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Graphic Era Hill University

SNOW AVALANCHE
A PROJECT SYNOPSIS REPORT

Submitted in fulfillment of the award of

Degree of Bachelor of Technology
in
Civil Engineering

Graphic Era Hill University, Dehradun

Uttarakhand

Submitted by

Rohit Singh Rawat [Pv-19540071]

Kartik Pandey [Pv-19540067]
Umakant Bahuguna [Pv-18540046]
Chandraprakash Singh [Pv-1954064]

Under the Supervision of

Mrs. Ritika Danu

Department of Civil Engineering

GRAPHIC ERA HILL UNIVERSITY DEHRADUN
UTTARAKHAND 248002
JUNE, 2021

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CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION [14]

I, Rohit Rawat, Kartik Pandey, Umakant Bahuguna, Chandraprakash Singh hereby declare
that the seminar report, entitled “Snow Avalanche”, submitted to the Graphic Era Hill
University, Dehradun in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
Diploma/Polytechnic in Civil Engineering is a record of original work done by us under the
supervision and guidance of Mrs. Ritika Danu and it has not formed the basis for the award of
any Degree/Fellowship or other similar title to any candidate of any University/Institution

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my profound gratitude to the almighty with whose grace and blessing, I have
been able to complete another chapter of my life. I express my profound thanks to my seminar
guide Mrs. Ritika Danu for providing me an opportunity to present a seminar and for giving
me an unending support during my research on the seminar topic, completion of the report
and presentation of the seminar. I am feeling great pleasure to submit this seminar report. I
very much appreciate for their entire kindness helping and teaching me when I was working
on the seminar topic. I would like to extend my appreciation and thanks to all those who
indirectly guided and helped me in the preparation of this seminar. I am very lucky to have
such helpful colleagues and I never felt left out in any situation.

I learnt a lot of valuable things while working on the seminar topic. I realized that learning is
never the same when it comes to practice. Hence, this opportunity is taken to thank all those
who directly or indirectly helped me in completion of my industrial training.

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ABSTRACT
Snow avalanches are a major natural hazard in most snow-covered mountain areas of the
world. They are rapid, gravity-driven mass movements and are considered a meteorologically
induced hazard. Snow avalanches are one of the few hazards that can be forecast, and in situ
measurements of instability are feasible. Advanced hazard-mitigation measures exist, such
as land-use planning based on modeling avalanche dynamics. The most dangerous snow
avalanches start as a dry-snow, slab avalanche that is best described with a fracture
mechanical approach. How fast and how far an avalanche flows are the fundamental question
in avalanche engineering. Models of different levels of physical complexity enable the
prediction of avalanche motion. Although the avalanche danger (probability of occurrence)
for a given region can be forecast in most countries with significant avalanche hazard,
avalanche warnings are issued on a regular basis the prediction of a single event in time and
space is not (yet) possible.

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INDEX

SR. NO. CONTENT PAGE NO.

1 Introduction 7

2 Literature Survey 12

3 Objective 17

4 Outcome 21

5 References 22

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LIST OF FIGURES

1 Snow Avalanche 7
2 Phenomenon of Snow 14
Avalanche

3 What to Do if Caught in 20
an Avalanche?

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LIST OF TABLES

1 Table 1 12
2 Table 2 13
3 Table 3 15

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INTRODUCTION

1.1 Snow Avalanche

An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a slope. Avalanches can set off either
spontaneously, triggered by natural phenomena, such as snowfall, rain and sun radiation, or be
set off by skiers and hikers. In mountainous terrain avalanches are among the most serious
objective hazards to life and property. In the Alps they are the principal cause of mortal
accidents. Therefore, it is important for skiers to be able to identify the probabilities of slides,
to localize the risk zones and to be well informed about the snow conditions. Snow
avalanches can pose a risk to persons, buildings, and infrastructure in mountainous regions.
As long as people have settled in the Alps, they had to deal with avalanche hazard. Structural
mitigation measures, protection forests, and land-use planning reduced the hazard and the risk
in the past decades and contributed thereby to the development of mountain regions. In many
countries, decisions on dealing with the consequences of avalanches are increasingly based on
the assessment of risks and not only on the reduction of hazard. In the first part of this
chapter, we present different elements of an integrative risk management of avalanches with a
focus on Switzerland. In the second part, we present an example of how this concept can be
applied to handle the avalanche risk in the City of Juneau, Alaska.

