Design & Fabrication of Highway Wind Turbine

&
Suzuki Pioneer Multan Supervised Industrial Training

Session 2016-2020

Umar Farooq
2016-BT-Mech-726

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical Engineering & Technology Program

Muhammad Nawaz Sharif

University of Engineering and Technology Multan, Pakistan

 Declaration

I, Umar Farooq (Reg. # 2016-BT-Mech-726) hereby declare that I have

completed Final Year Project and Supervised Industrial Training presented in this
report, during the scheduled period of study.
I Certify that, the information I am about to provided is true and complete to the
best of my knowledge. I am aware that this self-declaration statement is subject
to review and verification and such information has been falsified I may be
punished according to the rules.

Sr. No. Industry (full Starting Date Ending Date Duration

name)
1 Suzuki Pioneer 21-01-2020 19-03-2020 2-Month

Date: ___________ Signature of the student: ____________________

Student Name: _______________________

Registration No. ___________________________
CERTIFICATE

It is certified that Mr/Miss Umar Farooq (Reg. # 2016-BT-Mech-726) has carried

out all the work related to this final year project under my supervision at the
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, Muhammad Nawaz Sharif
University of Engineering & Technology Multan and the work fulfils the
requirements for award of B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering and Technology degree.

Date: _______________________
Supervisor Signature:

Supervisor Name: Engr. Umar Khalidoon

Mechanical Engineering Department.

Miss Misbah Niamat

In-charge Tours and Internships,
Mechanical Engineering Department.

Mr. Muhammad Umar Khalidoon

Head of Mechanical Engineering Department

i
ABSTRACT

Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs) as they possess huge prospective to contribute
towards ever growing demand of green energy. For sustainable contribution of VAWTs,
these turbines should be made utilizable outside their conventional farmland
environments. This project features goal to utilize the power of urban environment to
produce energy using VAWTs effectively and efficiently. The main purpose of this
project is to design a wind turbine to utilize wind energy from atmosphere and vehicles
on the highway.
The turbine will be placed along medians of highways and sides of highways and
effective circumstances will be considered in this report. The turbine will be designed
under modern engineering standards and is given modern and effectively smart design.
They also can be installed on parks, roads, public facilities or other amenities. The
proposed Helix wind turbine for highways are designed to produce power up to 27
watts depending upon conditions. The power generated through turbine can be used to
provide electricity to streetlights along the highways and for miscellaneous use.

Keywords: Green Energy, Vertical Axis Wind Turbine, Helix Wind Turbine

ii
Dedication

We decide this project to Allah Almighty our creator, our Strong Pillar, our source of
inspiration, wisdom, knowledge and understanding, we also dedicated this work to our
Supervisor, Eng. Umar Khalidoon who has encouraged us all the way and whose
encouragement has made sure that give it all it takes to finish that which we have started. We
decided this work to our families who have believes on us. Last but not least to the group who
completed this project by their effort and skills.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Final Year Project is a valued chance during which we apply most of the skills and engineering
education and knowledge that we acquired through the tenure of BS Mechanical Engineering.
This is a complicated phase in our education as we approach towards the conclusion of BS-
Mechanical Engineering & Technology Program at Muhammad Nawaz Sharif University of
Engineering and Technology Multan.

The Highway Wind Turbine project team would like to extend their thanks, admiration, and
appreciation to team advisor Engr. Umar Khalidoon for their administration and effective
instruction and training throughout the project. And his headship, support, devotion and
supervision towards the senior year project as senior year projects supervisor.

I would like to thank Engr. Misbah Niamat who giving us a chance as a student to gain an
experience in real working world.

The project team would also like thanks MNS UET Multan faculty, facility and staff for
providing us the education and skills that made all of this possible and for transforming us to
reach at respectable level.

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 Table of Contents
CERTIFICATE ....................................................................................................................................... i

ABSTRACT ...........................................................................................................................................ii

Dedication .............................................................................................................................................iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................. iv

List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................ 8

List of Table ........................................................................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER: 01 .................................................................................................................................... 10

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 10

1.1 GLOBAL AND LOCAL UTILIZATION OF WIND ENERGY .................................................. 11

1.2 Problem Statement ......................................................................................................................... 15

1.3 Motivation ...................................................................................................................................... 16

CHAPTER: 02 .................................................................................................................................... 17

Literature Review................................................................................................................................. 17

2.1 Project Background ........................................................................................................................ 17

2.2 Comparative Study......................................................................................................................... 21

Helix Wind Turbine ............................................................................................................................. 24

2.3 Previous Work ............................................................................................................................... 25

CHAPTER: 03 .................................................................................................................................... 34

METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................................. 34

3.1 REQUIREMENTS, CONSTRAINTS AND SPECIFICATION ................................................... 34

3.2 DESIGN METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................... 35

3.3 Product Subsystems & Components .............................................................................................. 37

3.4 Fabrication of Highway Wind Turbine .......................................................................................... 42

3.5 Description of Turbine ................................................................................................................... 44

CHAPTER: 04 .................................................................................................................................... 48

Results & Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 48

5
4.1) Overview ...................................................................................................................................... 48

4.1.1 Results & Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 48

Experiment 01: ..................................................................................................................................... 49

Experiment 02: ..................................................................................................................................... 50

CHAPTER: 05 .................................................................................................................................... 51

Conclusion and Suggestion .................................................................................................................. 51

5.1 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 51

5.2 Specifications ................................................................................................................................. 52

5.3 Suggestion/Future Recommendations ........................................................................................... 52

CHAPTER: 06 .................................................................................................................................... 55

6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 55

6.2 Product ........................................................................................................................................... 55

6.3 Company Profile ............................................................................................................................ 55

6.4 Suzuki Motors Vision .................................................................................................................... 55

6.5 Suzuki Motors Mission .................................................................................................................. 55

CHAPTER: 07 .................................................................................................................................... 56

Automobile Engine, Its working and Detailed of Components ........................................................... 56

7.1 Engine Definition ........................................................................................................................... 56

7.3 Detail of Engine Components ........................................................................................................ 57

7.4 The Fundamental Workflow .......................................................................................................... 65

7.5 How a Car Engine Works .............................................................................................................. 65

Difference between Petrol and Diesel Engine ..................................................................................... 66

CHAPTER: 08 .................................................................................................................................... 67

Car Basics Air Conditioning System ................................................................................................... 67

8.1 What is Air Conditioning? ............................................................................................................ 67

8.2 Automobile A/C Parts and its Function ......................................................................................... 67

8.2.2 Function of Basic A/C Parts ....................................................................................................... 67

CHAPTER: 09 .................................................................................................................................... 70

Transmission System ........................................................................................................................... 70

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9.1 Transmission System ..................................................................................................................... 70

Clutch Assembly .................................................................................................................................. 70

Requirements of a Clutch..................................................................................................................... 71

9.3 Gear Box (Transmission Case) Assembly ..................................................................................... 72

9.3.1 Functions of a Gear Box ............................................................................................................ 72

CHAPTER: 10 .................................................................................................................................... 73

Front and Rear Axle ............................................................................................................................. 73

10.1 Front Axle .................................................................................................................................... 73

10.2 Rear Axle ..................................................................................................................................... 73

10.3 Steering and Suspension System ................................................................................................. 74

10.3.1 Steering System ........................................................................................................................ 74

10.3.2 Functions of a Steering System................................................................................................ 74

10.3.3 Requirements of a Good Steering System ................................................................................ 74

10.4 Suspension System....................................................................................................................... 75

10.4.2 Components of Suspension System .......................................................................................... 75

CHAPTER: 11 ..................................................................................................................................... 77

Wheel, Tyre and Brake System ........................................................................................................... 77

11.1 Wheel .......................................................................................................................................... 77

11.2 Tyre .............................................................................................................................................. 77

11.3 Brake ............................................................................................................................................ 78

11.4 Types of Brake ............................................................................................................................. 78

CHAPTER: 12 .................................................................................................................................... 79

Wheel Alignments and Wheel Balancing ............................................................................................ 79

12.1 Wheel Alignment ......................................................................................................................... 79

12.2 Types of Alignment Angle........................................................................................................... 79

12.3 Wheel Balancing .......................................................................................................................... 81

References ............................................................................................................................................ 82

