CB radio, because it has much higher power, can transmit about 5 miles (8 kilometers) using a
5-watt transmitter. Cell phones operate within cells, and they can switch cells as they move
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around. Cells give mobile phones incredible range. Someoneusing a cell phone can drive
hundreds of miles and maintain a conversation the entire time because of the cellular
approach.Each cell as about 168 channels.
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Frequency band: Uplink: 890-915 MHz, Downlink:935=960 MHz

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Frequency range:50 MHz(25 MHz Up,25 MHz Down)
Carrier spacing:200 KHz (but time shared between 8 subscribers)

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Duplex distance: 45 MHz(FDD) Frequency division duplexing
Communication between the base station and mobiles is defined by the standard common air
interface (CAI).
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1. Forward voice channel (FVC): Voice transmission from base station to mobile.
2. Reverse voice channel (RVC): Voice transmission from mobile to base station.
3. Forward control channel (FCC): Initiating mobile call from base station to mobile.
4. Reverse control channel (RCC): Initiating mobile call from mobile to base station.
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Cell-phone Channels
A single cell in an analog mobile phone system uses one-seventh of the available duplex voice channels.
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That is, each cell (of the seven on a hexagonal grid) is using one-seventh of the available channels so it
has a unique set of frequencies and there are no collisions:
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 A cell phone carrier typically gets 832 radio frequencies to use in a city.
 Each cell phone uses two frequencies per call -- a duplex channel -- so there are typically 395
voice channels per carrier. (The other 42 frequencies are used for control channels -- more on
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this later.)
Therefore, each cell has about 56 voice channels available. In other words, in any cell, 56 people can be
talking on their cell phone at one time. Analog cellular systems are considered first-generation mobile
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technology, or 1G. With digital transmission methods (2G), the number of available channels increases.
For example, a TDMA-based digital system (more on TDMA later) can carry three times as many calls
as an analog system, so each cell has about 168 channels available.
Cell phones have low-power transmitters in them. Many cell phones have two signal strengths: 0.6 watts
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and 3 watts (for comparison, most CB radios transmit at 4 watts). The base station is also transmitting at
low power. Low-power transmitters have two advantages:
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 The transmissions of a base station and the phones within its cell do not make it very far
outside that cell. Therefore, in the figure on the previous page, both of the purple cells can reuse
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the same 56 frequencies. The same frequencies can be reused extensively across the city.
 The power consumption of the cell phone, which is normally battery-operated, is relatively
low. Low power means small batteries, and this is what has made handheld cellular phones
possible.
The cellular approach requires a large number of base stations in a city of any size. A typical large city
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can have hundreds of towers. But because so many people are using cell phones, costs remain low per
user. Each carrier in each city also runs one central office called the Mobile Telephone Switching
Office (MTSO). This office handles all of the phone connections to the normal land-based phone
system and controls all of the base stations in the region.
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Channel Assignment
• Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA): Channels are pre-allocated to the cells during planning
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phase.
• Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA): No pre-allocation .When a call comes/arrives at a cell

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then a channel not in use is selected.
• It requires the MSC to collect real time data, channel occupancy data, traffic distribution,
radio strength etc.
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Subscriber Identification Module SIM

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When the Mobile phone is used for the first time, it sends a number called International Mobile
Subscriber Identity – IMSI present in the SIM card to the network, which looks it up in a database to
ensure the card is registered. If the IMSI is recognized, the network creates another number called a
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI), which is encrypted and sent back to the phone. In all
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subsequent calls, the phone identifies itself by broadcasting the TMSI.
What happens when we make a call?
1. When we switch on the mobile phone, it tries for an SID on the Control channel. The Control
channel is a special frequency that the phone and base station use to talk to one another. If the
Mobile phone finds difficulty to get link with the control channel, it displays a “no service”
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message.
2. If the Mobile phone gets the SID, it compares the SID with the SID programmed in the phone. If
both SID match, the phone identifies that the cell it is communicating is the part of its home
system.
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3. The phone also transmits a registration request along with the SID and the MTSO keeps track of
your phone’s location in a database. MTSO knows in which cell you are when it wants to ring
the phone.
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4. The MTSO then gets the signal, it tries to find the phone. The MTSO looks in its database to find
the cell in which the phone is present. The MTSO then picks a frequency pair to take the call.
5. The MTSO communicates with the Mobile phone over the control channel to tell it what
frequencies to use. Once the Mobile phone and the tower switch on those frequencies, the call is
connected.
6. When the Mobile phone move toward the edge of the cell, the cell’s base station will note that
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the signal strength is diminishing. At the same time, the base station in the cell in which the
phone is moving will be able to see the phone’s signal strength increasing.
7. The two base stations coordinate themselves through the MTSO. At some point, the Mobile
phone gets a signal on a control channel and directs it to change frequencies. This will switch the
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phone to the new cell.