Fig.1 Snow Avalanche

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Spending winters in the mountains with nothing but white snow on all sides can be quite
relaxing. For those wanting an adrenaline rush, the snow is a great place to go skiing,
snowboarding, and even having snowball fights. However, being on the slopes means one has
to constantly be alert if they don’t want to get caught in an avalanche. The rapid descent of
snow may seem harmless, but it can cause a lot of damage to life and property. This is why a
proper understanding of avalanches is necessary for those fond of spending their luxury time
in the mountains.

On any slope, the snow is piled up and supported by a snowpack. It keeps the snow from
tumbling down all the time. Avalanches occur when the snowpack starts to weaken and
allows the buildup of snow to be released. Small avalanches are generally made up of ice,
snow and air. The larger ones comprise of rocks, trees, debris and even mud that is resting on
the lower slopes.

Contrary to belief, these snow slides are not random events that occur without any warning
signs. Winter season is when they are most common, often brought on after a large storm in
the area. Rainfall and sleet also tend to be responsible for avalanches in the summer and
monsoon season

1.2 Types of Snow Avalanches

1. Loose Snow Avalanches
2. Slab Avalanches
3. Powder Snow Avalanches
4. Wet Snow Avalanches
5. Icefall Avalanches
6. Cornice Fall Avalanches
7. Glide Avalanches

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1.2.1. Loose Snow Avalanches

First of these are the Loose Snow Avalanches. They are common on steep slopes and are seen
after a fresh snowfall. Since the snow does not have time to settle down fully or has been
made loose by sunlight, the snowpack is not very solid. Such avalanches have a single point
of origin, from where they widen as they travel down the slope.

1.2.2. Slab Avalanches

Loose Snow Avalanches, in turn, could cause a Slab Avalanche, which is characterized by the
fall of a large block of ice down the slopes. Thin slabs cause fairly small amounts of damage,
while the thick ones are responsible for many fatalities.

1.2.3. Powder Snow Avalanches

Powder Snow Avalanches are a mix of the other forms, Loose Snow and Slab. The bottom
half of this avalanche consists of a slab or a dense concentration of snow, ice and air. Above
this is a cloud of powdered snow, which can snowball into a larger avalanche as it progresses
down the slope. The speed attained by this avalanche can cross 190 miles per hour, and they
can cross large distances.

1.2.4. Wet Snow Avalanches

Finally, there are Wet Snow Avalanches. These are quite dangerous as they travel slowly due
to friction, which collects debris from the path fairly easily. The avalanche comprises of water
and snow at the beginning, but an understanding of avalanches has shown us that it can pick
up speed with ease.

1.2.5. Icefall Avalanches

When glaciers flow over a cliff, they form the ice equivalent of a waterfall or an icefall.
Falling blocks of ice create an avalanche of ice, which often entrains snow below it or triggers
slabs. Especially in big mountains, icefall avalanches can be large and travel long distances.
Despite this, icefall avalanches kill few people compared to dry slabs that people trigger
themselves. Most of the deaths from icefall avalanches occur to climbers in big mountains
who just happen to be in the wrong place at the wrong time.

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1.2.6. Cornice Fall Avalanches

Cornices are the fatal attraction of the mountains; their beauty is matched only by their
danger. Cornices are elegant, cantilevered snow structures formed by wind drifting snow onto
the downwind side of an obstacle such as a ridgeline. Similar to icefall avalanches, the weight
of a falling cornice often triggers an avalanche on the slope below, or the cornice breaks into
hundreds of pieces and forms its own avalanche—or both. Be aware that cornice fragments
often “fan out” as they travel downhill, traveling more than 30 degrees off of the fall line.
Cornices tend to become unstable during storms, especially with the wind, or during times of
rapid warming or prolonged melting. Each time the wind blows, it extends the cornice
outward, thus, the fresh, tender and easily-triggered part of the cornice usually rests
precariously near the edge while the hard, more stable section usually forms the root.