7
 List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Energy Access Percentages In Developing Countries........................................................ 11
Figure 1.2 New Installed Capacity of Wind Power Worldwide. 2010 Data Is Prediction ................. 12
Figure 1.3 Annual Installed Capacity .................................................................................................. 12
Figure 1.4 Total Installed Capacity of Wind Power (GW) By Country For Top Ten Countries ....... 13
Figure 1.5 Wind Map ........................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 2.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine ........................................................................................... 19
Figure 2.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine ............................................................................................... 20
Figure 2.3 Horizontal and Vertical Axis Turbine ................................................................................ 21
Figure 2.4 world‟s Biggest VAWT Quebec, Canada .......................................................................... 22
Figure 2.5 Helix Wind Turbine ............................................................................................................ 25
Figure 2.6 Betz Limit For Cp ............................................................................................................... 29
Figure 2.7 Actual Powers According To Wind Speed ......................................................................... 32
Figure 3.1 Applied Phases of Methodology ....................................................................................... 35
Figure 3.2 Main Components of VAWT ............................................................................................. 37
Figure 3.3 Rotor Blades of VAWT ...................................................................................................... 38
Figure 3.4 Shaft of Turbine .................................................................................................................. 39
Figure 3.5 Electrical Generator ............................................................................................................ 41
Figure 3.6 Helix Wind Turbine ........................................................................................................... 44
Figure 3.7 Properral of VAWT ............................................................................................................ 45
Figure 3.8 Flanges of Turbine .............................................................................................................. 45
Figure 3.9 Complete Assembly of Helix Wind Turbine ...................................................................... 46
Figure 4.1 Graphs between Wind Speed V/S Times ........................................................................... 48
Figure 5.1 Future Applications of Highway Wind Turbine ................................................................. 53
Figure 5.2 Helical VAWT.................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 7.1 Flywheel Mechanism.......................................................................................................... 57
Figure 7.2 Crankshaft Mechanism ....................................................................................................... 58
Figure 7.3 Piston Function ................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 7.4 Carburetor Function............................................................................................................ 59
Figure 7.5 Timing Belt Pulley Mechanism .......................................................................................... 59
Figure 7.6 Spark Plug .......................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 7.7 Gasket Function .................................................................................................................. 60
Figure 7.8 Connecting Rod and Its Parts ............................................................................................. 61
Figure 7.9 Rocker Arm ........................................................................................................................ 61
Figure 7.10 Exhaust Valve ................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 7.11 Timing Cover.................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 7.12 Fuel Injector...................................................................................................................... 63
Figure 7.13 Intake Manifold ................................................................................................................ 63
Figure 7.14 Exhaust Manifold Mechanisms ........................................................................................ 64
Figure 7.15 Catalytic ............................................................................................................................ 64
Figure 7.16 Work Flow Diagrams ....................................................................................................... 65
Figure 7.17 Four Strokes Mechanism .................................................................................................. 66
Figure 8.1 Air Conditioning Systems .................................................................................................. 67

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Figure 8.2 Compressor ......................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 8.3 Condenser ........................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 8.4 Receiver Drier .................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 8.5 Thermal Expansion Valve .................................................................................................. 69
Figure 8.6 Evaporator Mechanism ....................................................................................................... 69
Figure 9.1 Clutch Assemblies .............................................................................................................. 70
Figure 9.2 Clutch Bearing .................................................................................................................... 71
Figure 9.3 Gear Box ............................................................................................................................. 72
Figure 10.1 Front Axle ......................................................................................................................... 73
Figure 10.2 Rear Axle .......................................................................................................................... 74
Figure 10.3 Steering System ................................................................................................................ 74
Figure 12.1 Wheel Alignment Mechanism .......................................................................................... 79
Figure 12.2 Camber Angle ................................................................................................................... 80
Figure 12.3 Toe Angle ......................................................................................................................... 80
Figure 12.4 Caster Angle ..................................................................................................................... 80
Figure 12.5 Wheel Balance System ..................................................................................................... 81

List of Table
Table 2.1 Wind Speed Values .............................................................................................................. 32
Table 2.2 wind speed ........................................................................................................................... 33
Table 3.1 Electronic Parts .................................................................................................................... 40
Table 3.2 Battery Specifications .......................................................................................................... 42
Table 3.3 Strength Parameter of Fiberglass ......................................................................................... 43
Table 4.1 Different Experiments Reading ........................................................................................... 49
Table 4.2 Different Experiments Reading ........................................................................................... 50

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 CHAPTER: 01

Introduction
Vertical axis wind turbines are distinguished for their capability to catch the maximum of

wind from all the directions thus neglecting the need of yawing mechanism and rudders.

There are two types of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines: The Darrieus and The Savonius type.

Research and development on Darrieus Wind Turbine continued from 1980‟s in USA

pioneering this development was Sandia National Laboratories USA.

From then, new and revolutionary concepts had made impacts on wind energy production.

One of the revolutionary concepts that can be of substantial importance is Helical or Helix

Vertical Wind Turbine for their application in urban or city environment. Due to their safer

use, minimum risk of blade ejection and capturing power in all directions of wind makes this

type a perfect ingredient to perfect recipe.

On the other hand, horizontal axis turbines being more efficient at converting power of wind

to electricity is still the best fit for commercial market or utility scale power generation.

However, small vertical axis wind turbines are more suited to onshore wind generation and to

urban areas as they low or no noise levels and their reduced risk rate.

Energy extraction from wind sources flourished in 1970‟s after the global oil crisis. During

that era USA, GERMANY and DENMARK imbued huge amount of money to carry out

research in alternative sources of energy. Europe continued its commitment of renewable

energy sources and still tops in term of technology and wind capacity installations.

With petroleum utilization as its peak globally making them crucial for wellbeing of humans,

one can optimise the future where each human community in the world will fortified with

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wind generators and solar collectors. Efforts made in green energy generation will contribute

great towards the noble cause of transforming human lives and whole community on earth.

The financial and social expansion of horizontal axis turbine may suffers limitation in near

future particularly due to high amount of stress being produced in larger turbine blades. It is

also recognized that rather less effective vertical axis wind turbine will not have to face such

problems and they will be made to pioneer the green energy production from wind sources.

1.1 GLOBAL AND LOCAL UTILIZATION OF WIND ENERGY

Vertical helix wind turbine with its extensive and adequate features can be made utilizable in

cities, highways around the globe. Vertical helix wind turbine can be the optimum choice for

developing countries as they have variable amount of access to electricity and the efforts in

renewable sources of energy can aid these countries to count less on conventional sources of

energy generation.

The following figure shows the geographical distribution of the areas with percentage access

in developing countries.

Figure 1.1 Energy Access Percentages In Developing Countries

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Global use of wind energy increased immensely from 2001 to 2010. Figure 1.2 indicated

newly installed capacity installed yearly. The rate of wind energy growth took leaps and

bounds by growing 21.3% in 2004 and up to 31.7% in 2009. The World Wind Energy

Association extracts the shown in this section from World Wind Energy Report 2009 [2].

Figure 1.2 New Installed Capacity of Wind Power Worldwide. 2010 Data Is Prediction

In the past few years‟ annual installed capacity for different regions have witnessed many

variations. With Europe now struggling with regard to growing wind power capacity due to

early exploitation, Asian region particularly China and India show significant growth [3].

Figure 1.3 Annual Installed Capacity

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Total installed capacity of wind energy generation, country wise represents the devotion and

commitment of countries contributing in renewable energy resources. Figure 1.3 exemplifies

the capacity by country, which shows USA leading in installations of 35.1 GW followed by

CHINA and GERMANY at 26 and 25.7 GW. Apart from them Denmark, Portugal and Spain

are also major contributors in wind energy production [2].

Figure 1.4 Total Installed Capacity of Wind Power (GW) By Country For Top Ten Countries

Helix Wind Turbine Application along highways of PAKISTAN:

Pakistan has one of the biggest highway networks in south Asia as it has two motorways M-1

and M-2 along with national highways. Based upon wind map of Pakistan highways along

Makran coastal Highway, Motorway from Lahore to Islamabad and national highway in KPK

and AJK has great potential for wind power generation.

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In addition to natural wind prospective, vehicles along the highways induce wind turbulences

and this phenomenon can enhance the wind speed. Average vehicle passing rate at M-1 and

M-2 are 16 and 22 respectively with heavy traffic using left most lanes. The effect of wind

turbulence created by passing of vehicles measured to be 0.6 – 0.9 m/s and 0.8 –

1. m/s for low and heavy traffic respectively. Therefore, Pakistan has a good potential of

producing electricity from wind power it appropriate efforts are progressed effectively. [4]

Figure 1.5 Wind Map

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1.2 Problem Statement

Challenges that wind power generation technology faces are:

 Devoted area for installation of turbines

 Fluctuations in the sources of wind

 Safety and aesthetic look

 Efficiency

 Design of blades to capture maximum of wind power

 Optimum use of inverter and other electrical equipment.

 Cost / Capital Investment

Helix wind turbines will eliminate the criteria for dedicated use of land, as the turbine will be

mounted on small utility poles between medians of highways. An in depth analysis will be

conducted on fluid flow to attain boundary limitations for wind turbine. The turbine will be

designed to generate power at rather less wind speed for this turbine design will have to go

some reconsiderations and changes.

Helix wind turbine will be given an aesthetic look so it does no harm to beauty of

environment and adjust herself to surrounding conditions quickly. Safety issues factor as of

prime importance will be addresses thoroughly throughout this project design and fabrication

processes. In order to increase the efficiency of turbine, efforts will be part of project to

reduce the level of losses at any stage.

In Helix wind turbine, some design changes will be undertaken and experimental results will

conclude the optimum considerations for design alternations to obtain maximum of wind

power. Apart from changes in design, optimum use of electrical and controlling parts will be

of vital importance to enhance the gaining benefits from this project.

15
Cost analysis will also be an important and integral part of project, as cost-benefit analysis

will lead the productive and feasible outcome of the project.