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Mobile Network
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The GSM System
Global System for Mobile Communications is the standard for mobile telephone systems in the world. In
GSM, the signaling and speech channels are digital, therefore GSM is considered a 2G (Second
Generation) system. This helps wide-spread implementation of data communication applications. There
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are five different cell sizes in a GSM network These are macro, micro, pico, femto and umbrella cells.
Macro cells are cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast above average roof top level.
Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level. Pico cells are small cells
whose coverage diameter is a few dozen metres. These are mainly used in indoors applications. Femto
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cells are cells designed for use in residential or small business environments and connect to the service
provider’s network via a broadband internet connection.
Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between
those cells.Horizontal radius of the cell varies depending on the antenna height, antenna gain and
propagation conditions. Maximum distance the GSM supports is 35 kilometers. Most 2G GSM networks
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operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands while 3G GSM in the 2100 MHz frequency band.
Time Sharing
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Time Division Multiplexing technique is used to share eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech
channels per radio frequency channel. There are eight radio time slots grouped into a TDMA frame.
Mobile Network
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Mobile phone converts voice, text, multi-media messages or data calls into Radio Frequencies (RF).
Mobile phone base stations transmit and receive these RF signals and connect callers to other phones
and other networks. Mobile phone network is divided into thousands of overlapping, individual
geographic areas or ‘cells’, each with a base station. The size of a cell depends on the area of coverage
and the number of calls that are made in that area. The smallest cells are in crowded urban areas with
large buildings and heavy population density, while the biggest cells are in rural areas, where people are
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dispersed.
There are two types of channels used in GSM . These are Control channels and Traffic channels.
Control channels
These are responsible for housekeeping tasks such as telling the mobile when a call is coming in and
which frequency to use. To ensure this handover works, the phone constantly monitors the broadcast
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control channel of up to 16 neighboring cells. In normal operation, phones continually adjust the power
of the radio waves they send out to be the minimum needed for the base station to receive a clear signal.
If a phone moves far away from its base station and if the signal is weak, the network consults the list
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and triggers a handover to a neighboring cell with best signal.
Traffic channels
It is used to carry calls or other data from the mobile phone to the base station and vice versa. In the
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Traffic channel, voice or text data is carried in bursts. Each burst comprises two consecutive strings of
bits (a series of signals representing 1s and 0s), each 57 bits long.
Range
The range within which mobile devices can connect is not a fixed figure. It depends on a number of
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factors like the frequency of signal in use, the transmitter’s rated power, the transmitter’s size etc.
Cell Phone Network Technologies: 2G

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Cell phone networks fall into three categories: 2G, 3G and 4G. In 2G networks, there are three common
technologies used for transmitting information:
 Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)

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 Time division multiple access (TDMA)

