 Data and its Types:

Data:
A collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn is referred as data.

Types of Data:
Generally, data can be classified by their nature and way of collection.

 By Nature: Qualitative Data, Quantitative Data

Qualitative Data (Non-numeric information):
Data generated by the qualitative variables are called qualitative data. e.g. the variable gender,
colour is qualitative. Statistics does not deal with qualitative data. It can be useable when it
convert into the quantitative data.
Quantitative Data (Numeric information):
Data generated by the quantitative variables are called quantitative data. Data obtained on ages,
income and family size are examples of quantitative data. Statistics deals with quantitative data
only.

 By the Way of Collection: Primary Data, Secondary Data

Primary Data: (First Hand Data)
The data that been originally collected and have not undergone any sort of statistical treatment
are called primary data. In other words, a fresh data is called a primary data.
Secondary Data: (Second Hand Data)
The data that have undergone any sort of treatment by statistical method at least once i.e. the
data have been collected, tabulated or presented in some form for a certain purpose, are called
secondary data.

 Methods of Collection of Primary Data:

One or more of the following methods are employed to collect primary data:

(i) Personal Investigation:

In this method, the researcher collects the data personally. Such type of data is considered
accurate and complete, but it is only possible for small scale study.

(ii) Indirect Investigation:

This method is adopted when the respondents do not supply the concerned information or not
cooperate with the researchers. In this method some agency or person other than the
respondents is selected to supply the information.
(iii) Through Enumerators:
 In this method, the data are collected by employing trained enumerators. This method gives
reliable information and is used for large scale, but it is very costly.
(iv) Through Questionnaire:
In this method, the required information is obtained by sending a questionnaire. The
questionnaires are usually sent by mail. The informants fill in the questionnaire and return it
back to the investigator. This method is cheap and good for extensive inquiries. The major
disadvantage of this method is that the informants do not bother to fill in the questionnaire
and return it back.
(v) Through Local Sources:
In this method, the local agents are hired for collection of required information. This method
is cheap but gives rough estimates.
(vi) Electronic Media:
In the modern world the most efficient way of data collection is the electronic media like
telephone, television, and internet.

 Methods of Collection of Secondary Data:

The secondary data may be obtained from the following sources:
(i) Government Organizations: i.e. Federal and Provincial Bureau of Statistics,
Ministries of Finance, Food, Agriculture, Industry etc.

(ii) Semi-Government Organizations: i.e. State Bank of Pakistan, District Councils,

and Municipal Committees.

(iii) Research Organization: i.e. universities and other institutions.

(iv) Technical and Trade Journals and Newspapers

 Editing of Data:

The primary data should be intensively checked at early stage in order to locate incomplete or
inconsistent entries. If possible, the incomplete and defective questionnaires should be returned
to the respondents for amendments.
In order to accept the secondary data as authoritative, one should critically examine the
reliability of the complier and the suitability of the data. The scope and object of the inquiry,
sources of information and the degree of accuracy should also be carefully scrutinized.

 Errors of Measurement:

Experience has shown that a continuous variable can never be measured with perfect fineness
because of certain habits and practices, methods of measurements, instruments used, etc. The
measurements are always recorded correct to the nearest units and hence are of limited
accuracy. The actual or true values are, however, assumed to exist.

For example, if a student’s weight is recorded as 60 kg (correct to the nearest kilogram), his
true weight in fact lies between 59.5 kg and 60.5 kg, whereas a weight recorded as 60.00 kg
means the true weight is known to lie between 59.995 and 60.005 kg. Thus even if there is a
small difference between the measured value and the true value. This sort of departure from
the true value is technically known as the error of measurement.

In other words, if observed value and true value of a variable are denoted by 𝑥 and 𝑥 + 𝜀
respectively, then the difference (𝑥 + 𝜀) − 𝑥 , i.e. 𝜀 is the error. This error involves the unit
of measurement of x and is therefore called an absolute error.
An absolute error divided by the true value is called the relative error.
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝜀
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑥+𝜀

Thus the relative error when multiplied by 100, is percentage error.

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 × 100

𝜀
= × 100
𝑥+𝜀
It should be noted that an error has both magnitude and direction and that the word error in
statistics does not mean mistake which is a chance inaccuracy.

An error is said to be biased when the observed value is constantly higher or lower than the
true value. These errors arise from the personal limitations of the observer, the imperfection in
the instruments used or some other conditions which control the measurements. They are
cumulative in nature, that is, the greater the number of measurements, the greater would be the
magnitude of error. These errors are also called cumulative or systematic errors.

An error is said to be unbiased when the deviations from the true value tend to occur equally
often. Unbiased errors are revealed when measurements are repeated and they tend to cancel
out in the long run. These errors are therefore compensating and are also known as random
errors or accidental errors.