1.3 Motivation

The world is confronting a massive challenge of accomplishing its energy needs from

renewable and supportable sources. Conventional ways of producing electricity is being

discouraged globally, wind and solar are well-established and appreciated “GREEN” energies

in the world. Both have extensive amount of prospective for energy generation around the

globe. More expedient and inexpensive ways for energy generation from renewable sources

should be introduced to the world, so that population could get their priorities change from

fossil fuels to renewable energy sources.

Today, renewable energy systems still face massive hurdles in developing nations as they

have high investment and are generally unsightly. As wind turbines are expensive, it is very

difficult to many developing countries to rationalize capitalising in renewable energy

technologies. Globally governments and local populations always choose cheap and suitable

ways of generating electricity. Regrettably, it is evident that renewable energy resources are

extremely expensive which created many spaces for conventional sources to fill that gap.

The basic inspiration and motivation for opting the project of HIGHWAY WIND TURBINE

is to positively contribute toward the globally progress of renewable energy resources in

practicable way, making it preferred choice for developing countries. Wind turbine are often

used in rural topography while the aim of this project is to promote onshore wind energy

generation by utilizing turbines in cities.

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 CHAPTER: 02
Literature Review
2.1 Project Background

Since, energy sector constitutes the chief and vital part of any country economy and it is

not easy to possess all or most the types of energy resources by a country. However,

retaining multiple sources of energy generation is tremendously imperative to secure and

amplify the basic needs of people in any country. Since, conventional or old generation

methods of energy production cost too much and is dangerous to environment, so in this

critical moment nature can help us by allowing us to utilize the energy present in the

natural phenomenon such as solar, wind, sea and geothermal energies.

Renewable energy is defined exquisitely by Science Research Newspaper as: “Energy from

an energy resource that is replaced rapidly by a natural process such as power generated

from sun or from or from wind ” [5].

Recently, rise in the demand of renewable energies have perceived a huge increment.

According to a report published by International Energy Agency, the growths in amount of

electricity generated from renewable resources have increased from 13% in 2012 to 22% in

2013. It is also believe that by 2020 the energy generation from renewable resources would

hit 26% [6].

Looking in Pakistan, we notice that primary sources of energy generation is power plants that utilize

either furnace oil, gas and coal which extremely anti-environment. Oil utilizing power plants were

declared the chief contributors in polluting the earth environment by EcoSpark Environment Charity

[7]

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Oil utilizing power plants were declared the chief contributors in polluting the earth

environment by EcoSpark Environment Charity [7] . Following are some of environmental

suffering from usage of oil or coal power plants.

 Greenhouse emissions and increased air pollution

 Perilous solid waste and slurry

 Non-renewable energy resource

 Destruction of environment as result of extraction and refining

 High usage of water thus crafting water pollution and high thermal discharge

Some of these devastating effects force us to think of clean, cheap and renewable a source of

generating electricity, which will ad in reducing global warming and helps us in enhancing

life style of people around the globe.

With the word renewable energy, people instantly thinks of Wind power generation. The idea

of wind energy is to extract the kinetic energy stored in wind as to convert and enhance it to

useful mechanical work. Our plan ties the knot with wind energy source. The idea of this

project is to convert wind energy into electricity by using Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

(VAWT).

There exists two main types of wind turbines, Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines, as shown in

figure 2.1 are more commonly utilized around the globe and majority of them are used in

form of power plants.

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 Figure 2.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

In research studies comparing the performance analysis of wind turbines, Horizontal wind

turbine came out to be more efficient than Vertical axis wind turbine. However, large

devoted area or large blade diameter of horizontal wind turbine which is quite large than

vertical turbine limits its utilization to restricted locations. Many believe globally, that

blade area of horizontal axis turbine makes that machine distasteful [8].

The further category of wind turbine is the Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT), which

shown in figure 2.2. Utilization of VAWTs on small scale allows everyone to convert

his/her home into source of green energy generation.

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 Figure 2.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

VAWT lags behind HAWT in terms of usage as power plant generators because of their

low yielding power or efficiency. Nevertheless, VAWT results good efficiency when

utilized in homes, parks offices are alongside highways and motorways. VAWTs are very

adaptable as they can powered by wind coming from all 360 degrees. Because of its

diverse applications, VAWTs are considered appropriate solution in the conditions, which

does not cater consistent wind speeds [9].

20
2.2 Comparative Study

Different types of Wind turbines exist in modern day world. Horizontal and vertical axis

wind turbines are two main types of turbines. Both have certain advantages and

disadvantages over each other regarding different aspects. Explanations and brief description

of sub types of the categories constitute the comparative study section.

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

Horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) establishes the most communal type of wind turbine in

use today. In fact, all the grid connected commercial utility turbines are now days

horizontally designed with propeller type rotor mounted on top of vertical tower. Horizontal

axis turbines needed to be aligned with direction of wind thereby consenting the wind to flow

parallel to axis of rotation.

Figure 2.3 Horizontal and Vertical Axis Turbine

21
Distinctions have been made in horizontal wind turbine as the UPWARD and DOWNWARD

rotor turbines. In upward turbines, rotor stands facing the wind in front of the vertical tower

thus avoiding the wind shade effect from the presence of the tower but they need yaw

mechanism to keep rotor axis aligned with wind direction. Downward wind turbines are

placed on lee side of the tower allowing fluctuations in wind power needing yaw mechanism.

The enormous majority of wind turbines in operating conditions today have upwind rotors.

Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

Vertical axis wind turbine or (VAWT) are among types of turbine that witnessed the light of

day from the past century. VAWTs are designed to correspond to wind quickly. Requiring

complex designing, it hardly meets the efficiency of HAWT. However, its localized or

domestic utilization makes it extremely important in small-scale onshore wind power

generation. The figure 2.4 shows the biggest prototype of vertical axis turbine (100 m rotor)

with capacity of 4.2 MW. Operational from 1983-1992, it was the only vertical axis turbine to

have been manufactured commercially.

Figure 2.4 world’s Biggest VAWT Quebec, Canada

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 Advantages of HAWT

 Access to stronger wind area in sites courtesy of tall base tower increase the wind

speed up to 20% and enhancing power output to approximately 34%.

 HAWT yields high efficiency as the blades continuously move perpendicularly to the

wind thus getting power through entire revolution.

Disadvantages of HAWT

 Immense construction is required for tower construction to support the heavy blades,
gearbox and housing for generator.

 Difficulty in transportation of rotor blades, shaft and other components. Components

of HAWT is usually lifted into position such as gearbox, rotor shaft and brake

assembly.

 HAWT generally requires a yaw mechanism to turn the blade towards wind.

 HAWT involves braking system in high winds to brake the turbine from spinning,
abolishing and injuring itself.

 Induction of cyclic stresses and vibrations in blades of HAWT. This cyclic winding
can rapidly fatigue and destroy the blade, hub and axle of turbine.

Advantages of VAWT

 VAWT accommodates generation of electricity from wind flowing in all directions.

 VAWT has generator, gearbox and other components placed on ground, strong

support or tower in not usually required.

 VAWT does not require yaw mechanism and pitch mechanism to point turbine in

wind direction.

 Easy installation and Maintenance as compared to other turbines.

23
  Transportation of VAWT is quite tranquil.

 High utilization of VAWT in urban environment.

 Low risk rate for humans and flora as VAWT operated on low speed.

 Adoptable for many climatic circumstances such as mountains, deserts, cities etc.

Disadvantages of VAWT

 VAWT generally harvests low efficiency because additional drag created when blades

rotate.

 VAWT faces turbulent flow, which can result in vibration.

 Small-scale utilization of VAWT making it inappropriate for commercial usage.

Helix Wind Turbine

The unique vertical axis, double helix blade design makes this turbine adaptable, reliable and

efficient way of generating renewable, pollution free power day and night. Helix wind turbine

possess the property of access the wind flowing from all directions without requiring yaw

mechanism. A helix wind turbine produces output even at low wind speed of 2.8 m/s. Helix

wind turbine exhibits robust as little shear. Helix wind turbine has low or no maintenance,

low operating costs and non-complex structure.

Helix wind turbine can withstand extreme weather such as frost, ice, humidity and wind

speed up to 45 m/s depending upon models. Helix wind turbines are practically silent and

eliminated the stroking effects with its non-reflecting surfaces. Helix wind turbines have

pleasant and aesthetic look with effective smart design. Helix wind turbines have the

performance optimization using the latest power electronics.

24
 Figure 2.5 Helix Wind Turbine

2.3 Previous Work

Preliminary research has been done on “Vertical Axis Wind Turbine” on large scale.

Different organizations and research institutions in Europe and USA have been developing

VAWTs for integration into their national supply. These advancements have led admired

institutions i.e.: MIT and Caltech to accomplish their own research and simulations of these

revolutionary machines.

There are two main styles of VAWT i.e.: Savonius and Darrieus. Our project is based mainly

on Savonius style VAWT. Most of the wind turbines today in small-scale utility are the

Savonius model turbines.

Sigurd Johannes Savonius from Finland invented Savonius wind turbine in 1922. Although

various attempts had been made to design this turbine from the past centuries [11].

25
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology in June 02, 2015 has

published research titled “DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND FABRICATION OF SAVONIUS

VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINE ” [12].