1.2.7. Glide Avalanches

Glide occurs when the entire snowpack slowly slides as a unit on the ground, similar to a
glacier. Don’t mistake glide for the catastrophic release of a slab avalanche that breaks to the
ground. Glide is a slow process that usually occurs over several days. Glide occurs because
meltwater lubricates the ground and allows the overlying snowpack to slowly “glide”
downhill. Usually, they don’t ever produce an avalanche, but occasionally they release
catastrophically as a glide avalanche. So, the presence of glide cracks in the snow does not
necessarily mean danger.

1.2.8. Slush Avalanches

Slush avalanches usually occur in very northern latitudes such as the Brooks Range of Alaska
or in northern Norway. They are unusual because they occur on very gentle slopes compared
with other avalanches, typically 5-20 degrees, and they rarely occur on slopes steeper than 25
degrees. A typical slush avalanche occurs in impermeable permafrost soil, which allows water
to pool up, and occurs during rapid saturation of a thin, weak snowpack. When water saturates
the snowpack, it catastrophically loses its strength and the resulting slush often runs long
distances on very gentle terrain.

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1.3 Terrain: Slope Angle, Aspect, and Roughness

A necessary condition for snow avalanche formation is a slope gradient exceeding 20°. In the
Swiss Alps, avalanche formation on forested slopes has only been observed on slopes
exceeding 30°. This value is probably valid worldwide, as the underlying mechanical
processes will be similar. Slope aspect is especially relevant for the type of avalanche that
occurs. Wet-snow avalanches occur mostly on sun-exposed slopes, while dry slab avalanches
have only been observed on shaded sites. The frequency of avalanche releases is also higher
on convex slopes (which tend to become steeper as one goes downslope) than on concave
slopes where gradients generally decrease going downslope.

The roughness of the terrain underneath the snowpack is decisive for the occurrence of snow
gliding and subsequent wet-snow avalanches. Grassy, abandoned meadows are especially
prone to snow gliding. Fallen logs, remnant stumps of logged or snapped trees, root plates of
upturned trees, and large rocks can all prevent the formation of small avalanches, but not
extreme ones. Such surface features also promote regrowth by preventing subsequent
mechanical damage by new avalanches to the young trees, and by providing favorable
microsites for tree seedling establishment.

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LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 The Avalanche Phenomenon

Snow avalanches are a type of fast-moving mass movement. They can additionally contain
rocks, soil, vegetation, or ice. Avalanche size is classified according to its destructive power
(Table 12.1). A medium-sized slab avalanche may already involve 10,000 m3 of snow,
equivalent to a mass of about 2000 TN (snow density 200 kg/m3). Avalanche speeds vary
between 50 and 200 km/h for large dry-snow slides, whereas wet-snow avalanches are denser
and slower (20–100 km/h). If the avalanche path is steep, dry-snow avalanches generate a
powder cloud.

Table 1

Snow avalanches come in many different types (e.g., wet or dry) and sizes. The
morphological classification published by the former International Commission on Snow and
Ice (UNESCO, 1981) takes into account the three principal zones of an avalanche: origin (or
starting zone), transition (or track), and runout (Table given below). It helps one to classify
the type of avalanche based on observable features such as the manner of starting or the form
of movement.

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Table 2

A snow avalanche path consists of a starting zone, a track, and a runout zone where the
avalanche decelerates and the snow is deposited (Figure 12.4). The starting zone, or in
analogy to hydrology, the catchment area, is where the initial snow mass releases and

generally, consists of terrain steeper than 30°. Only a low percentage of dry-snow avalanches
start on terrain under 30°. Wet-snow slides, on the other hand, can occur on slopes under 25°.
Slope angle is the most important terrain factor influencing avalanche release. A snow
avalanche will then flow downstream from the starting zone along the track, which often
consists of creek beds and gullies. If the track is steep and a powder cloud develops, the
powder snow avalanche may run straight down, regardless of the topography, that is, not
follow, for example, any bends in the creek bed. Although small avalanches may stop in the
track (typically 15–30° steep), large ones move with an approximately constant speed to the
runout zone where they slow down and stop. On large avalanche paths, the slope angle in the

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runout zone is generally <15° (Jamieson, 2001). Runout zones for large avalanche paths are
common on alluvial fans—a preferred area for infrastructure, including businesses and
residences, in mountain areas.

