Coordinate system

Coordinate systems provide a common basis for communication about a particular place or area on the
earth’s surface. A coordinate system is a reference system used to represent the locations of geographic
features, imagery, and observations such as GPS locations within a common geographic framework. ll
spatial data is created in some coordinate system, whether it is points, lines, polygons, imageries, or
annotation. The coordinates themselves can be specified in many different ways, such as decimal degrees,
feet, meters, or kilometers—in fact, any form of measurement can be used as a coordinate system.
In GIS we oversee two types of coordinate system:
A geographic coordinate system (GCS) defines locations on the earth using a three-dimensional
spherical surface. A GCS is often incorrectly called a datum, but a datum is only one part of a GCS. A
GCS includes an angular unit of measure, a prime meridian, and a datum (based on a spheroid). A feature
is referenced by its longitude and latitude values. Longitude and latitude are angles measured from the
earth’s center to a point on the earth’s surface. The angles are measured in degrees (or in grads).
A projected coordinate system (PCS) is defined on a flat, two-dimensional surface. A projected
coordinate system, unlike a geographic one, has the advantage that lengths, angles, and areas are constant
across the two dimensions. This is not true when working in a geographic coordinate system. A projected
coordinate system is always based on a geographic coordinate system that can use a sphere or spheroid. In
a projected coordinate system, locations are identified by x,y coordinates on a grid, with the origin at the
center of the grid.
A map is a representation of all or part of the Earth drawn on a flat surface at a specific scale. Maps were
developed because they are much easier to use, store, and transport than globes, and they facilitated the
development of much larger scaled representations than was the case with a globe. A map projection is a
method used to transfer the features of a globe, such as the lines of latitude and longitude and the outlines
of continents, onto the flat surface of a map. This was originally done with the use of a light to project the
shadow of a wire-skeleton globe onto a flat surface―hence the term “projection.”
Whether you treat the earth as a sphere or as a spheroid, you must transform its three-dimensional surface
to create a flat map sheet. This mathematical transformation is commonly referred to as a map projection.
It is important to note that the globe is the only true representation of the spherical earth and any attempt
to represent it on a flat surface will result in some type of distortion. This distortion can be illustrated by
peeling an orange and attempting to flatten large segments of peel. This cannot be done without tears and
separations in the peel―distortion of its original spherical shape. Distortions on maps may involve the
characteristics of the lines of latitude and longitude, distances, direction, areas, and shapes of features. In
most cases, the larger the area shown on a map, the greater will be the distortion. The map user should
always be aware of various types of distortions to minimize their influence on how the map is perceived.
Types of Projection
CLASS (On the basis of developable surface)
Cylindrical projection
If the developable surface used to project the earth surface onto plane surface is cylinder then this type of
projection is simply known as cylindrical projection. Meridians are geometrically projected onto the
cylindrical surface, and parallels are mathematically projected, producing graticules angles of 90 degrees.
The cylinder is ‘cut’ along any meridian to produce the final cylindrical projection. The meridians are
equally spaced, while the spacing between parallel lines of latitude increases toward the poles. The
Mercator projection is one of the most common cylindrical projections.
Azimuthal projection
If the developable surface used to project the earth surface onto plane surface is a plane surface then this
type of projection is simply known as Azimuthal projection. Azimuthal projections project map data onto
a flat surface touching the globe. A azimuthal projection is also known as planar projection or a zenithal
projection. This type of projection is usually tangent to the globe at one point but may be secant. The
point of contact may be the North Pole, the South Pole, a point on the equator, or any point in between.
This point specifies the aspect and is the focus of the projection. Possible aspects are polar, equatorial,
and oblique.
Conic projection
If the developable surface used to project the earth surface onto plane surface is cone then this type of
projection is simply known as conical projection. The simplest conic projection is tangent to the globe
along a line of latitude. This line is called the standard parallel. The meridians are projected onto the
conical surface, meeting at the apex, or point of the cone. Parallel lines of latitude are projected onto the
cone as rings. The cone is then ‘cut’ along any meridian to produce the final conic projection, which has
straight converging lines for meridians and concentric circular arcs for parallels. The meridian opposite
the cut line becomes the central meridian.
On the basis of property
Conformal projections
Conformal projections preserve local shape. Graticule lines on the globe are perpendicular. To preserve
individual angles describing the spatial relationships, a conformal projection must show graticule lines
intersecting at 90-degree angles on the map. This is accomplished by maintaining all angles. The rawback
is that the area enclosed by a series of arcs may be greatly distorted in the process. No map projection can
preserve shapes of larger regions.
Equal area projections
Equal area projections preserve the area of displayed features. To do this, the other properties of shape,
angle, and scale are distorted. In equal area projections, the meridians and parallels may not intersect at
right angles. In some instances, especially maps of smaller regions, shapes are not obviously distorted,
and distinguishing an equal area projection from a conformal projection may prove difficult unless
documented or measured.
Equidistant projections
Equidistant maps preserve the distances between certain points. Scale is not maintained correctly by any
projection throughout an entire map; however, there are, in most cases, one or more lines on a map along
which scale is maintained correctly. Most projections have one or more lines for which the length of the
line on a map is the same length (at map scale) as the same line on the globe, regardless of whether it is a
great or small circle or straight or curved. Such distances are said to be true. For example, in the
sinusoidal projection, the equator and all parallels are their true lengths. In other equidistant projections,
the equator and all meridians are true. Still others (e.g., Two-Point Equidistant) show true scale between
one or two points and every other point on the map. Keep in mind that no projection is equidistant to and
from all points on a map.