The research accomplished the showcase of efficiency of Savonius model as per varying

wind conditions. It also shows that Savonius rotor is not solely drag driven but is a

combination of drag driven and lift-driven device. Therefore, it can surpass the maximum

Power Coefficient Cp established for purely drag driven machine.

The research article “Construction of helical vertical axis wind turbine for electricity supply”

published by Taylor and Francis ISSN: 1686-4360 [13] shows the effective constructional

methodology for Helix wind turbine.

International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering in 2013 published research,

which titled “Wind tunnel testing and numerical simulation on aerodynamic performance of a

three bladed Savonius wind turbine” reflects the efficiency of three bladed Savonius rotor in

comparison with two-bladed rotor Savonius model [14].

Journal of Physics published research paper “ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT BLADE

ARCHITECTURES ON SMALL VAWT PERFORMANCE” highlight the effect of blade

design on small-scale utility and concludes the comparison of different VAWT structures

[15].

International Journal of Innovative Research in Science. Engineering and Technology

published paper “Design and analysis of helical blade wind turbine” describes about the wind

power and its potential that can be harnessed in future using smart design of Helix wind

turbine [16].

Technical journal, University of Engineering and Technology Taxila, Pakistan issued a

research article on “Common vertical axis Savonius –Darrieus Wind turbines for low wind

26
speed highway applications” in 2016, which discussed the hybrid mechanism of both turbines

for applications in low speed conditions [17].

Books on wind energy and Wind power generation technologies i.e.:

 Introduction to Wind Energy Systems

 Wind Energy Engineering

 Guidelines for design of Vertical Turbines

 Wind Energy Design

Were supportive for gaining exposure of wind energy technology.

The generating capacity of power generation system is calculated by equation listed below:

In this equation, ρ is air density, A is blade swept area, V is relative wind velocity, Cₚ is

power conversion coefficient and ƞₚ, ƞg, ƞₑ are coefficient of mechanical transmission,

generator efficiency and power conversion efficiency respectively [18]. The basic purpose of

this project to maximise P by playing with factors the effect P. Density of natural air cannot

be altered [19]. Velocity of wind can be enhanced by locating the place of turbine where

there will be high exposure of wind gusts along highways and motorways created by traffic

passing by.

For vertical axis turbine, there are many factors, which must be put under consideration in

calculations of capability of Wind turbine. The density of wind and wind speed are important

two factors that enhance the power generated.

27
For calculations of blade swept area, distance between blades and rotor have to be multiplied

with length of turbine‟s blade to find out the area. The equation is defined as [20]:

D = diameter of turbine‟s rotor l

= length of turbine‟s blades

Betz Limit

Wind turbine when converts the energy from flow of wind to mechanical energy, there exists

a limitation in doing so. This limitation is mathematically proven using Betz‟ Law. The law

shows that there is a limit by utilizing following equation [21]:

The maximum value for Cₚ is found out to be 59.9% for HAWT and can be enhanced to 63%

for VAWT.

Tip Speed Ratio (TSR)

Tip speed ratio is vital when designing a wind turbine. It is usually defined as wind speed at

blade tip divided by wind speed. For instance, if wind is flowing at 6 m/s and tip of blade is

travelling at 24 m/s then TSR will be 4, so the blade will be traveling 4 time faster than wind

driving it.

28
TSR is extremely important in determining the number of blades in a turbine. This

phenomenon is vital because wind flowing off one blade affects the flow of wind on

following blade. For example, if a blade moves too slowly the wind will pass through rotating

blades, wind energy will not be utilized appropriately, and in the same way in case of strong

wind situation, the wind will break over the turbine just like over buildings.

With some known values, it is possible to estimate the rotational speed of turbine‟s rotor.

Using the equation:

ω = Rotational speed of turbine rotor (RPM).

λ = Tip speed ratio.

r = Radius of turbine rotor (m)

V = Speed of wind (m/min) [22].

In order to select a power coefficient Cp, we should stick to TSR value for blades being used

in turbine from figure 2.6 [23].

Figure 2.6 Betz Limit For Cp

29
In order to calculate the power produced by the turbine, Pt, the maximum power coefficient

Cp, will be multiplied with value of power produced by wind by utilizing the following

equation [21]:

Reynold’s Number

The project lost its credibility if fluid flow is not under consideration i.e.: negligence to

mention Reynold‟s Number. Reynold‟s Number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous

forces. Reynold‟s number usually determines the category of flow as laminar, turbulent or

mixed flow. Considering, laminar flows in which viscous forces stands dominant, fluid

motion is smooth and constant, which is ideal and appropriate for wind turbines. On the

opposite side, inertial forces controls the phenomenon in turbulent flow, which can result in

vortices and uncertainties that can damage the effectiveness of turbine. To calculate the

Reynold‟s number (Re) following equation is utilised [21]:

V= Wind Speed.

TSR = Tip speed ratio.

ρ air = Density of air.

Lc = Length of aerofoil chord.

μ air = Dynamic viscosity of air

30
It should be noticed that as the wind speed increases and the TSR increases the flow of the

wind would become turbulent thus decreasing the efficiency of turbines and inducing

dangerous problems. This turns out to be an important factor too when considering the

maximum speed turbine can withstand before it is forced to shut down for betterment of

turbine‟s life and safety purposes.

Apart from that some of the important factors to be considered are:

Wind Shear: Wind shear describes the change in wind speed as function of height. Open

agricultural and lands surrounding motorways and highways have wind shear ranging from

0.15 – 0.17.

Cut – In Speed: Speed at which turbine starts producing power. Range for helix turbines is

2.5 – 5 m/s.

Rated Speed: Speed at which rated power is produced by turbine.

Cut – Out Speed: Speed at which turbine stops operation under safety concerns. Its typical

range is 25 – 50 m/s for helix wind turbines.

A student project from MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY [24] devoted to designing and

evaluating of twisted Savonius wind turbine aimed testing self-starting of turbine. Developing

a design, which can withstand harsh climatic circumstances for longer-term reliability, was

also main objective of that project. exhibits the conclusion of the wind turbine that proved to

be self-starting at low speed.

31
 Table 2.1 Wind Speed Values

One more student project that was considered during data searching was “Designing a

Savonius Wind Turbine” from Democritus University of Thrace [25] with objective to study

and manufacture a vertical wind turbine. An important consideration in that project was

geometrical design off blades, efficiency, and account of cost, sophistication and feasibility

along with robustness of turbine.

After experiments, relation between wind velocity and actual power produced was deduced.

They drew that if wind speed in doubled than actual power will witness the increment 8 times

more than previous power.

Figure 2.7 Actual Powers According To Wind Speed

32
An important result exhibits the rotational speed of turbine varying with wind velocity as

shown in figure.

Table 2.2 wind speed

33
 CHAPTER: 03
METHODOLOGY
3.1 REQUIREMENTS, CONSTRAINTS AND SPECIFICATION
3.1.1 General specifications

Helix wind turbine is new way of producing energy form Vertical-axis method. This new

energy source is useful in the modern cities because of it is nice design and free noise. Helix

wind turbines, which are small and can produce up to 27 watts.

The positive point of wind energy is that unlike solar energy that only can be used with

Sunlight only. Wind energy can be useful all the 24 hours all the year. This project is green

Source of energy and has no effect on the life of earth.

There are no effects on the environment at all. Moreover, it is reduce the CO2 and CO gases

that effect the environment in the earth. One of the biggest challenges is the social accept of

Helix Wind turbine.

3.1.2 Constraints and requirements

One of the most difficultly problem is the lack of necessary equipment needed for the

analysis and selection of materials accurately in the university. In addition, in the market, it

was really difficult to find some of the needed materials.

These problems make the function of this project relying for some parts in design of
previous studies by doing the reverse engineering. Getting a sufficient wind, to analyse

and test work. It was also the one of the berries that we have encountered, because of

the lack of wind in the area at that time, and the lack of experience in aerodynamic

science.

Beside the Lack of important resources, the lack of financial support was a major obstacle

in our way even though the budget was estimated.

34
Although the existence of moral support from our professors, Lack of sufficient time was a

real challenge to show up the work as long as there was only two semester to complete the

senior project.

3.2 DESIGN METHODOLOGY

The methodology applied to this project can be divided into six phases. These phases are

information gathering, concept generation, model generation, model analysis and

Refinement, concept selection, and verification, these phases are shown in figure

Figure 3.1 Applied Phases of Methodology

Prior any appropriate solution can be developed, a thorough investigation has to be

Conducted in order to find out what solutions have already been proposed (information

Gathering).

35
Once these solutions have been analysed and the team has an understanding of why the

Respective solutions are not currently being implemented, a solution generation phase is

Taking place. Here various solutions are presented and evaluated against criteria and

constraints (concept generation).

The results of the models are then analysed and the model, as well as solution parameters,

may be tweaked (model analysis and refinement). Once the team has satisfactorily modelled

all solution concepts of interest, the concept that performs best analytically, in addition to

meeting all criteria and constraints, is selected (concept selection). The analytical model may

then be verified experimentally, using a small scale modelling scheme or through a full-scale

experimental model.

The objective of this project is to design a vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) that could

generate power under relatively low wind velocities. To accomplish this goal, the objectives

are to:

 Analyse how different geometry of the wind turbines would affect the output power
Of the wind turbine.