Fig.2 Phenomenon of Snow Avalanche

2.2 Hazard characteristics

Snow avalanches are a well-known hazard type and are defined as a sudden release of snow
masses and ice on slopes, sometimes containing portion of rocks, soil, and vegetation; and by
definition the downhill trajectory exceeds 50 m (Wilhelm, 1975). Avalanche observations are
reliable indicators for snow instability, and a relationship between high avalanche risk and
high avalanche activity exists (Schweizer et al., 2003). According to the speed of the moving
snow, avalanches can be distinguished from creeping and gliding movements of snow.

A number of classifications of snow avalanches exists (Kuroda, 1967; De Quervain et al.,

1981; Dzyuba and Laptev, 1984). An international classification used by the majority of
scientists and practitioners in the field has become accepted worldwide and classifies the

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avalanches according to their release type, the shape of the trajectory, and the type of
movement (De Quervain et al., 1981), see Table below. Various conditions result in a release
of avalanches, spanning from heavy snowfall to sudden temperature increase, but the
prediction of individual avalanche formation is extremely challenging due to the high spatial
variability and transient nature of the snowpack (Schweizer et al., 2003).

Table 3

Generally, snow avalanches start from terrain that is steeper than about 30°–45° and favors
snow accumulation (Wilhelm, 1975). On terrain less than about 15° snow avalanches start to
decelerate and finally stop. Snow avalanche formation differs according to different volumes,
repeatability and dynamic characteristics (McClung and Schaerer, 2006). While loose snow
avalanches are released from a more or less definable point in a comparatively cohesionless
surface layer of either wet or dry snow, slab avalanches involve the release of a cohesive slab
over an extended plane of weakness. Slab avalanche activity is highest soon after snow storms
because of the additional load on the existing snow layers (Schweizer et al., 2003).

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The existence of a weak layer below a cohesive slab layer is a prerequisite for the
development of dry slab avalanches. This weak layer is either a result of the metamorphism
inside the snow pack or a buried surface hoar. Crystals formed by kinetic grain growth such as
surface hoar or depth hoar (Fruehauf et al., 2009) together with changes in response to
temperature and water vapor gradients variability can also be accompanied by the formation
of a solid and icy layer on top of the snow pack, restricting the connection of new-fallen snow
with the older snow below the solid layer, and often forms the horizon at which the snow
masses start to move downhill. Differently to the causes of snow avalanche release, the
mechanism of avalanche movement and corresponding distances and forces are rather well
described (Fuchs et al., 2015a).

Flow velocities of snow avalanches vary between 50 and 200 km/h for large dry snow
avalanches, whereas wet avalanches are considerably denser and slower (20–100 km/h,
McClung and Schaerer, 2006). If the avalanche path is steep, dry snow avalanches may
generate a powder cloud. Depending on the type of avalanche the moved amount of snow is
variable, and in combination with the high velocities the induced damage may vary
significantly (Fuchs et al., 2013).

Besides natural triggering by overloading or internal weakening of the snowpack, snow

avalanches can also be triggered artificially—unlike most other rapid mass movements—
through localized, rapid, near-surface loading by, for example, people (usually
unintentionally) or intentionally by explosives used as part of avalanche control programs or
industrial activities (Mokrov et al., 2000). Occasionally, snow avalanches have also been
triggered by large earthquakes (Stethem et al., 2003). While naturally released avalanches
mainly threaten buildings and infrastructure, human-triggered avalanches are the main threat
to recreationists in mountain areas.

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OBJECTIVE

1. To investigate the various effects of avalanches.

2. To investigate the various causes of avalanches.
3. What to Do if Caught in an Avalanche?

3.1 Effects of Avalanches

As such, there is little damage to the overall ecological system due to avalanches. They are a
part of nature and have been happening for thousands of years. However, they are a major
natural hazard for the local human population.