 Code division multiple access (CDMA)
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Although these technologies sound very intimidating, you can get a good sense of how they work just by
breaking down the title of each one.
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In FDMA, each phone uses a different frequency.
The first word tells you what the access method is. The second word, "division," lets you know that it
splits calls based on that access method.
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 FDMA puts each call on a separate frequency.
 TDMA assigns each call a certain portion of time on a designated frequency.
 CDMA gives a unique code to each call and spreads it over the available frequencies.
The last part of each name is "multiple access." This simply means that more than one user can use each
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cell.
FDMA separates the spectrum into distinct voice channels by splitting it into uniform chunks of
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bandwidth. To better understand FDMA, think of radio stations: Each station sends its signal at a
different frequency within the available band. FDMA is used mainly for analog transmission. While it is
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certainly capable of carrying digital information, FDMA is not considered to be an efficient method for
digital transmission.
TDMA is the access method used by the Electronics Industry Alliance and the Telecommunications
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Industry Association for Interim Standard 54 (IS-54) and Interim Standard 136 (IS-136). Using TDMA,
a narrow band that is 30 kHz wide and 6.7 milliseconds long is split time-wise into three time slots.
Narrow band means "channels" in the traditional sense. Each conversation gets the radio for one-third of
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the time. This is possible because voice data that has been converted to digital information is
compressed so that it takes up significantly less transmission space. Therefore, TDMA has three times
the capacity of an analog system using the same number of channels. TDMA systems operate in either
the 800-MHz (IS-54) or 1900-MHz (IS-136) frequency bands.
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How Cell Phones Work

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TDMA is also used as the access technology for Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM).
However, GSM implements TDMA in a somewhat different and incompatible way from IS-136. Think
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of GSM and IS-136 as two different operating systems that work on the same processor, like Windows
and Linux both working on an Intel Pentium III. GSM systems use encryption to make phone calls more
secure. GSM operates in the 900-MHz and 1800-MHz bands in Europe and Asia and in the 850-MHz
and 1900-MHz (sometimes referred to as 1.9-GHz) band in the United States. It is used in digital
cellular and PCS-based systems. GSM is also the basis for Integrated Digital Enhanced Network
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(IDEN), a popular system introduced by Motorola and used by Nextel. AT&T and T-Mobile use GSM.
CDMA takes an entirely different approach from TDMA. CDMA, after digitizing data, spreads it out
over the entire available bandwidth. Multiple calls are overlaid on each other on the channel, with each
assigned a unique sequence code. CDMA is a form of spread spectrum, which simply means that data is
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sent in small pieces over a number of the discrete frequencies available for use at any time in the
specified range. Verizon, Sprint and most other U.S. carriers use CDMA, which means no SIM card.
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All of the users transmit in the same wide-band chunk of spectrum. Each user's signal is spread over the
entire bandwidth by a unique spreading code. At the receiver, that same unique code is used to recover
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the signal. Because CDMA systems need to put an accurate time-stamp on each piece of a signal, it
references the GPS system for this information. Between eight and 10 separate calls can be carried in the
same channel space as one analog AMPS call. CDMA technology is the basis for Interim Standard 95
(IS-95) and operates in both the 800-MHz and 1900-MHz frequency bands.
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Ideally, TDMA and CDMA are transparent to each other. In practice, high-power CDMA signals raise
the noise floor for TDMA receivers, and high-power TDMA signals can cause overloading and jamming
of CDMA receivers.
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Generations of cellular networks:

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UNIT-5
APPLICATION ESSENTIALS
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Creation of simple interactive applications
An interactive application customizes the user experience on your website by putting the visitor in
control. A quality application blends function and form, becoming a digital asset that people can use.
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When this purpose is served, your site reaps many benefits, including:
Boosted Conversions – Applications provide the resource your customers need to make an educated
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decision and further invest in your product or service.
Backlink and Social Citations – When embedded on other websites, you will earn quality citations
from relevant sources as well as social votes and shares.
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Expanded Audience – Interactive applications can be used specifically on your Facebook page to
boost your social following.
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 The following are two of the most popular types of interactive applications:
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 Calculators
If you offer products with a cost that is measured by size, or you offer bundling opportunities for
your products, a calculator application is a useful asset. Calculator applications are also useful
for creating a tool to help your audience run complex formulas or useful calculations. This type
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of application can also be made embeddable, so other websites can include it and link back to
you – providing a relevant citation and boosting your domain authority.
 Quizzes
Quizzes allow users to answer questions to achieve a unique result. For e-commerce websites,
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visitors might click to determine what product is right for their particular situation. Quizzes can
also be used to entertain or engage your target audience. Not only are they fun to take, but
quizzes spread all over the Web. Users want to share the results with their friends, prompting
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them to post the results to both their websites and social networks. In both serious and fun
natures, quizzes engage users through questions and fun results. Quizzes can be created for any
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type of business and will be promoted through social media.
Understanding Applications
An application is a collection of objects that performs a specific task. You use JD Edwards Enterprise.
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One Tools to build standard groups of related applications, such as: Architecture, engineering, and
construction; Distribution; Energy and chemical systems; Financial applications; Workforce
management; Manufacturing; and Technical applications. These applications share a common user
interface because they are all generated through JD Edwards EnterpriseOne Tools. Applications refer to
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both interactive and batch applications. For example, all of the following are applications:
 Address Book Revisions