 Compare the operation of turbines with respect to the numbers of attached blades.

To meet the above objectives, the tasks were to:

 Conduct background research and analysis on wind turbine technology

 Design initially turbine blade for testing.

 Looking for power generator that has good efficiency with low start up speed.

 Create experimental set up.

 Develop future design recommendations

36
3.3 Product Subsystems & Components

Vertical axis wind turbine VAWT is one whose axis of rotation is vertical with respect

to ground. Generally as shown in figure 3.2, the main components of this turbine are:

 Blades

 Shaft

 Generator

Figure 3.2 Main Components of VAWT

3.3.1 ROTOR BLADES

Savonius blades are a crucial and basic part of a wind turbine . They are mainly made of

aluminium, fibre glass, nylon, Teflon or carbon fibre. We selected the nylon as recommended

in the study because they provide batter strength to weight ratio. Rotor blades take the energy

out of the wind; they capture the wind and convert its kinetic energy into the rotation of the

hub

37
The arc angle was selected based on the pervious study, which recommended an angle of

160°, but due to difficulties in manufacturing, we went on with arc angle of 180°.

Figure 3.3 Rotor Blades of VAWT

3.3.2 SHAFT

The shaft is the part that is turned by the turbine blades. It in turn is connected to the

generator within the main housing. A solid works tools have been used in designing the

blades and the shaft as shown in the below figure:

38
 Figure 3.4 Shaft of Turbine

3.3.3 Radial &Thrust Bearings

The bearing is integral part of the overall system. The lubricant and sealing

elements also play a crucial role. To enhance bearing effectiveness in the system,

the right type should be selected. However the procedure of the selection is a

science but we restricted on three simple steps:

 Confirm operating conditions and operating environment.

 Select bearing type and configuration.

 Select bearing dimensions.

The correct amount of an appropriate lubricant must be present to reduce friction in

the bearing was consider. As long as the sealing elements are important because of

the environment surrounding our project and keep the lubricant in, and away from

the dust and contaminants. On another side, the low speed of the system was

Consider too in the selection with axis and radial forces which is the weights of upper

System.

39
As result we came up with two ball bearing 6004RS where can function as thrust and radial

bearing (sealed and self-lubricant) and can carry the Static Load Rating and Dynamic Load

Rating 5 KN and 9 KN respectively and the distance between the two bearings was based on

as simulation Xpress done by Central University Campus[26].

3.3.4 Electrical Parts

The turbines are connected to electrical parts in order to get the required power. These parts

are as shown in the below table 3.1

Table 3.1 Electronic Parts

Parts Function

Electrical Generator Converting the rotating speed to an electrical energy.

Battery Charged electrically to provide a static potential for power or

Released electrical charge when needed.

Fuse An electrical device that can interrupt the flow of electrical

current when it is overloaded.
Converter Converting DC current to AC current or vice versa.

Consumption reading Reading battery percentage.

3.3.5 Generator

The conversion of rotational mechanical energy to electrical energy is performed by

generator. Different types of generator have been used in wind energy system over the years.

For large, commercial size horizontal-axis wind turbines, the generator is mounted in a

nacelle at the top of a tower, behind the hub of the turbine rotor. Typically wind turbines

generate electricity through asynchronous machines that are directly connected with the

40
electricity grid. Usually the rotational speed of the wind turbine is slower than the equivalent

rotation speed of the electrical network - typical rotation speeds for wind generators are 5-

20 rpm while a directly connected machine will have an electrical speed between 750-3600

rpm.. This also reduces the generator cost and weight. The generator used for the prototype is

the Low RPM permanent magnet AC generator and is a step generator with max. current

output of 5A. The generator must be connected to bridge rectifier to obtain current in DC and

to charge the battery.

Figure 3.5 Electrical Generator

3.3.6 Battery

The battery that we used (once) in our project is WPL150-12N rechargeable power guard

sealed lead acid battery as shown in the below table 3.2

41
 Table 3.2 Battery Specifications

Item Weight 25.5kg

Capacity 150Ah

Dimensions 19.02 x 6.7 x 9.5

Maximum Discharge Current For (5 sec) 1500A

Design Life 5 years

3.4 Fabrication of Highway Wind Turbine

3.4.1 Overview

The original turbine blades were manufactured by a local engineering firm based on model

and drawings provided to them by project members. Main shaft was built at local iron & steel

factory using mapped drawings. Generator was bought from market. The bearing selection

was made by conducting an analytical comparison of bearings commonly used in turbine

applications. The experimental testing of the turbine blades and arms against the fast rotating

fan was used to further develop the theoretical model from which the bearing analysis,

material selection, CFD analysis, cost analysis was developed.

3.4.2 Material Selection

The material chosen for blades of turbine after careful feasibility analysis and previous

studies was glass fibre along with small constituent of basalt. The fibres and the matrix

materials like polyesters, vinyl esters, epoxies etc., are combined into the composites. These

composites have good properties like mechanical, thermal and chemical properties.

Firstly, the NYLON is amorphous with isotropic properties. NYLON has good mechanical

properties and heat resistance. NYLON for composites has good properties like moderate

stiffness, high strength, and moderate density.

42
The blade design is made of NYLON material. Its unique feature is its curvature like tip,

which allows it to catch low wind speeds. The turbine blades made of NYLON are

lightweight, has a razor sharp edge, which allows it to literally cut through the wind, and

makes it almost silent. The material of the blade is NYLON.

It is less expensive than carbon composite. NYLON composites are insulators, which mean

they do not respond to an electric field and resist the flow of electric charge. NYLON might

not have high tensile strength but has certainly low tensile modulus, which allows it to bend

and take more strain without breaking.

Table 3.3 Strength Parameter of Fiberglass

Parameter Value Unit

Tensile Strength 4137 MPa

Tensile Modulus 242 GPa

43
3.5 Description of Turbine

The turbine parts are mainly fabricated by conventional methods of cuttings. Support arms

were manufactured using casting method. Main shaft is composed of iron with paint coating

to prevent it from rust.

Figure 3.6 Helix Wind Turbine

The prototype focuses only on testing the turbine blades and support components of the

turbine and segregates them from the rest of the design. Two turbine blades are attached to

main shaft using four arm supports.

44
 Figure 3.7 Properral of VAWT

Carbon steel galvanized pipe was used to construct the base of turbine which hold the turbine

and generator.

Figure 3.8 Flanges of Turbine

45
The vertical shaft that held the turbine was manufactured out of quarter inch maild steel with

press fits designed to attach to the generator. It also had two setscrews, which kept the shaft

connected to both instruments as well as a setscrew in the middle to lock turbine in place.

Figure 3.9 Complete Assembly of Helix Wind Turbine

46
3.6 Discussion

Studies (experimentally and theoretically) present a review on the performance of Savonius

wind turbines and show the gap between the actual and ideal output power, where a several

factors have affected clearly on the actual performance, these factors are due to external

factors, lack of resources, process, geometrically, or due to human error. These factor resulted

in drop of 31~ 35% between the theoretical and experiment results.

Moreover, Negligence of blades surface friction and dust contamination gained the ideal

efficiency a level up comparing with the actual. The assumption of the frictionless in the

rotating parts bearings, rods generator shaft beside the resistless assumption in generator

wires.

On geometrically side, Uniformed arc angle in each blade, where could be due the lack of

skills in manufacturing. In addition, unexpected vibration happed led to disturbance in the

turbine.

These are the major factors have been played a real role of dropping the helix rotor

performance, perhaps some factor been hidden due to the limitation in time and suffering of

financial support to provided advance equipment in analysing. This was probably the most

educational portion of this project. It was extremely difficult.

As mechanical engineers, all of the members of the team deeply wanted the satisfaction of

creating an entire large functioning turbine. Engineering is so much about detail and small

modifications. Engineering is oftentimes tedious and meticulous. Although it is more fun to

go off and build a turbine that spins and brightens an LED, without scientific backing and

mathematical modelling, these ventures are little more than arts and crafts.

47
 CHAPTER: 04

Results & Conclusions

4.1) Overview

These types of testing were necessary to complete this project: CAD testing, theoretical

analysis and real time experimentation. The theoretical analysis was performed taking into

consideration the speeds recorded by the anemometer during field-testing and the theoretical

turbine designed after the simulation and CAD testing. Theoretical testing models were

chosen and applied. This theoretical design made cost analysis and computational fluid

dynamics analysis possible.

4.1.1 Results & Conclusions

Data has been collected by the use of digital anemometer at different location on the highway

medians. The changes were recorded at different height and different location. The graph

given below gives the actual data collected in highway for wind velocity at different heigh

during certain interval of time.