3.1.1. Damage to Life and Property

A large number of casualties take place after avalanches hit heavily populated areas.
Infrastructure is damaged, and the blockage caused impacts the livelihood of many. People
who enjoy skiing, snowboarding and snowmobiling are at a greater risk of losing their lives.
A powerful avalanche can even destroy buildings, and power supplies can be cut off.

3.1.2. Death or Injury

The biggest way in which avalanches affect people is by causing death or injury. The force
from an avalanche can easily break and crush bones, causing serious injury. Asphyxiation is
the most common cause of death, followed by death from injury and lastly, by hypothermia—
people buried in the avalanche if found within 15 minutes have more than a 90 percent
survival rate. The rate drops to around 30 percent if found after 35 minutes.

3.1.3. Flash floods

When an avalanche occurs, it brings down all the debris with it and can cause havoc in low
lying areas. Flash floods are seen to happen after avalanches, which is a long-term problem
many villagers and townspeople have to deal with. They can also change weather patterns and
cause crop failure in farms present in the lower fields.

3.1.4. Property and Transportation

Avalanches can completely destroy whatever is on its pathways such as houses, cabins and
shacks. This force can also cause major damage to ski resorts as well as ski lift towers near or
on the mountain. Avalanches also can cause roads and railroad lines to close. A large amount

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of snow can cover entire mountain passes and travel routes with cars and trains traveling on
these routes.

3.1.5. Utilities and Communication

Avalanches can affect humans by damaging utilities and communication. The power from
these snow waves can completely destroy pipelines carrying gas or oil, thus causing leaks and
spillage. Broken power lines can cause a disruption in electricity and cause thousands of
people to go without power. Communication fields, such as telephone and cable lines, could
go silent, causing a panic and a delay in response time and rescue.

3.1.6. Economic Impact

An avalanche can block anything in its path and even restrict the normal movement of traffic.
Various ski resorts depend on tourists to run their business successfully. Ski resorts and other
businesses are forced to close until the avalanche decreases, and weather conditions become
suitable.

3.1.7. Crop Failure

If the snow from an avalanche accumulates on farmland located at the lower altitudes, it can
completely destroy the crop, causing crop failure and heavy economic losses for the farm.

3.2 Various Causes of Avalanches

There is no one reason behind the development of avalanches. It was believed for long that
the echo of a human voice in the mountains could dislodge enough snow to start one.
Similarly, a person’s weight can cause an avalanche too. The sudden addition of weight can
fracture a weak area of snow. However, scientific understanding of avalanches shows us that
there are many environmental factors at work.

3.2.1. Snowstorm and Wind Direction

Heavy snowstorms are more likely to cause Avalanches. The 24 hours after a storm are
considered to be the most critical. Wind normally blows from one side of the slope of the
mountain to another side. While blowing up, it will scour snow off the surface, which can
overhang a mountain.

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3.2.2. Heavy Snowfall

Heavy snowfall is the first since it deposits snow in unstable areas and puts pressure on the
snowpack. Precipitation during the summer months is the leading cause of wet snow
avalanches.

3.2.3. Human Activity

Humans have contributed to the start of many avalanches in recent years. Winter sports that
require steep slopes often put pressure on the snowpack, which it cannot deal with. Combined
with the heavy deforestation and soil erosion in mountain regions, it gives the snow little
stability in the winter months.

3.2.4. Natural Causes

These include earthquakes and tremors since they can often create cracks in the snowpack.
New snow or rain can cause built-up snow to loosen and fall down the side of a mountain.
Sometimes the movement of animals has also been known to cause avalanches.

3.2.5. Vibration or Movement

The use of All Terrain Vehicles and Snowmobiles creates vibrations within the snow that it
cannot withstand. Coupled with the gravitational pull, it is one of the quickest ways to cause
an avalanche. The other artificial triggers are off-piste skiers, gunshots and construction work
done with explosives, which tend to weaken the entire surrounding area.

3.2.6. Layers of Snow

There are conditions where snow is already in the mountains and has turned into ice. Then,
fresh snow falls on top, which can easily slide down.

3.2.7. Steep Slopes

Layers of snow build-up and slide down the mountain at a faster rate as steep slopes can
increase the speed of snow. A rock or piece of huge ice can shake the snow and cause it to
come down.