 Sales Order Entry
 General Ledger Post
 Trial Balance Report
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Creating Applications
We use JD Edwards Enterprise One Tools to build your applications. We always begin your application
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development from the JD Edwards Enterprise One Object Management Workbench. We might not use
every tool to create an application. For example, if we don't need to add or modify data items you would
proceed to Table Design from the Object Management Workbench. If one or more existing database
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tables contain all of the data items that we want to include in our application, we can skip the step of
designing a table and proceed to Business View Design.
This flowchart illustrates the Development Cycle:
Figure 5-1 Development Cycle
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Understanding Data Items and the Data Dictionary
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A data item identifies a unit of information. The data item definition defines how the item can be used
and includes information such as the type of item and its length.
Because the data dictionary is dynamic, any changes that you make to a data item are effective
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immediately for all applications that include the data item. Applications access the data dictionary at
runtime and immediately reflect modifications to data item attributes such as field descriptions, column
headings, decimals, and edit rules.
You use the data dictionary to create, view, and update attributes for data items. You can copy a data
item with similar attributes and modify it for your specific needs. This method can be quicker and easier
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than creating a new data item, but if you use this method you must distinguish between the original and
the copy. You distinguish between them by modifying the alias.
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Because changes to a data item are immediately reflected throughout the JD Edwards EnterpriseOne
tools at runtime, remember that changing the type and attributes of a data item might affect how your
data is stored and cause discrepancies among records.
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Understanding Table Design
A relational database table stores the data that an application uses in columns and rows. Each column is
a data item, and each row is a record. You can create one or more tables for use in an application. To
create a table, you select data items (the data items must already exist in the data dictionary) to include
in the table and assign key fields as indices for retrieving and updating data. You must define your table
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so that JD Edwards EnterpriseOne software recognizes that the table exists.
You must use Table Design to generate the table whenever you want to:
 Create a new table.

 Add or delete a data item.
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 Add or modify an index.
An index identifies records in a table. A primary index identifies unique records in a table. An index is
composed of one or more keys, or data items, within the table. An index enables a database management
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system (DBMS) to sort and locate records quickly.
Understanding Business View Design

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A business view is a selection of data items from one or more tables. After you create a table, use
Business View Design to choose only the data items that are required for your application.
EnterpriseOne uses the business view that you define to generate the appropriate SQL statements
necessary to retrieve data from any of the supported databases. After you define a business view, you
can create a form that updates data in an interactive application or you can design a report that displays
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data. Because you choose only those data items that an application requires, less data moves over the
network.
Business views are required for creating applications and generating reports; they have the following
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characteristics:
 Contain some or all of the data items from one or more tables.
 Link a JD Edwards EnterpriseOne application to one or more tables.
 Define the data items from multiple tables used by an application (such as table joins or table
unions).
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Understanding Form Design Aid

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Form Design Aid is part of the Interactive Application Design and is used to create or modify Enterprise
One applications. Applications are composed of forms, and a form is the interface between a user and a
table. This interface should present the data logically and contain the functions that are necessary to
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enter and manipulate data.