Figure 4.1 Graphs between Wind Speed V/S Times

48
Experiment 01:

Table 4.1 Different Experiments Reading

Experimental Readings

Experiment # 01 (Normal winds)

Wind Speed Voltage (V) Current (I) Power (VI) watt

m/s

0.6 0.6 0.1 0.06

1.3 1 0.61 0.616

1.5 1.2 0.8 0.96

3 4.5 1.6 7.21

5 13 2.1 27.3

49
Experiment 02:

Table 4.2 Different Experiments Reading

Projected Readings

Experiment # 02 (Windy day)

Wind Speed Voltage (V) Current (I) Power (VI) watt

m/s

7 19.2 3.3 65.36

8 21.5 4..06 87.43

10 22.6 4.4 99.84

50
 CHAPTER: 05

Conclusion and Suggestion

5.1 Conclusion

It was determined that the best combination for efficiency was the utilization of helix wind

turbine combined with the longer support arms. The bearing selected for the theoretical

model also ensured satisfactorily efficiency. The project was successful as an introduction to

the research and experimentation with VAWTs for group members. One member will

continue his study of these turbines into his career and the two others will maintain their

interest in wind technology despite not focusing on it directly. Final Year Project forced us to

be held accountable to our impending title: mechanical engineers.

The helix wind turbine constructed by our team has the following features:

 The turbine is self-starting.

 It does not require pointing in the direction of the wind.

 The lower blade rotational speeds indicate lower noise levels.

 Perceived as being more aesthetically pleasing.

 The increased blade configuration solidity and torque assists the machine in self-

starting.

 Easy access to all mechanical and structural elements of the machine.

 Permanent magnet suspension generator is used and there are no gearboxes with the

machine having only one moving part.

51
5.2 Specifications

Start-In wind Speed 4.68 km/h

Cut-In wind Speed 9 km/h

Rated Wind Speed 36 km/h

Safe wind speed limit Max wind speed < 144 km/h

Blade Height 3 ft

Generator MATSUSHITA GMX-8PV017D

Mount Height 2 -7 m

Blade/ Material Nylon

Rated Power 27 watt ( depending upon conditions)

Rotor diameter of blades 635mm

5.3 Suggestion/Future Recommendations

It is hoped that our contemporaries perform more testing and investigation into the

performance of VAWTs. There is potential in the renewable wind energy field and hopefully

this potential is realized in our lifetimes.

The next part to this project should be the mathematical modelling of wind patterns on a

program such as MATLAB in order to better understand the ideal angle alpha and other

parameters of VAWTs. The turbine is 0.52 meter in diameter and 1.05 meters in height to

reach the requirements it must satisfy. It will have four arms that clamp and two additional

clamps can be used for existing light posts.

The cut in wind speed for the turbine will be 2.5 m/s while spinning at 160 rotations per

minute.

52
At the optimal level, the turbine will be able to produce 50% of the wattage to power an LED

street light saving the government around $100 per streetlight per year.

Figure 5.1 Future Applications of Highway Wind Turbine

Futuristic application also includes installing helix wind turbine on stadiums, mobile towers

and roads.

Figure 5.2 Helical VAWT

53
 Section B
(Internship Report)

54
 CHAPTER: 06

6.1 Introduction
Suzuki Motor Corporation is a Japanese multinational corporation headquartered in
Minami-ku, Hamamatsu.

6.2 Product

Suzuki manufactures Automobiles

 Four-wheel drive Vehicles
 Motorcycles
 All-terrain Vehicles (ATVs)
 Outboard marine Engines
 Wheelchairs
 Variety of other small internal combustion Engines

6.3 Company Profile

Suzuki pioneer motors workshops is 3s company authorized dealership on NLC Bye-
pass Multan.
This dealer ship sale new Suzuki vehicle brand and also facility of maintenance and
spare parts is available.
6.4 Suzuki Motors Vision
 To be recognized as a leading organization that values customers‟ needs and
provides motoring solution with strong customers care.
6.5 Suzuki Motors Mission
 Strive to market value packed vehicles that meet customers‟ expectations.
 Provide a platform where our stakeholders passionately contribute, Invest and
excel.
 Make valuable contribution to social development of Pakistan.

55
 CHAPTER: 07

Automobile Engine, Its working and Detailed of Components

7.1 Engine Definition
An engine is complex unit in which different components are assembled together, and fuel is
burned to produce power or energy. The engine converts chemical energy (heat energy) into
mechanical energy, which is then utilized for vehicular movement.

7.1.1 Internal Combustion

When the fuel is burned within the engine, it is called an Internal Combustion (IC) engine.
7.1.2 External Combustion
When it is burned externally and the produced steam is used for the mechanical movement, it is
called an External Combustion (EC) engine.

7.2 On the basis of the process of ignition, the automobile engines are classified
into
 Spark ignition engine (petrol or gas)
 Compression ignition engine (diesel)

7.2.1 Spark Ignition Engine

The spark ignition engine uses a highly volatile fuel, such as gasoline, which turns into vapour
easily. The fuel is mixed with air before it enters in the combustion chamber and forms a
combustible air-fuel mixture.
This mixture then enters the cylinder and gets compressed with the help of a piston. An electric
spark is produced by the ignition system which ignites the combustible air-fuel mixture. The
combustible gases burn and expand, which forces the piston downwards for generating power.
7.2.2 Compression Ignition Engine

The compression ignition engine or diesel engine, only fresh air enters the cylinder, which is
compressed to a very high pressure and temperature, which could go up to 1000°F (538°C). The
diesel is then injected or sprayed into the engine combustion chamber. This spray contains very fine
and tiny particles of diesel in an atomized form. The hot air or heat of compression ignites the fuel
and generates the power stroke.

56
7.3 Detail of Engine Components
 Crankshaft
 Cylinder Head
 Flywheel
 Cylinder Block
 Carburetor
 Piston
 Exhaust Valve
 Timing Belt Cover
 Con-rod
 Timing Belt
 Fuel Injector
 Oil Pump
 Catalyst Converter
 Oil Seal
 Turbo Charger
 Fuel Tank
 Sensor
 Intake Manifold
 Water Pump
 Exhaust Manifold
 Fan
 Radiator
 Spark Plug

Flywheel
Flywheel is one of the most important engine components. It is a large and heavy metal wheel. It
provides inertia to keep the crankshaft turning smoothly.

Figure 7.1 Flywheel Mechanism

57
Crankshaft
Crankshaft is also one of the most engine components.it is designed in such a way to convert
linear(up and down) motion of piston into rotational motion. The crankshaft and the connecting
rods transform the pistons' reciprocating motion into rotary motion.

Figure 7.2 Crankshaft Mechanism

Piston
Piston is another vital engine component. It is a partly hollow cylindrical part closed at one end,
fitted to each of the engine's cylinders and attached to the crankshaft by a connecting rod. Each
piston moves up and down in its cylinder, transmitting power created by the exploding fuel to the
crankshaft via a connecting rod.

Figure 7.3 Piston Function

58
Carburetor
Carburetor is the heart of automobile engine. It is the fuel system engine component that meters and
mixes fuel and air in the proper proportion. The carburetor also atomizes this mixture and directs it
to the intake manifold that distributes it through passages to each combustion chamber in engine.

Figure 7.4 Carburetor Function

Timing Belt
Timing Belt, an engine component, is a cogged belt, usually of reinforced rubber. The purpose of a
timing belt component is to provide a quiet, flexible connection between the camshaft and
crankshaft to keep the engine valves opening and closing in phase with the movement of the engine
pistons.

Figure 7.5 Timing Belt Pulley Mechanism

59
Spark Plug
Spark Plugs are important engine components. These plugs have two primary functions. Engine
spark plug ignites the air/fuel chamber and removes the heat from engine combustion chamber.

Figure 7.6 Spark Plug

Gasket
It is generally a paper like sheet which is placed between engine block and engine head. Gasket
gives insulation from water or oil leaking into engine cylinder or air-fuel mixture from engine
cylinder leaking out from joint of engine block and engine head.

Figure 7.7 Gasket Function

60
Connecting Rod
The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft. It can rotate at both ends so that its angle
can change as the piston moves and the crankshaft rotates.

Figure 7.8 Connecting Rod and Its Parts

Rocker Arm
The rocker arm transmits the rotary motion of the cam or camshaft through a latch/tappet and
converts it into a linear motion of the valve stem which depresses the valve head. Rocker arm rocks
or oscillates about a fixed pivot rod (rocker shaft) in the cylinder head.

Figure 0.1 Rocker Arm

Figure 7.9 Rocker Arm

61
Exhaust Valve
An exhaust valve is a valve that releases burned gases from a cylinder. The exhaust valve closes
during the initial part of the induction stroke. The inlet valve usually opens a little before top dead
center and the exhaust valve remains open a little after top dead center

Figure 7.10 Exhaust Valve

Timing Cover
The timing cover is an essential component designed to protect the timing belt, timing chain or cam
belt of your car from road debris, grime and gravel. The timing belt or chain of your car controls the
rotation of the camshafts and crankshaft in the internal combustion engine.

Figure 7.11 Timing Cover

62
Fuel injectors
Fuel injectors are parts of modern car engines that deliver fuel to the engine's combustion chamber,
directly or indirectly. These small electro-mechanical devices are typically positioned at a certain
angle to make sure the fuel is sprayed towards the engine's inlet valve or directly into the cylinder.

Figure 7.12 Fuel Injector

Intake Manifold
The primary function of the intake manifold is to evenly distribute the combustion mixture (or just
air in a direct injection engine) to each intake port in the cylinder head(s).

Figure 7.13 Intake Manifold

63
Exhaust Manifold
A vehicle's exhaust manifold plays the leading role in a car or truck's exhaust system. It connects to
each exhaust port on the engine's cylinder head, and it funnels the hot exhaust down into one simple
exhaust pipe.

Figure 7.14 Exhaust Manifold Mechanisms

Catalyst Converter
A catalytic converter is an exhaust emission control device that reduces toxic gases and pollutants
in exhaust gas from an internal combustion engine into less-toxic pollutants by catalyzing a redox
reaction.

Figure 7.15 Catalytic

64
7.4 The Fundamental Workflow
The modern day car engine is a 4-stroke engine which means it creates usable power in 4 strokes.
Each stroke is defined as the movement of the piston from (Bottom Dead Centre) to (Top Dead
Centre) and vice-versa.
The 4-strokes are as follows:
Intake Stroke, Compression Stroke, Power Stroke, Exhaust Stroke.

Figure 7.16 Work Flow Diagrams

7.5 How a Car Engine Works

The 4 Strokes of the Engine
Intake Stroke
The combustion starts with the piston at the top dead center or TDC position. The piston now starts
to move down. Just before the piston begins its downward motion, the intake valve opens up. As the
piston moves down, it sucks in the fresh air-fuel mixture from the manifold. As the piston reaches
bottom dead center or BDC, the chamber fills up with air-fuel mixture.
Compression Stroke
Once the piston has reached BDC, the compression stroke begins. Just before the piston reaches the
lowermost position, the intake valve closes. Now the piston moves upwards. As it moves up, it
compresses the air-fuel mixture as it has no place to escape with the closed valves.
Power Stroke
Just before the piston reaches the topmost position in the compression stroke, the spark plug
mounted on the cylinder head lets off a very tiny spark. When this spark comes into contact with the
compressed air-fuel mixture, it ignites the mixture. Once ignited, the flame rapidly expands. Since
the valves are still closed, the flame has no place to escape and pushes the piston downwards. This is
the power stroke where usable power is generated by the motion of the piston.

Exhaust Stroke
Last comes the exhaust stroke. The piston with the momentum gained from the previous stroke starts
to move back upwards. As it begins to move, the exhaust valve opens up. The leftover gases from
the combustion process are pushed out. With this one 4-stroke cycle is completed. After this, the
piston again moves from TDC to BDC and the cycle restarts.

65
 Figure 7.17 Four Strokes Mechanism

Difference between Petrol and Diesel Engine

Diesel Engine Petrol Engine

These engines work on the Diesel cycle Works on the Otto cycle

A diesel engine draws only air during suction A petrol engine draws a mixture of petrol and air
stroke. during suction stroke

Pressure at the end of compression is about Pressure at the end of compression is about 10 bar.
35 bar.

A diesel engine has compression ratio from A petrol engine has compression ratio from 6 to 10.
15 to 25.

The thermal efficiency is about 40%. The thermal efficiency is about 26%.

The fuel is mixed with air inside the cylinder Air and the fuel are mixed in a carburetor

Ignition is achieved with the help of the hot,

Fuel is ignited with an electric spark
compressed air.

High compression ratio Relatively low compression ratio

Relatively low amounts of power are produced in a

High power production
Petrol engine

These engines work with fuels that have low Highly volatile fuels are used in these internal
volatilities combustion engines

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 CHAPTER: 08
Car Basics Air Conditioning System
8.1 What is Air Conditioning?
Air conditioning is to maintain the life environment in a comfortable condition. Therefore Air
Conditioner Controls four things in car cabin.
a) Temperature
b) Air Circulation
c) Humidity
d) Air Filtration/ Purification

Figure 8.1 Air Conditioning Systems

8.2 Automobile A/C Parts and its Function

8.2.1 Main Functional Parts
 Condenser
 Evaporator
 Compressor
 Thermal Expansion Valve

8.2.2 Function of Basic A/C Parts

Compressor
It is the heart of an A/C system which performs the following functions.
 Sucking
 Compression
 Pumping

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The compressor draws in low pressure and low temperature refrigerant gas from evaporator through
suction line. This refrigerant is then compressed and pumped in to the condenser as High Pressure
High Temperature gas.

Figure 8.2 Compressor

Condenser
It is a heat exchanger which receives the refrigerant at high temperature high pressure from
compressor through discharge line and cools it by transmitting its heat to the surrounding air at
constant pressure.
As the gas cools, it condenses and exits the condenser as a high pressure liquid.

Figure 8.3 Condenser

Receiver Drier
Its main function is
 A storage tank for liquid refrigerant coming from condenser
 To remove the moisture and filter out dirt from the refrigerant.
 To judge the refrigerant level through sight glass

Figure 8.4 Receiver Drier

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Thermal Expansion Valve (TXV)
It is a device which controls and regulates the appropriate amount of refrigerant flowing into the
evaporator.
It converts the high pressure liquid refrigerant coming from receiver drier into very low pressure
refrigerant.
This refrigerant is then supplied to the evaporator.

Figure 8.5 Thermal Expansion Valve

Evaporator
Evaporator is a heat exchanger which cools ambient air to the required comfort temperature range.
Refrigerant enters the evaporator as a low pressure and low temperature liquid. The warm air passing
through the evaporator fins causes the refrigerant to evaporate. As refrigerant begins to evaporate, it
absorbs the heat.

Figure 8.6 Evaporator Mechanism

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 CHAPTER: 09
Transmission System
Transmission system is used in motor vehicles to supply the output of the internal combustion engine to
the drive wheels.
The transmission reduces the higher engine speed to the slower wheel speed, increasing torque in the
process.
9.1 Transmission System
The transmission system consists of the following components.
 Clutch Assembly
 Gear Box Assembly (Transmission Case Assembly)
 Propeller Shaft

Clutch Assembly
Clutch is a mechanism which enables the rotary motion of one shaft to be transmitted, when desired.
The axes of driving shaft and driven shaft are coincident.

Figure 9.1 Clutch Assemblies

Functions of Clutch
a) To disconnect the engine power from the gear box as required, under the following
circumstances.
 To start the engine and warm it up.
 To engage first and second gear to start the vehicle from rest.
 To facilitate changing the gear as required.
 Disconnect from the engine to stop the vehicle after application of brakes.
b) To allow the engine to take up load gradually without shock or jerk.

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Requirements of a Clutch
The clutch should meet the following requirements.
 Torque transmission or the ability to transmit maximum torque of the engine.
 Gradual engagement, i.e. to engage gradually and avoid sudden jerks.
 Heat dissipation, i.e. ability to dissipate large amount of heat generated during the clutch
operation due to friction.
 Dynamic balancing, which means that the clutch should be dynamically balanced. This is
particularly required in the case of high-speed engine clutches.
 Vibration damping, i.e., having a suitable mechanism to damp vibrations to eliminate noise
produced during the power transmission.
 Size of the clutch should be as small as possible so that it occupies minimum space.
 Free pedal play, which helps the clutch to reduce effective load on the carbon thrust bearing and
its wear.
 Easy in operation and requiring as little exertion as possible on the part of the driver.
 Light weight of the driven member of the clutch so that it does not continue to rotate for any
length of time after the clutch has been disengaged.

Figure 9.2 Clutch Bearing

Main Parts of a Clutch

The main parts of a clutch are divided into three groups.
 Driving members
 Driven members
 Operating members

Driving members
The driving members consist of a flywheel mounted on the engine crankshaft. The flywheel is bolted to
a cover which carries a pressure plate or driving disc, pressure springs and releasing levers. Thus, the
entire assembly of the flywheel and the cover rotate all the time. The clutch housing and the cover
provided with openings, dissipate the heat generated by friction during the clutch operation.

71
Driven members
The driven members consist of a disc or plate, called the clutch plate. It is free to slide lengthwise on the
splines of the clutch shaft (primary shaft). It carries friction material on both of its surfaces. When it is
gripped between the flywheel and the pressure plate, it rotates the clutch shaft through the splines.

Operating members
The operating members consist of a foot pedal, linkage, release bearing, release levers and the springs.

9.3 Gear Box (Transmission Case) Assembly

We need different gear ratios in the gear box or transmission system to enable the vehicle to move at
different speeds. At the time of starting the vehicle, the maximum amount of torque is available on the
flywheel, for which low gear ratio is selected for the movement of the vehicle. As the engine speed
increases, the amount of torque is reduced on the flywheel and it is required to select higher gear ratio.

Figure 9.3 Gear Box

9.3.1 Functions of a Gear Box

 To provide a means to vary the leverage or torque ratio between the engine and the road wheels
as required.
 The transmission also provides a neutral position so that the engine and the road wheels are
disconnected even with the clutch in the engaged position.
 It provides a means to reverse the car by selecting the reverse gear.

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 CHAPTER: 10
Front and Rear Axle
In this session, we discuss the axle and steering system, which transmits power to the wheel. It plays a
crucial role in the movement of a vehicle.
Propeller Shaft
This is a shaft which transmits power from an engine to the wheels of a motor vehicle. It is a hollow
tubular shaft and consists of mainly three parts.
 Shaft
 Universal joints
 Slip joint

Shaft
It mainly bears torsional stress produced due to twisting. It is usually made of tubular cross section.
Universal joints
One or two universal joints are used, depending on the type of rear axle drive used. The universal joints
help in the up and down movements of the rear axle when the vehicle is in running condition.
Slip joint
Depending on the type of drive, one slip joint may be there in the shaft. This serves to adjust the length
of the propeller shaft when demanded by the rear axle movements.

10.1 Front Axle

Front axle carries the weight of the front portion of the automobile as well as facilitates steering and
controls the rolling of wheels. It also absorbs road shocks arising due to road surface variations.

Figure 10.1 Front Axle

10.2 Rear Axle

The rear axle bears the weight of the vehicle body and load with springs. It enables to transmit the
driving and breaking torque to the chassis frame and body of the vehicle. It also bears the side thrust or
pull due to wheel.
It supports various parts like bevel pinion, bevel gear, cage of sun gear and star pinions, axle shafts, and
different support bearings.

73
 Figure 10.2 Rear Axle

10.3 Steering and Suspension System

10.3.1 Steering System
The steering mechanism permits the driver to control the car on a straight road and turn right or left as
desired. The steering mechanism includes a steering wheel, which the driver controls, a steering gear,
which converts rotary motion of steering wheel in to straight line motion and steering linkages.

Figure 10.3 Steering System

10.3.2 Functions of a Steering System

 It provides directional stability to the vehicle when moving in a straight (ahead) direction.
 It provides perfect steering condition, i.e., perfect rolling motion of the wheels at all times.
 It controls the wear and tear of the tires.
 It is used to turn the vehicle as per the will of the driver.
 It converts the rotary motion of the steering wheel into angular displacement of the front wheel.
 It multiplies the effort of the driver to ease operation.
 It absorbs road shocks and prevents them from reaching the driver.

10.3.3 Requirements of a Good Steering System

 It should be very accurate.
 It should be easy to handle.
 The effort required should be minimal.

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  It should provide directional stability.
 The front wheels should roll without lateral skid while negotiating curves.
 There should be proper proportion between the angles turned by the front wheels
 The angular oscillations of the wheels must be minimum.
 The system must be irreversible to a certain degree so that minimum front wheel shocks are
transmitted to the driver‟s hands.

10.4 Suspension System

Suspension is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects a
vehicle to its wheels. The suspension system serves a dual purpose, contributing to the vehicle‟s road
holding or handling and braking for safety and driving comfort, and keeping the vehicle occupants
comfortable and reasonably well isolated from road noise, bumps and vibrations, etc.
10.4.1 Functions of suspension system
The main functions of a suspension system are as follows:
 To safeguard the occupants against road shocks and provide riding comfort.
 To minimize the effects of stresses due to road shocks on the mechanism of the motor vehicle
and provide a cushioning effect.
 To keep the body perfectly in level while travelling over rough uneven ground, i.e., the up and
down movement of the wheels should be relative to the body.

10.4.2 Components of Suspension System

The components of a suspension system can be categorized as follows.
 Mechanical Suspension
 Hydraulic Suspension

Mechanical Suspension
 Leaf springs
 Coil springs
 Rubber springs
 Torsion bars
Hydraulic Suspension
 Hydraulic shock absorber
 Telescopic fork absorber

Mechanical Suspension

Leaf Spring
A leaf spring is a component of a vehicles‟ suspension system. Leaf springs are curved and the
curvature helps the spring absorb impact.
Coil Spring
Coil springs are commonly called compression springs, torsion springs or helical springs. They store
energy and release it to absorb shock or maintain a force between two contacting surfaces.
Rubber Spring
A rubber string stores more energy per unit mass than any other type of spring material. The rubber
spring is installed between the frame and the top link of the suspension system.

75
Torsion Bars
Torsion bars are of two types
 Helical
 Spiral.

These bars are used in automobile vehicles for transmitting torque.

Hydraulic-Suspension
Hydraulic suspension combines rubber springs with a damper system, linking the front and rear wheel
on the same side of the car.
Hydraulic Shock Absorber
It is a mechanical device designed to absorb shock impulses. This device is also used for checking or
damping out the suspension spring to a comfort level.
Telescopic Fork Absorber
A telescopic fork is a form of motorcycle front suspension whose use is so common that it is virtually
universal.

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 CHAPTER: 11
Wheel, Tyre and Brake System
11.1 Wheel
The wheel is an important component of a vehicle. Wheel of a four-wheeler vehicle is mounted on a hub
and consists of parts like rim, tyre and tube.
11.1.1Functions of the wheel
 To withstand the weight of the vehicle.
 To absorb road shocks.
 To grip the road surface.

Rim
The rim is the „outer edge of a wheel, holding the tyre‟. It makes up the outer circular design of the
wheel on which the inside edge of the tyre is mounted on vehicles, such as automobiles.

11.2 Tyre
The tyre is mounted on the wheel rim. It carries the vehicle load and provides a cushioning effect.
11.2.1 A tyre must have the following properties.
Non-skidding
The tyre must have grip to avoid skidding or slipping on the road surface.

Uniform wear
The tyre must get worn uniformly over its outer circumference.

Load carrying
The tyre is required to carry the vehicle load.

Cushioning
The tyre needs to absorb the vibrations due to the different road surfaces and their impact, and
thus, provide cushioning effect to the vehicle.

Noise
The tyre should create minimum noise while running on the road.

Balancing
The tyre should be balanced dynamically as well as statically, i.e. .maintain balance at both times when
the vehicle is in motion as well as at rest.

11.2.2 Functions of Tyre

 Carry the load of the vehicle.
 To absorb minor road shocks.
 To reduce vibration to some extent.
 To transmit the power from the engine through gear box, propeller shaft and rear axle to the
ground with which the vehicle moves.
 The treads made on the tyres grip the road for better traction.

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11.2.3 Types of Tyre
Solid tyre
It is used in children‟s cycle and is filled with solid material, like rubber, which makes it sturdy.
Tube tyre
It consists of a tube between the rim and the tyre, in which air is filled. It is used in most of the vehicles
seen on road.
Tubeless tyre
Nowadays, with the advancements in technology, tubeless tyres are replacing the tube tyres. Tubeless
tyres are mainly used in modern cars. The benefits of tubeless tyres include slow leakage of air during
punctures, better balancing of wheels, low cost and ease of puncture repairing.
11.3 Brake
Brakes are one of the most important control components of a vehicle. They are required to stop the
vehicle within the smallest possible distance and this is done by converting the kinetic energy of the
wheels into the heat energy which is dissipated into the atmosphere.
11.3.1 Requirements of a Good Braking System
 To stop the vehicle in the shortest possible distance and time.
 To control the vehicle speed while moving on plain roads and hills.
 To work equally well on fair and bad roads.
 To work efficiently in all weathers.
 It should have very few wearing parts.
 It should require little maintenance.
 Brake, when applied should not disturb the steering geometry.
 There should be minimum sound when brake is applied.

11.4 Types of Brake

Foot Brake
Foot brake is one of the most common brake systems operated by the foot pedal. When pressure is
applied to the foot pedal, the vehicle stops.

Hand Brake
Hand brakes are usually used for stable parking of the vehicle either a on flat road or slope. They are
also called parking brakes.
Mechanical Brake
This brake system has an inbuilt mechanical device for absorbing energy from a moving system.
Mechanical brake is a cable pull system, which consists of rim-like brakes just arranged in a different
way.
Power Brake
Power brake system is a combination of the mechanical components to multiply the force applied to the
brake pedal by the driver to stop the vehicle.
Hydraulic Brakes
A hydraulic braking system transmits brake-pedal force to the wheel brakes through pressurized fluid,
converting the fluid pressure into useful work of braking at the wheels.

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Anti-lock Braking System
Anti-lock Braking System prevents the wheels from locking or skidding. The anti-lock braking (ABS)
system is a component that ensures passenger safety by stopping the vehicle in adverse conditions, like
stopping very quickly or if the road is slippery. To simplify it, the ABS prevents the wheels of the
vehicle from locking up and causing you to skid out of control.

CHAPTER: 12
Wheel Alignments and Wheel Balancing
12.1 Wheel Alignment
Wheel alignment consists of adjusting the wheel angles so they are perpendicular to the ground and
parallel to each other.

Figure 12.1 Wheel Alignment Mechanism

12.2 Types of Alignment Angle

There are three types of angles adjusted during a wheel alignment.
 Camber
 Toe
 Caster

Camber
In this type of angle alignment the inward or outward angle of the tire when viewed from the front of the
car.
If the angle viewed too much inward than angle is positive camber.
And if the angle viewed too much outward than angle is negative camber.

79
 Figure 12.2 Camber Angle

Toe
The inward or outward angle of the tire when viewed from above the vehicle.

Figure 12.3 Toe Angle

Caster
The angle of the steering axis when viewed from the side of the vehicle.

Figure 12.4 Caster Angle

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12.3 Wheel Balancing
Wheel balancing refers to an adjustment of any weight imbalances in a tire/wheel. An out-of-balance tire
causes a shaky, uneven ride.
 An out-of-balance wheel will create vibrations that increase as the vehicle speeds up.
o If you feel the vibration mostly in the steering wheel, the problem is most likely in
a front wheel.
o If the vibration is mostly in the seat, the problem is probably in the rear.
 Irregular tread wear pattern.
 An out-of-balance tire might have scalloped or cupped wear patterns.

Figure 12.5 Wheel Balance System

81
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