On the basis of the aspects or orientation of the developable surface

Regular - when the projection surface is tangent or secant to the equator, we term it as regular or normal.
Transverse - when the projection surface is tangent or secant to a meridian, it is termed as transverse.
Oblique - when the projection surface is tangent or secant to any another point on the globe, it is termed
as oblique.
If the projection surface or developable surface just touches the globe at a point then such projection
plane is known as tangent projection plane.
If the projection surface or developable surface just touches the globe at more than one point (generally
two) such projection plane is known as tangent projection plane.

Criteria for the selection of a Map Projection

The ideal map projection for any country would be a cylindrical, conical or azimuthal projection,
depending on the country’s shape, with a secant projection plane located along the country’s main axis.

The property of the map projection depends on the purpose of the map.

 Shape of the area

(Determines the projection class).

 Purpose of the map

(Determines the property of the projection).
  Position of the area
(Determines the aspect of the projection).

Projection parameters
When we choose a map projection, we mean to apply it either to the whole world or to some part
of the world—a continent, a strip of land or a country In any case, we want the map to be just
right for our area of interest. “Just right” usually means having as little distortion as possible, at
least for the spatial property that we most want to preserve. We make the map just right by
setting projection parameters. Not all projections have exactly the same set of parameters,
though they tend to be similar. But, what it all comes down to is that parameters let us customize
a projection for our area of interest.
On the round surface of the earth, locations are described in terms of latitude and longitude.
Some projection parameters, called angular parameters, are set with these latitude-longitude
values. Once the earth is ready for projection, locations are described in terms of constant units
like meters or feet called linear parameters. 

Angular parameters
·         Central meridian
·         Latitude of origin
·         Standard parallel
·         Latitude of center
Every projection has a central meridian, which is the middle longitude of the projection. In most
projections, it runs down the middle of the map and the map is symmetrical on either side of it. It
may or may not be a line of true scale. (True scale means no distance distortion.) The central
meridian is also called the longitude of origin or the longitude of center. Its intersection with the
latitude of origin defines the starting point of the projected map coordinates.
Every projection also has a latitude of origin. The intersection of this line with the central
meridian is the starting point of the projected coordinates. The latitude of origin may or may not
be the middle latitude of the projection and may or may not be a line of true scale.
A standard parallel is a line of latitude that has true scale. Not all projections have standard
parallels, but many common projections do. A standard parallel may or may not coincide with
the latitude of origin.
In some projections, we can see parameters called the latitude of center . they are the lines of
latitude which are nearly the middle parallel of the projection.
Linear parameters
·         False easting
·         False northing
·         Scale factor

Projected coordinates (that is, x,y coordinates) are positive for some map locations and negative
for others, depending on where the x- and y-axes intersect.
False Easting and False Northing are nothing but two numbers that are added to each x- and y-
coordinate, respectively. The numbers are big enough to ensure that all coordinate values—or at
least all those in our area of interest—come out positive.
The value added to all "x" values in the rectangular coordinates for a map projection is False
Easting whereas the value added to all "y" values is known as False Northing
Unitless parameters

Scale factor is a unitless parameter applied to the center point or line of a map projection. Scale
Factor at Central Meridian  is the ratio of map scale along the central meridian and the scale at
a standard meridian, where scale distortion is zero. 

The scale factor is usually slightly less than one. The UTM coordinate system, which uses the
Transverse Mercator projection, has a scale factor of 0.9996
The projection system used in Nepal
The projection system used in Nepal is the UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator).Mercator
projection is a conformal cylindrical projection. UTM consists total of 60 zones of longitude
each of 60 extending from 1800 W to 1800 E.1800 W to 1740 W is designated as zone 1 with the
central meridian of 1770 W and the zone pattern goes on the same order. Further zone are divided
in rows with a difference of 80.These zone extend from 800 S latitude to 840 N latitude. The first
latitude zone is designated with letter C for 800 S to720 S latitude. Nepal lies in the UTM zone of
44N and 45N.The scale factor is 0.9996 for the central meridian.
In recent years because Nepal has greater East-West expansion so as to increase accuracy for
cadastral survey and various other purpose, UTM has been modified to MUTM(Modified
UTM); In this projection system Earth is divided in 120 zones each of 30.Nepal has central
meridian of 810,840 and 870.The scale factor of 0.9999 is used for central meridian. False easting
at central meridian is 500 000 m. and false northing at the Equator is 0 m.
PROJECTION SYSTEM USED IN NEPAL