Interactive Application Design is the entry point to several tools for creating, generating, running,
maintaining, and securing applications. Interactive Application Design includes Form Design Aid for
creating forms and Event Rules Design for attaching business logic through event rules. Use Interactive
Application Design to do the following:
 Access Form Design for creating forms.
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 Run an application
 • Create text overrides
 Browse ER
 Browse forms in an application
 Use Visual ER Compare to compare event rules between two versions of an application
 Use FDA Compare to compare one version of an application with another
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To start Interactive Application Design, choose an application in Object Management Workbench and
click the Design button. In Interactive Application Design, you can change the metadata for the
application. To access application metadata, click the Summary, Category Codes, and Install/Merge
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Codes tabs. You can also attach text and files to an application by clicking the Attachments tab. You can
access all other functions from the Design Tools tab.
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Understanding Report Design Aid
Report Design Aid is used to present business data stored in the EnterpriseOne database. EnterpriseOne
data is stored in databases using relational tables. The data is typically presented using batch
applications that access the data through business views.
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You can use Report Design Aid to create a variety of simple and complex batch processes and reports.
The interface is simple enough to use without programming expertise, yet powerful enough to create the
most complex reports. You can also use Report Design Aid to create batch processes and reports.
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Each report is comprised of sections, which are the building blocks of all reports. Within the template,
you can add, hide, remove, and rearrange sections as needed.
You cannot process a report without a batch version. The batch version is submitted for processing, and
once submitted, runs without user interaction. You do not interact with the report again until processing
is complete.
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A report exists as a set of specifications that are read by the EnterpriseOne batch engine for processing.
You can create variations of a single report template using batch versions. The first step in creating a
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report is to create a report object within EnterpriseOne. This report is actually a template from which
multiple versions can be created.
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Understanding Data Structure Design
Data structures are a key element of any programming language or environment. A data structure is a list
of parameters that passes data among applications and tables or forms. JD Edwards EnterpriseOne uses
data structures in the following instances:
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 The system generates a data structure.
 You create a data structure.
The two types of system-generated data structures are as follows:
 Form
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Each form with an attached business view has a default data structure. Data structures receive
parameters from or send parameters to other forms during Form Interconnects. You maintain the
data structure by using the Form/Data Structure menu option in Form Design.
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 Report
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A batch application with an attached business view can receive parameters from or send
parameters to a data structure. You can create and maintain the data structure from the
Report/Data Structure menu option in Report Design. Unlike a form data structure, this type of
data structure is not automatically populated with data items.
As a user, you can create three types of data structures, as follows:

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 Media object data structures
To enable an application for media objects, you must create a data structure to pass arguments
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from the application table to the media object table. To work with a data structure for media
objects, create a new media object data structure or select an existing one to modify in Object
Management Workbench.
 Processing options data structures

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You use processing options to create an input property sheet. You use a parameter list to pass
processing options to an application. You can create a processing option data structure template
or modify an existing template in Object Management Workbench.
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 Business function data structures

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Any business function, whether it uses C or Business Function Event Rules as its source
language, must have a defined data structure to send or receive parameters to or from
applications. You can create a DSTR object type, or choose an existing object type to work with
in Object Management Workbench. You can also create data structures for text substitution
messages. Additionally, you can attach notes, such as an explanation of use, to any data structure
or data item within the structure.
Understanding Event Rules Design
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Use Event Rules Design to create business logic for an application. You can create event rules that do
the following:
 Perform a mathematical calculation.

 Pass data from a field on a form to a field on another form.
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 Count grid rows that are populated with data.
 Interconnect two forms.
 Hide or display a control using a system function.
 Evaluate If/While and Else conditions.
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 Assign a value or an expression to a field.
 Create variables or programmer-defined fields at runtime.
 Perform a batch process upon completion of an interactive application.