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3.2.8. Warm Temperature

Warm temperatures that can last several hours a day can weaken some of the upper layers of
snow and cause it to slide down.

3.3 What to Do if Caught in an Avalanche?

In the case of deadly avalanches, the moving snow can quickly reach over 80 miles per hour.
Skiers caught in such avalanches can be buried under dozens of feet of snow. While it’s
possible to dig out of such avalanches, not all are able to escape.

When someone gets tossed about by an avalanche and buried under many feet of snow, he
hardly has a true sense of which way is up and which way is down. Some avalanche victims
have tried to dig their way out, only to find that they were upside down and digging
themselves farther under the snow rather than to the top!

As per the experts, people caught in an avalanche should try to “swim” to the top of the
moving snow to stay close to the surface. Once the avalanche stops, do your best to dig
around you to create a space for air, so you can breathe easier. Then, try to figure out which
way is up and dig in that direction to reach the surface and signal rescuers.

Fig.3 What to Do if Caught in an Avalanche?

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OUTCOME OF THE REPORT

Education and proper training on avalanches can help prepare you. Heed all warnings and
signs. Some accidents have been traced to people avoiding warnings due to psychological
traps, like desiring the ultimate ski slope, untouched by humans. Constant vigilance when you
are outside can help avoid causing or getting swept up in avalanches, but even trained experts
can be become victims. Be aware of the weather and terrain, and know your comfort level
before you embark on an adventure.

If caught in an avalanche, try to get off the slab. In best case scenarios, this is difficult. Skiers
and snowboarders can head at a 45-degree angle downhill to gather speed and veer left or
right out of the slide path. Snowmobilers can punch the throttle to power out of harm's way.
No escape? Reach for a tree. No tree? Swim hard. The human body is denser than avalanche
debris and will sink quickly. As the slide slows, clear air space to breathe. Then punch a hand
skyward. Once the avalanche stops, it settles like concrete, making body movement nearly
impossible. Wait and hope or a rescue.

Learning about avalanches really helps people decide when and where, and how to recreate.
We shouldn’t all be terrified of this stuff, but we should take it seriously. It’s supposed to be
fun!

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REFERENCES

(1) Ganju, A., Agrawal, K.C. and Rao, D.L.S., 1994: Snowcover Model. Proc. Snowsymp
94, Manali, 26-28 Sep 1994, 394-413.

(2) Kumar, A., Sharma, S.S., Mathur, P., 1998: Numerical Modelling of Avalanche Flow.
In Hestnes, E. ed. 25 years of Snow and Avalanche Research. Proc. Voss Conference,
12-16 May 1998, Norwegian Geotechnical Institute Publication No. 203, Oslo Norway,
160 –164.

(3) Bartlet, P., Kumar, A., 1999: A Dense Snow Avalanche Model with Cohesive Plug and
Fluidised Layer Regimes, SLF internal report (unpublished).

(4) McClung, D. Schaerer, P., 1993: The Avalanche Handbook: Published by the
Mountaineers 1001 SW Klickitat Way, Seattle and Washington 98134. P 17, 18.

(5) Naresh P, Pant. L.M., 1999: Knowledge-based system for forecasting avalanches of
Chowkibal-Tangdhar axis (J&K). Def. Sc. Journ India. Oct 1999. Vol. 49 No 5. 381-391.

(6) Satyawali, P.K., and Sinha, N.K., 2000: Microstructure: A possible tool to study
metamorphism and material properties of snow. (Being submitted to CRST, Elsevier,
Netherlands.)

(7) SASE Annual Reports (1971 to till date).

(8) Sharma, S.S., Ganju, A., 1999: Complextiies of Avalanche Forecasting in Western
Himalaya – An Overview. Journ. of CRST Elsevier, Netherlands

(9) Sharma, S.S., 2000: An overview of snow and avalanche research in Indian Himalaya.
Proceedings of the International Snow Science Workshop (ISSW2000) Montana, USA.

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(10) Singh, A., Ganju, A., Satyawali, P.K., Sethi, D.N., 1999: Snowcover simulation
model: A comparison with snowpacks of Pir Panjal and Great Himalayan ranges.
Proceedings of the National Snow Science Workshop (NSSW’99) Manali, India.

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