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Process table input and output, validate data, and retrieve records.
Areas where event rules can be added are:
Controls
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A control is a reusable object that appears on a form. Examples include push buttons, edit fields,
and grids. A form itself is also considered a control. Controls can be simple or complex. Simple
controls have few event points to which logic can be attached. Complex controls can have many
event points to which logic can be attached
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Events
Events are activities that occur on a form, such as entering information a form or exiting a field
by using the Tab key. Events can be initiated by the user or the application. A single control
might initiate multiple events. The system also initiates some events, such as Last Grid Record
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Read, when certain actions occur
Form Processing
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Form processing refers to the business logic associated with each form. By default, each type of
EnterpriseOne form automatically processes various events. You specify additional logic by
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using Event Rules Design. Form processing depends on the occurrence of specific events, such
as initializing a form or changing the value of a field
Event Rules
Event rules are logic statements that you can create and attach to events. JD Edwards
EnterpriseOne software uses two types of event rules: business function event rules and
embedded event rules. Event rules are initiated when events occur at runtime. You can attach
multiple event rules to one event. The various kinds of event rules include:
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Business Function Event Rules
Business function event rules are encapsulated, reusable, business logic that you create using
Event Rules Design, rather than C programming. Business function event rules are stored as
objects and are compiled. Business function event rules are sometimes called Named Event
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Rules (NERs).
Embedded Event Rules
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Embedded event rules are specific to a particular table, interactive application, or batch
application. They are not reusable. Examples include using form-to-form calls, hiding a field
that is based on a value in a processing option, and calling a business function. Embedded event
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rules can be in application event rules (interactive or batch) or in table event rules. They can be
compiled or uncompiled.
Application Event Rules
You can add business logic that is specific to a particular application. Interactive applications
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connect event rules via Form Design, while batch event rules use Report Design.
Table Event Rules

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You can create database triggers, or rules that you attach to a table by using Table Design Event
Rules. The logic that is attached to a table is run whenever any application initiates that database
event. For example, to maintain referential integrity, you might attach rules to a master table
that delete all children when a parent is deleted. Any application that deletes information from
that table does not need to have the parent/child logic embedded in it because that logic exists in
the table.
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Understanding System Functions

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System Functions are procedures provided by the tool and are usually specific to the type of component
being used. For example there are system functions to hide and show fields on an application, and there
are system functions to execute different sections in a batch application. Parameters are passed into and
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out of the component for functionality. The available system functions are determined by the object
type.
Understanding Table I/O
Use the Table I/O button in Event Rules Design to create instructions that perform table input and output
(I/O) so that you do not need to manually code a business function in C code. Table I/O allows you to
access a table through event rules. You can use table I/O to do the following:
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 Validate data
 Retrieve records
 Update or delete records across files
 Add records
For example, you can use table I/O to display information in a table that your application does not use.
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You can use Log Viewer to view your table I/O SQL statements in the jdedebug.log. To do so, your
jde.ini file must have debugging set to File.
Understanding Business Function Design
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This topic discusses both C business functions and named event rules, and includes information about
master business functions, Business Function Builder, and business function documentation.
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You can use business functions to enhance EnterpriseOne applications by grouping related business
logic. Journal Entry Transactions, Calculating Depreciation, and Sales Order Transactions are examples
of business functions.
You can create business functions using one of the following methods:
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Event rules scripting language
The business functions that you create using the event rules scripting language are referred to as
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Business Function Event Rules (also called Named Event Rules). If possible, use Business
Function Event Rules for your business functions. In some instances, C business functions might
better suit your needs.
C programming code
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EnterpriseOne software creates a shell into which the user inserts logic using C. You use C
business functions mainly for caching, but they can also be used for the following:
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Batch error level messaging
Large functions
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C business functions work better for large functions (as determined by the group). If you have a
large function, you can break the code up into smaller individual functions and call them from
the larger function.
Functions for which performance is critical
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Complex Select statements
After you create business functions, you can attach them to EnterpriseOne applications to provide
additional power, flexibility, and control.
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Understanding Processing Options
Processing options control how an interactive or batch application processes data. You can use
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processing options to change the way in which an application or a report appears or behaves. You can
attach unique processing options to different versions of the same application, which allows you to
change the behavior of an application without creating a new application. In addition, you can use
processing options to do the following:
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 Control the path that a user can use to navigate through a system.
 Set up default values.
 Configure an application for different companies or different users.
 Control the format of forms and reports.
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 Control page breaks and totaling for reports.

 Specify the default version of a related application or batch process.
You can define processing options for an application that automatically appear at runtime. In addition,
you might need to create a processing option version. The procedures for creating a processing option
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version are similar to those for creating an interactive version.

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DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY