IPCC Sr15 Glossary 2020

Approval Session Glossary IPCC SR1.
1.
2. Glossary
Coordinating Editor: J. B. Robin Matthews (UK)
Editorial Team:
Mustapha Babiker (Sudan), Heleen De Coninck (Netherlands), Sarah Connors (UK), Renée van
Diemen (Netherlands), Riyanti Djalante (Indonesia), Kristie L. Ebi (US), Neville Ellis (Australia),
Andreas Fischlin (Switzerland), Tania Guillén Bolaños (Germany/Nicaragua), Kiane de Kleijne
(Netherlands), Valérie Masson-Delmotte (France), Richard Millar (UK), Elvira S. Poloczanska
(Germany), Hans-Otto Pörtner (Germany), Andy Reisinger (New Zealand), Joeri Rogelj
(Belgium/Austria), Sonia Seneviratne (Switzerland), Chandni Singh (India), Petra Tschakert
(Australia/Austria), Nora M. Weyer (Germany)
Date of Draft: 4/06/18
Notes: TSU compiled version. Note that subterms are in italics beneath main terms.
Do Not Cite, Quote or Distribute 1-1 Total pages: 55

Approval Session Glossary IPCC SR1.5
1.5°C-consistent emissions pathways

See Pathways.
1.5°C warmer worlds

Projected worlds in which global warming has reached and, unless otherwise indicated, been limited
to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. There is no single 1.5°C warmer world and projections of 1.5°C
warmer worlds look different depending on whether it is considered on a near-term transient
trajectory or at climate equilibrium after several millennia, and, in both cases, if it occurs with or
without overshoot. Within the 21st century, several aspects play a role for the assessment of risk and
potential impacts in 1.5°C warmer worlds: the possible occurrence, magnitude and duration of an
overshoot, the way in which emissions reductions are achieved, the ways in which policies might be
able to influence the resilience of human and natural systems, and the nature of the regional and sub-
regional risks. Beyond the 21st century, several elements of the climate system would continue to
change even if the global mean temperatures remain stable, including further increases of sea level.
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

A UN resolution in September 2015 adopting a plan of action for people, planet and prosperity in a
new global development framework anchored in 17 Sustainable Development Goals (UN, 2015).
See also Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Acceptability of policy or system change

The extent to which a policy or system change is evaluated unfavourably or favourably, or rejected or
supported, by members of the general public (public acceptability) or politicians or governments
(political acceptability). Acceptability may vary from totally unacceptable/fully rejected to totally
acceptable/fully supported; individuals may differ in how acceptable policies or system changes are
believed to be.
Adaptability
See Adaptive capacity.
Adaptation
In human systems, the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects, in order to
moderate harm or exploit beneficial opportunities. In natural systems, the process of adjustment
to actual climate and its effects; human intervention may facilitate adjustment to expected climate and
its effects.
Incremental adaptation
Adaptation that maintains the essence and integrity of a system or process at a given scale. [Footnote:
This definition builds from the definition used in Park et al. (2012).]
Transformational adaptation
Adaptation that changes the fundamental attributes of a socio-ecological system in anticipation of
climate change and its impacts.
Adaptation limits

The point at which an actor’s objectives (or system needs) cannot be secured from intolerable risks
through adaptive actions.
Hard adaptation limit - No adaptive actions are possible to avoid intolerable risks.
Soft adaptation limit - Options are currently not available to avoid intolerable risks through adaptive
action.
See also Adaptation options, Adaptive capacity, and Maladaptive actions (Maladaptation).
Adaptation behaviour
See Human behaviour.
Adaptation limits
See Adaptation.
Adaptation options
The array of strategies and measures that are available and appropriate for addressing adaptation.
They include a wide range of actions that can be categorized as structural, institutional, ecological or
behavioural.
See also Adaptation, Adaptive capacity, and Maladaptive actions (Maladaptation).
Adaptation pathways
See Pathways.
Adaptive capacity
The ability of systems, institutions, humans and other organisms to adjust to potential damage, to take
advantage of opportunities, or to respond to consequences. [Footnote: This glossary entry builds from
definitions used in previous IPCC reports and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2005).]
See also Adaptation, Adaptation options, and Maladaptive actions (Maladaptation).
Adaptive governance
See Governance.
Aerosol
A suspension of airborne solid or liquid particles, with a typical size between a few nanometres and
10 μm that reside in the atmosphere for at least several hours. The term aerosol, which includes both
the particles and the suspending gas, is often used in this report in its plural form to mean aerosol
particles. Aerosols may be of either natural or anthropogenic origin. Aerosols may influence climate
in several ways: through both interactions that scatter and/or absorb radiation and through interactions
with cloud microphysics and other cloud properties, or upon deposition on snow or ice covered
surfaces thereby altering their albedo and contributing to climate feedback. Atmospheric aerosols,
whether natural or anthropogenic, originate from two different pathways: emissions of primary
particulate matter (PM), and formation of secondary PM from gaseous precursors. The bulk of
aerosols are of natural origin. Some scientists use group labels that refer to the chemical composition,
namely: sea salt, organic carbon, black carbon (BC), mineral species (mainly desert dust), sulphate,
nitrate, and ammonium. These labels are, however, imperfect as aerosols combine particles to create
complex mixtures.
See also Short-lived climate forcers (SLCF), and Black carbon (BC).
Afforestation
Planting of new forests on lands that historically have not contained forests. [Footnote: For a
discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation,
see the IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (IPCC, 2000), information
provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 2013) and the
report on Definitions and Methodological Options to Inventory Emissions from Direct Human-
induced Degradation of Forests and Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003).]
See also Reforestation, Deforestation, and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation (REDD+).
Agreement
In this report, the degree of agreement within the scientific body of knowledge on a particular finding
is assessed based on multiple lines of evidence (e.g., mechanistic understanding, theory, data, models,
expert judgement) and expressed qualitatively (Mastrandrea et al., 2010).
See also Evidence, Confidence, Likelihood, and Uncertainty.
Air pollution
Degradation of air quality with negative effects on human health, the natural or built environment,
due to the introduction by natural processes or human activity in the atmosphere of substances (gases,
aerosols) which have a direct (primary pollutants) or indirect (secondary pollutants) harmful effect.
See also Aerosol, and Short-lived climate forcers (SLCF).
Albedo
The fraction of solar radiation reflected by a surface or object, often expressed as a percentage. Snow-
covered surfaces have a high albedo, the surface albedo of soils ranges from high to low, and
vegetation-covered surfaces and the oceans have a low albedo. The Earth's planetary albedo changes
mainly through varying cloudiness, snow, ice, leaf area and land cover changes.
Ambient persuasive technology

Technological systems and environments that are designed to change human cognitive processing,
attitudes and behaviours without the need for the user’s conscious attention.
Anomaly
The deviation of a variable from its value averaged over a reference period.
See also Reference period.
Anthropocene
The 'Anthropocene' is a proposed new geological epoch resulting from significant human-driven
changes to the structure and functioning of the Earth System, including the climate system. Originally
proposed in the Earth System science community in 2000, the proposed new epoch is undergoing a
formalization process within the geological community based on the stratigraphic evidence that
human activities have changed the Earth System to the extent of forming geological deposits with a
signature that is distinct from those of the Holocene, and which will remain in the geological record.
Both the stratigraphic and Earth System approaches to defining the Anthropocene consider the mid-
20th Century to be the most appropriate starting date, although others have been proposed and
continue to be discussed. The Anthropocene concept has been taken up by a diversity of disciplines
and the public to denote the substantive influence humans have had on the state, dynamics and future
of the Earth System.
See also Holocene.
Anthropogenic
Resulting from or produced by human activities.
See also Anthropogenic emissions, and Anthropogenic removals.
Anthropogenic emissions
Emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), precursors of GHGs and aerosols caused by human activities.
These activities include the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, land use and land use changes
(LULUC), livestock production, fertilisation, waste management, and industrial processes.
See also Anthropogenic, and Anthropogenic removals.
Anthropogenic removals
Anthropogenic removals refer to the withdrawal of GHGs from the atmosphere as a result of
deliberate human activities. These include enhancing biological sinks of CO2 and using chemical
engineering to achieve long term removal and storage. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) from
industrial and energy-related sources, which alone does not remove CO2 in the atmosphere, can
reduce atmospheric CO2 if it is combined with bioenergy production (BECCS).
See also Anthropogenic emissions, Bioenergy with carbon dioxide capture and storage (BECCS), and
Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS).
Artificial intelligence (AI)

Computer systems able to perform tasks normally requiring human intelligence, such as visual
perception and speech recognition.
Atmosphere
The gaseous envelope surrounding the earth, divided into five layers — the troposphere which
contains half of the earth's atmosphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere, and the
exosphere, which is the outer limit of the atmosphere. The dry atmosphere consists almost entirely of
nitrogen (78.1% volume mixing ratio) and oxygen (20.9% volume mixing ratio), together with a
number of trace gases, such as argon (0.93 % volume mixing ratio), helium and radiatively active
greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as carbon dioxide (CO2) (0.04% volume mixing ratio) and ozone (O3).
In addition, the atmosphere contains the GHG water vapour (H2O), whose amounts are highly
variable but typically around 1% volume mixing ratio. The atmosphere also contains clouds and
aerosols.
See also Troposphere, Stratosphere, Greenhouse gas (GHG), and Hydrological cycle.
Atmosphere-ocean general circulation model (AOGCM)

See Climate model.
Attribution
See Detection and attribution.
Baseline scenario
In much of the literature the term is also synonymous with the term business-as-usual (BAU)
scenario, although the term BAU has fallen out of favour because the idea of business as usual in
century-long socio-economic projections is hard to fathom. In the context of transformation pathways,
the term baseline scenarios refers to scenarios that are based on the assumption that no mitigation
policies or measures will be implemented beyond those that are already in force and/or are legislated
or planned to be adopted. Baseline scenarios are not intended to be predictions of the future, but rather
counterfactual constructions that can serve to highlight the level of emissions that would occur
without further policy effort. Typically, baseline scenarios are then compared to mitigation scenarios
that are constructed to meet different goals for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, atmospheric
concentrations or temperature change. The term baseline scenario is often used interchangeably with
reference scenario and no policy scenario.
See also Emission scenario, and Mitigation scenario.
Biochar
Stable, carbon-rich material produced by heating biomass in an oxygen-limited environment. Biochar
may be added to soils to improve soil functions and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from biomass
and soils, and for carbon sequestration. [Footnote: This definition builds from IBI (2018)]
Biodiversity
Biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter
alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are
part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems (UN, 1992).
Bioenergy
Energy derived from any form of biomass or its metabolic by-products.
See also Biomass and Biofuel.
Bioenergy with carbon dioxide capture and storage (BECCS)

Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) technology applied to a bioenergy facility. Note that
depending on the total emissions of the BECCS supply chain, carbon dioxide can be removed from
the atmosphere.
See also Bioenergy, and Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS).
Biofuel
A fuel, generally in liquid form, produced from biomass. Biofuels currently include bioethanol from
sugarcane or maize, biodiesel from canola or soybeans, and black liquor from the paper-
manufacturing process.
See also Biomass, and Bioenergy.
Biomass
Living or recently-dead organic material.
See also Bioenergy, and Biofuel.
Biophilic urbanism
Designing cities with green roofs, green walls and green balconies to bring nature into the densest
parts of cities in order to provide green infrastructure and human health benefits.
See also Green infrastructure.
Black carbon (BC)

Operationally defined aerosol species based on measurement of light absorption and chemical
reactivity and/or thermal stability. It is sometimes referred to as soot. BC is mostly formed by the
incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass but it also occurs naturally. It stays in the
atmosphere only for days or weeks. It is the most strongly light-absorbing component of particulate
matter (PM) and has a warming effect by absorbing heat into the atmosphere and reducing the albedo
when deposited on snow or ice.
See also Aerosol.
Blue carbon
Blue carbon is the carbon captured by living organisms in coastal (e.g., mangroves, salt marshes,
seagrasses) and marine ecosystems, and stored in biomass and sediments.
Burden sharing (also referred to as Effort sharing)

In the context of mitigation, burden sharing refers to sharing the effort of reducing the sources or
enhancing the sinks of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from historical or projected levels, usually allocated
by some criteria, as well as sharing the cost burden across countries.
Business as usual (BAU)

See Baseline scenario.
Carbon budget
This term refers to three concepts in the literature: (1) an assessment of carbon cycle sources and
sinks on a global level, through the synthesis of evidence for fossil-fuel and cement emissions, land-
use change emissions, ocean and land CO2 sinks, and the resulting atmospheric CO2 growth rate. This
is referred to as the global carbon budget; (2) the estimated cumulative amount of global carbon
dioxide emissions that that is estimated to limit global surface temperature to a given level above a
reference period, taking into account global surface temperature contributions of other GHGs and
climate forcers; (3) the distribution of the carbon budget defined under (2) to the regional, national, or
sub-national level based on considerations of equity, costs or efficiency.
See also Remaining carbon budget.
Carbon cycle
The term used to describe the flow of carbon (in various forms, e.g., as carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon
in biomass, and carbon dissolved in the ocean as carbonate and bicarbonate) through the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, terrestrial and marine biosphere and lithosphere. In this report, the reference unit for the
global carbon cycle is GtCO2 or GtC (Gigatonne of carbon = 1 GtC = 1015 grams of carbon. This
corresponds to 3.667 GtCO2).
Carbon dioxide (CO2)

A naturally occurring gas, CO2 is also a by-product of burning fossil fuels (such as oil, gas and coal),
of burning biomass, of land use changes (LUC) and of industrial processes (e.g., cement production).
It is the principal anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) that affects the Earth's radiative balance. It is
the reference gas against which other GHGs are measured and therefore has a Global Warming
Potential (GWP) of 1.
See also Greenhouse gas (GHG). See also Land use and land-use change. See also Global Warming
Potential (GWP).
Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS)

A process in which a relatively pure stream of carbon dioxide (CO2) from industrial and energy-
related sources is separated (captured), conditioned, compressed and transported to a storage location
for long-term isolation from the atmosphere. Sometimes referred to as Carbon Capture and Storage.
See also Carbon dioxide capture and utilisation (CCU), Bioenergy with carbon dioxide capture and
storage (BECCS), and Sequestration.
Carbon dioxide capture and utilisation (CCU)

A process in which CO2 is captured and then used to produce a new product. If the CO2 is stored in a
product for a climate-relevant time horizon, this is referred to as carbon dioxide capture, utilisation
and storage (CCUS). Only then, and only combined with CO2 recently removed from the atmosphere,
can CCUS lead to carbon dioxide removal. CCU is sometimes referred to as Carbon dioxide capture
and use.
See also Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS).
Carbon dioxide capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS)

See Carbon dioxide capture and utilisation (CCU).
Carbon dioxide removal (CDR)

Carbon Dioxide Removal methods refer to processes that remove CO2 from the atmosphere by either
increasing biological sinks of CO2 or using chemical processes to directly bind CO2. CDR is classified
as a special type of mitigation.
See also Mitigation (of climate change), Greenhouse gas removal (GGR), Negative emissions, Sink.
Carbon intensity
The amount of emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) released per unit of another variable such as Gross
Domestic Product (GDP), output energy use or transport.
Carbon neutrality
Achieving net zero carbon dioxide emissions at a global scale through the balance of residual carbon
dioxide emissions with the same amount of carbon dioxide removal.
See also Climate neutrality.
Carbon price
The price for avoided or released carbon dioxide (CO2) or CO2-equivalent emissions. This may refer
to the rate of a carbon tax, or the price of emission permits. In many models that are used to assess the
economic costs of mitigation, carbon prices are used as a proxy to represent the level of effort in
mitigation policies.
Carbon sequestration
The process of storing carbon in a carbon pool.
See also Blue carbon, Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS), Uptake, and Sink.
Carbon sink
See Sink.
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

A mechanism defined under Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol through which investors (governments
or companies) from developed (Annex B) countries may finance greenhouse gas (GHG) emission
reduction or removal projects in developing countries (Non-Annex B), and receive Certified Emission
Reduction Units (CERs) for doing so. The CERs can be credited towards the commitments of the
respective developed countries. The CDM is intended to facilitate the two objectives of promoting
sustainable development (SD) in developing countries and of helping industrialized countries to reach
their emissions commitments in a cost-effective way.
Climate
Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the average weather, or more rigorously, as the
statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time
ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period for averaging these
variables is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization. The relevant quantities
are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation and wind. Climate in a wider sense
is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system.
Climate-compatible development (CCD)

A form of development building on climate strategies that embrace development goals and
development strategies that integrate climate risk management, adaptation and mitigation. Source:
(Mitchell and Maxwell, 2010)
Climate change
Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using
statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an
extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes
or external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions and persistent
anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. Note that the Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in its Article 1, defines climate change as: 'a change of
climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the
global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable
time periods'. The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction between climate change attributable to human
activities altering the atmospheric composition and climate variability attributable to natural causes.
See also Climate variability, Global warming, Ocean acidification, and Detection and attribution.
Climate change commitment

Climate change commitment is defined as the unavoidable future climate change resulting from
inertia in the geophysical and socio-economic systems. Different types of climate change commitment
are discussed in the literature (see subterms). Climate change commitment is usually quantified in
terms of the further change in temperature, but it includes other future changes, for example in the
hydrological cycle, in extreme weather events, in extreme climate events, and in sea level.
Constant composition commitment

The constant composition commitment is the remaining climate change that would result if
atmospheric composition and hence radiative forcing were held fixed at a given value. It results from
the thermal inertia of the ocean and slow processes in the cryosphere and land surface.
Zero emissions commitment

The zero emissions commitment is the climate change commitment that would result from setting
anthropogenic emissions to zero. It is determined by both inertia in physical climate system
components (ocean, cryosphere, land surface) and carbon cycle inertia.
Constant emissions commitment

The constant emissions commitment is the committed climate change that would result from keeping
anthropogenic emissions constant.
Feasible scenario commitment

The feasible scenario commitment is the climate change that corresponds to the lowest emission
scenario judged feasible.
Infrastructure commitment
The infrastructure commitment is the climate change that would result if existing greenhouse gas and
aerosol emitting infrastructure were used until the end of its expected lifetime.
Climate extreme (extreme weather or climate event)

The occurrence of a value of a weather or climate variable above (or below) a threshold value near the
upper (or lower) ends of the range of observed values of the variable. For simplicity, both extreme
weather events and extreme climate events are referred to collectively as ‘climate extremes.’
See also Extreme weather event.
Climate feedback
An interaction in which a perturbation in one climate quantity causes a change in a second and the
change in the second quantity ultimately leads to an additional change in the first. A negative
feedback is one in which the initial perturbation is weakened by the changes it causes; a positive
feedback is one in which the initial perturbation is enhanced. The initial perturbation can either be
externally forced or arise as part of internal variability.
Climate governance
See Governance.
Climate justice
See Justice.
Climate model
A numerical representation of the climate system based on the physical, chemical and biological
properties of its components, their interactions and feedback processes and accounting for some of its
known properties. The climate system can be represented by models of varying complexity; that is,
for any one component or combination of components a spectrum or hierarchy of models can be
identified, differing in such aspects as the number of spatial dimensions, the extent to which physical,
chemical or biological processes are explicitly represented, or the level at which empirical
parametrizations are involved. There is an evolution towards more complex models with interactive
chemistry and biology. Climate models are applied as a research tool to study and simulate the
climate and for operational purposes, including monthly, seasonal and interannual climate predictions.
See also Earth system model (ESM).
Climate neutrality
Concept of a state in which human activities result in no net effect on the climate system. Achieving
such a state would require balancing of residual emissions with emission (carbon dioxide) removal as
well as accounting for regional or local biogeophysical effects of human activities that, for example,
affect surface albedo or local climate.
See also Carbon neutrality.
Climate projection
A climate projection is the simulated response of the climate system to a scenario of future emission
or concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and aerosols, generally derived using climate models.
Climate projections are distinguished from climate predictions by their dependence on the
emission/concentration/radiative forcing scenario used, which is in turn based on assumptions
concerning, for example, future socioeconomic and technological developments that may or may not
be realized.
Climate-resilient development pathways (CRDPs)

Trajectories that strengthen sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty and reduce
inequalities while promoting fair and cross-scalar adaptation to and resilience in a changing climate.
They raise the ethics, equity, and feasibility aspects of the deep societal transformation needed to
drastically reduce emissions to limit global warming (e.g., to 1.5°C) and achieve desirable and
liveable futures and well-being for all.
Climate-resilient pathways
Iterative processes for managing change within complex systems in order to reduce disruptions and
enhance opportunities associated with climate change.
See also Pathways, Climate-resilient development pathways (CRDPs), Development pathways, and
Transformation pathways.
Climate services
Climate services refers to information and products that enhance users' knowledge and understanding
about the impacts of climate change and/or climate variability so as to aid decision-making of
individuals and organizations and enable preparedness and early climate change action. Products can
include climate data products.
Climate sensitivity
Climate sensitivity refers to the change in the annual global mean surface temperature in response to a
change in the atmospheric CO2 concentration or other radiative forcing.
Equilibrium climate sensitivity

Refers to the equilibrium (steady state) change in the annual global mean surface temperature
following a doubling of the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration. As a true equilibrium is
challenging to define in climate models with dynamic oceans, the equilibrium climate sensitivity is
often estimated through experiments in AOGCMs where CO2 levels are either quadrupled or doubled
from pre-industrial levels and which are integrated for 100-200 years. The climate sensitivity
parameter (units: °C (W m–2)–1) refers to the equilibrium change in the annual global mean surface
temperature following a unit change in radiative forcing.
Effective climate sensitivity

An estimate of the global mean surface temperature response to a doubling of the atmospheric carbon
dioxide (CO2) concentration that is evaluated from model output or observations for evolving non-
equilibrium conditions. It is a measure of the strengths of the climate feedbacks at a particular time
and may vary with forcing history and climate state, and therefore may differ from equilibrium
climate sensitivity.
Transient climate response

The change in the global mean surface temperature, averaged over a 20-year period, centered at the
time of atmospheric CO2 doubling, in a climate model simulation in which CO2 increases at 1% yr-1
from pre-industrial. It is a measure of the strength of climate feedbacks and the timescale of ocean
heat uptake.
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA)

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach that helps to guide actions needed to transform and
reorient agricultural systems to effectively support development and ensure food security in a
changing climate. CSA aims to tackle three main objectives: sustainably increasing agricultural
productivity and incomes; adapting and building resilience to climate change; and reducing and/or
removing greenhouse gas emissions, where possible (source: FAO).
Climate system
The climate system is the highly complex system consisting of five major components: the
atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere and the interactions
between them. The climate system evolves in time under the influence of its own internal dynamics
and because of external forcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations and anthropogenic
forcings such as the changing composition of the atmosphere and land-use change.
Climate target
Climate target refers to a temperature limit, concentration level, or emissions reduction goal used
towards the aim of avoiding dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. For
example, national climate targets may aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by a certain amount
over a given time horizon, for example those under the Kyoto Protocol.
Climate variability
Climate variability refers to variations in the mean state and other statistics (such as standard
deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all spatial and temporal scales beyond
that of individual weather events. Variability may be due to natural internal processes within the
climate system (internal variability), or to variations in natural or anthropogenic external forcing
(external variability).
See also Climate change.
Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC)

Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR–RC) is a key
principle in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that
recognises the different capabilities and differing responsibilities of individual countries in tacking
climate change. The principle of CBDR–RC is embedded in the 1992 UNFCCC treaty, The
convention states: “… the global nature of climate change calls for the widest possible cooperation by
all countries and their participation in an effective and appropriate international response, in
accordance with their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities and their
social and economic conditions.” Since then the CBDR-RC principle has guided the UN climate
negotiations.
CO2 equivalent (CO2-eq) emission

The amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission that would cause the same integrated radiative forcing
or temperature change, over a given time horizon, as an emitted amount of a greenhouse gas (GHG)
or a mixture of GHGs. There are a number of ways to compute such equivalent emissions and choose
appropriate time horizons. Most typically, the CO2-equivalent emission is obtained by multiplying the
emission of a GHG by its Global Warming Potential (GWP) for a 100 year time horizon. For a mix of
GHGs it is obtained by summing the CO2-equivalent emissions of each gas. CO2-equivalent emission
is a common scale for comparing emissions of different GHGs but does not imply equivalence of the
corresponding climate change responses. There is generally no connection between CO2-equivalent
emissions and resulting CO2-equivalent concentrations.
Conference of the Parties (COP)

The supreme body of UN conventions, such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), comprising parties with a right to vote that have ratified or acceded to the
convention.
See also United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Confidence
The robustness of a finding based on the type, amount, quality and consistency of evidence (e.g.,
mechanistic understanding, theory, data, models, expert judgment) and on the degree of agreement
across multiple lines of evidence. In this report, confidence is expressed qualitatively (Mastrandrea et
al., 2010). See Section 1.6 for the list of confidence levels used.
See also Agreement, Evidence, Likelihood, and Uncertainty.
Co-benefits
The positive effects that a policy or measure aimed at one objective might have on other objectives,
thereby increasing the total benefits for society or the environment. Co-benefits are often subject to
uncertainty and depend on local circumstances and implementation practices, among other factors.
Co-benefits are also referred to as ancillary benefits.
Conservation agriculture
A coherent group of agronomic and soil management practices that reduce the disruption of soil
structure and biota.
Constant composition commitment

See Climate change commitment.
Constant emissions commitment

Coping capacity
The ability of people, institutions, organizations, and systems, using available skills, values, beliefs,
resources, and opportunities, to address, manage, and overcome adverse conditions in the short to
medium term. [Footnote: This glossary entry builds from the definition used in UNISDR (2009) and
IPCC (2012a).]
See also Resilience.

Cost-benefit analysis
Monetary assessment of all negative and positive impacts associated with a given action. Cost-benefit
analysis enables comparison of different interventions, investments or strategies and reveal how a
given investment or policy effort pays off for a particular person, company or country. Cost-benefit
analyses representing society's point of view are important for climate change decision making, but
there are difficulties in aggregating costs and benefits across different actors and across timescales.
See also Discounting.
Cost-effectiveness
A measure of the cost at which policy goal or outcome is achieved. The lower the cost the greater the
cost-effectiveness.
See also Integrated models.
Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP)

The Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) is a climate modelling activity from the World
Climate Research Programme (WCRP) which coordinates and archives climate model simulations
based on shared model inputs by modelling groups from around the world. The CMIP3 multi-model
data set includes projections using SRES scenarios. The CMIP5 data set includes projections using
the Representative Concentration Pathways. The CMIP6 phase involves a suite of common model
experiments as well as an ensemble of CMIP-endorsed model intercomparison projects (MIPs).
Cumulative emissions
The total amount of emissions released over a specified period of time.
See also Carbon budget, and Transient climate response to cumulative CO2 emissions (TCRE).
Deforestation
Conversion of forest to non-forest. For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as
afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, see the IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use
Change, and Forestry (IPCC, 2000). [Footnote: See also information provided by the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 2013) and the report on Definitions and
Methodological Options to Inventory Emissions from Direct Human-induced Degradation of Forests
and Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003).]
See also Afforestation, Reforestation, and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Demand and supply-side measures
Demand-side measures
Policies and programmes for influencing the demand for goods and/or services. In the energy sector,
demand-side management aims at reducing the demand for electricity and other forms of energy
required to deliver energy services.
Supply-side measures
Policies and programmes for influencing how a certain demand for goods and/or services is met. In
the energy sector, for example, supply-side mitigation measures aim at reducing the amount of
greenhouse gas emissions emitted per unit of energy produced.
See also Mitigation measures.
Demand-side measures
See Demand and supply-side measures.
Detection
See Detection and attribution.
Detection and attribution

Detection of change is defined as the process of demonstrating that climate or a system affected by
climate has changed in some defined statistical sense, without providing a reason for that change. An
identified change is detected in observations if its likelihood of occurrence by chance due to internal
variability alone is determined to be small, for example, <10%. Attribution is defined as the process
of evaluating the relative contributions of multiple causal factors to a change or event with a formal
assessment of confidence.
Discounting
A mathematical operation that aims to make monetary (or other) amounts received or expended at
different times (years) comparable across time. The discounter uses a fixed or possibly time-varying
discount rate from year to year that makes future value worth less today (if the discount rate is
positive). The choice of discount rate(s) is debated as it is a judgement based on hidden and/or explicit
values.
Discount rate
See Discounting.
(Internal) Displacement
Internal displacement refers to the forced movement of people within the country they live in.
Internally displaced persons (IDPs) are "Persons or groups of persons who have been forced or
obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in
order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human
rights or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized
State border.” (UNCHR, 1998).
See also Migration.
Distributive equity
See Equity.
Distributive justice
See Justice.
Downscaling
Downscaling is a method that derives local- to regional-scale (up to 100 km) information from larger-
scale models or data analyses. Two main methods exist: dynamical downscaling and
empirical/statistical downscaling. The dynamical method uses the output of regional climate models,
global models with variable spatial resolution, or high-resolution global models. The
empirical/statistical methods [are based on observations and] develop statistical relationships that link
the large-scale atmospheric variables with local/ regional climate variables. In all cases, the quality of
the driving model remains an important limitation on quality of the downscaled information. The two
methods can be combined, e.g., applying empirical/statistical downscaling to the output of a regional
climate model, consisting of a dynamical downscaling of a global climate model."
Drought
A period of abnormally dry weather long enough to cause a serious hydrological imbalance. Drought
is a relative term (see Box 3-3), therefore any discussion in terms of precipitation deficit must refer to
the particular precipitation-related activity that is under discussion. For example, shortage of
precipitation during the growing season impinges on crop production or ecosystem function in general
(due to soil moisture drought, also termed agricultural drought), and during the runoff and percolation
season primarily affects water supplies (hydrological drought). Storage changes in soil moisture and
groundwater are also affected by increases in actual evapotranspiration in addition to reductions in
precipitation. A period with an abnormal precipitation deficit is defined as a meteorological drought.
See also Soil moisture.
Megadrought
A megadrought is a very lengthy and pervasive drought, lasting much longer than normal, usually a
decade or more.
Decarbonisation
The process by which countries, individuals or other entities aim to achieve zero fossil carbon
existence. Typically refers to a reduction of the carbon emissions associated with electricity, industry
and transport.
Decoupling
Decoupling (in relation to climate change) is where economic growth is no longer strongly associated
with consumption of fossil fuels. Relative decoupling is where both grow but at different rates.
Absolute decoupling is where economic growth happens but fossil fuels decline.
Deliberative governance
See Governance.
Development pathways
See Pathways.

Direct air carbon dioxide capture and storage (DACCS)

Chemical process by which CO2 is captured directly from the ambient air, with subsequent storage.
Also known as direct air capture and storage (DACS).
Disaster
Severe alterations in the normal functioning of a community or a society due to hazardous physical
events interacting with vulnerable social conditions, leading to widespread adverse human, material,
economic or environmental effects that require immediate emergency response to satisfy critical
human needs and that may require external support for recovery.
See also Hazard.
Disaster risk management (DRM)

Processes for designing, implementing, and evaluating strategies, policies, and measures to improve
the understanding of disaster risk, foster disaster risk reduction and transfer, and promote continuous
improvement in disaster preparedness, response, and recovery practices, with the explicit purpose of
increasing human security, well-being, quality of life, and sustainable development.
Disruptive innovation
Disruptive innovation is demand-led technological change that leads to significant system change and
is characterized by strong exponential growth.
Double dividend
The extent to which revenues generated by policy instruments, such as carbon taxes or auctioned
(tradeable) emission permits can (1) contribute to mitigation and (2) offset part of the potential
welfare losses of climate policies through recycling the revenue in the economy by reducing other
distortionary taxes.
Early warning systems (EWS)

The set of technical, financial and institutional capacities needed to generate and disseminate timely
and meaningful warning information to enable individuals, communities and organizations threatened
by a hazard to prepare to act promptly and appropriately to reduce the possibility of harm or loss.
Dependent upon context, EWS may draw upon scientific and/or Indigenous knowledge. EWS are
also considered for ecological applications e.g., conservation, where the organisation itself is not
threatened by hazard but the ecosystem under conservation is (an example is coral bleaching alerts),
in agriculture (for example, warnings of ground frost, hailstorms) and in fisheries (storm and tsunami
warnings). This glossary entry builds from the definitions used in UNISDR (2009) and IPCC (2012a).
Earth system feedbacks

See Climate feedback.
Earth system model (ESM)

A coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation model in which a representation of the carbon cycle
is included, allowing for interactive calculation of atmospheric CO2 or compatible emissions.
Additional components (e.g., atmospheric chemistry, ice sheets, dynamic vegetation, nitrogen cycle,
but also urban or crop models) may be included.

See also Climate model.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a functional unit consisting of living organisms, their non-living environment and the
interactions within and between them. The components included in a given ecosystem and its spatial
boundaries depend on the purpose for which the ecosystem is defined: in some cases they are
relatively sharp, while in others they are diffuse. Ecosystem boundaries can change over time.
Ecosystems are nested within other ecosystems and their scale can range from very small to the entire
biosphere. In the current era, most ecosystems either contain people as key organisms, or are
influenced by the effects of human activities in their environment.
See also Ecosystem services.
Ecosystem services
Ecological processes or functions having monetary or non-monetary value to individuals or society at
large. These are frequently classified as (1) supporting services such as productivity or biodiversity
maintenance, (2) provisioning services such as food or fibre, (3) regulating services such as climate
regulation or carbon sequestration, and (4) cultural services such as tourism or spiritual and aesthetic
appreciation.
Effective climate sensitivity

See Climate sensitivity.
Effective radiative forcing

See Radiative forcing.
Electric vehicle (EV)

A vehicle whose propulsion is powered fully or mostly by electricity.
Battery electric vehicle (BEV)

A vehicle whose propulsion is entirely electric without any internal combustion engine.
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)

A vehicle whose propulsion is mostly electric with batteries re-charged from an electric source but
extra power and distance are provided by a hybrid internal combustion engine.
El niño-southern oscillation (ENSO)

The term El Niño was initially used to describe a warm-water current that periodically flows along the
coast of Ecuador and Peru, disrupting the local fishery. It has since become identified with warming
of the tropical Pacific Ocean east of the dateline. This oceanic event is associated with a fluctuation of
a global-scale tropical and subtropical surface pressure pattern called the Southern Oscillation. This
coupled atmosphere–ocean phenomenon, with preferred time scales of two to about seven years, is
known as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). It is often measured by the surface pressure
anomaly difference between Tahiti and Darwin and/or the sea surface temperatures in the central and
eastern equatorial Pacific. During an ENSO event, the prevailing trade winds weaken, reducing
upwelling and altering ocean currents such that the sea surface temperatures warm, further weakening
the trade winds. This phenomenon has a great impact on the wind, sea surface temperature and
precipitation patterns in the tropical Pacific. It has climatic effects throughout the Pacific region and
in many other parts of the world, through global teleconnections. The cold phase of ENSO is called
La Niña.
Emission scenario
A plausible representation of the future development of emissions of substances that are radiatively
active (e.g., greenhouse gases (GHGs), aerosols) based on a coherent and internally consistent set of
assumptions about driving forces (such as demographic and socio-economic development,
technological change, energy and land use) and their key relationships. Concentration scenarios,
derived from emission scenarios, are often used as input to a climate model to compute climate
projections.
See also Baseline scenario, Mitigation scenario, Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs)
(under Pathways), Shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs) (under Pathways), Scenario, Socio-
economic scenario, and Transformation pathway.
Emissions trading
A market-based instrument aiming at meeting a mitigation objective in an efficient way. A cap on
GHG emissions is divided in tradeable emission permits that are allocated by a combination of
auctioning and handing out free allowances to entities within the jurisdiction of the trading scheme.
Entities need to surrender emission permits equal to the amount of their emissions (e.g., tonnes of
CO2). An entity may sell excess permits to entities that can avoid the same amount of emissions in a
cheaper way. Trading schemes may occur at the intra-company, domestic, or international level (e.g.,
the flexibility mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol and the EU-EUTS) and may apply to carbon
dioxide (CO2), other greenhouse gases (GHGs), or other substances.
Emission trajectories
A projected development in time of the emission of a greenhouse gas (GHG) or group of GHGs,
aerosols, and GHG precursors.
See also Pathways.
Enabling conditions
Conditions that affect the feasibility of adaptation and mitigation options, and can accelerate and
scale-up systemic transitions that would limit temperature increase to 1.5°C and enhance capacities of
systems and societies to adapt to the associated climate change, while achieving sustainable
development, eradicating poverty and reducing inequalities. Enabling conditions include finance,
technological innovation, strengthening policy instruments, institutional capacity, multi-level
governance, and changes in human behaviour and lifestyles. They also include inclusive processes,
attention to power asymmetries and unequal opportunities for development and reconsideration of
values.
See also Feasibility.
Energy efficiency
The ratio of output or useful energy or energy services or other useful physical outputs obtained from
a system, conversion process, transmission or storage activity to the input of energy (measured as
kWh kWh-1, tonnes kWh-1 or any other physical measure of useful output like tonne-km transported).
Energy efficiency is often described by energy intensity. In economics, energy intensity describes the
ratio of economic output to energy input. Most commonly energy efficiency is measured as input
energy over a physical or economic unit, i.e. kWh USD-1 (energy intensity), kWh tonne-1. For
buildings, it is often measured as kWh m-2, and for vehicles as km liter-1or liter km-1. Very often in
policy "energy efficiency" is intended as the measures to reduce energy demand through technological
options such as insulating buildings, more efficient appliances, efficient lighting, efficient vehicles,
etc.
Energy security
The goal of a given country, or the global community as a whole, to maintain an adequate, stable and
predictable energy supply. Measures encompass safeguarding the sufficiency of energy resources to
meet national energy demand at competitive and stable prices and the resilience of the energy supply;
enabling development and deployment of technologies; building sufficient infrastructure to generate,
store and transmit energy supplies and ensuring enforceable contracts of delivery.
Enhanced weathering
Enhancing the removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through dissolution of silicate and
carbonate rocks by grinding these minerals to small particles and actively applying them to soils,
coasts or oceans.
(Model) Ensemble
A group of parallel model simulations characterising historical climate conditions, climate
predictions, or climate projections. Variation of the results across the ensemble members may give an
estimate of modelling-based uncertainty. Ensembles made with the same model but different initial
conditions only characterize the uncertainty associated with internal climate variability, whereas
multi-model ensembles including simulations by several models also include the impact of model
differences. Perturbed parameter ensembles, in which model parameters are varied in a systematic
manner, aim to assess the uncertainty resulting from internal model specifications within a single
model. Remaining sources of uncertainty unaddressed with model ensembles are related to systematic
model errors or biases, which may be assessed from systematic comparisons of model simulations
with observations wherever available.
See also Climate projection.
Equality
A principle that ascribes equal worth to all human beings, including equal opportunities, rights, and
obligations, irrespective of origins
Inequality
Uneven opportunities and social positions, and processes of discrimination within a group or society,
based on gender, class, ethnicity, age, and (dis)ability, often produced by uneven development.
Income inequality refers to gaps between highest and lowest income earners within a country and
between countries.
See also Equity, Ethics, and Fairness.

Equilibrium climate sensitivity

Equity
Equity is the principle of fairness in burden sharing and is a basis for understanding how the impacts
and responses to climate change, including costs and benefits, are distributed in and by society in
more or less equal ways. It is often aligned with ideas of equality, fairness and justice and applied
with respect to equity in the responsibility for, and distribution of, climate impacts and policies across
society, generations, and gender, and in the sense of who participates and controls the processes of
decision making.
Distributive equity
Equity in the consequences, outcomes, costs and benefits of actions or policies. In the case of climate
change or climate policies for different people, places and countries, including equity aspects of
sharing burdens and benefits for mitigation and adaptation.
Gender equity
Ensuring equity in that women and men have the same rights, resources and opportunities. In the case
of climate change gender equity recognizes that women are often more vulnerable to the impacts of
climate change and may be disadvantaged in the process and outcomes of climate policy.
Inter-generational equity
Equity between generations that acknowledges that the effects of past and present emissions,
vulnerabilities and policies impose costs and benefits for people in the future and of different age
groups.
Procedural equity
Equity in the process of decision making including recognition and inclusiveness in participation,
equal representation, bargaining power, voice and equitable access to knowledge and resources to
participate.
See also Equality, Ethics and Fairness.
Ethics
Ethics involves questions of justice and value. Justice is concerned with right and wrong, equity and
fairness, and, in general, with the rights to which people and living beings are entitled. Value is a
matter of worth, benefit, or good.
See also Equality, Equity, and Fairness.
Evidence
Data and information used in the scientific process to establish findings. In this report, the degree of
evidence reflects the amount, quality, and consistency of scientific/technical information on which the
Lead Authors are basing their findings.
See also Agreement, Confidence, Likelihood, and Uncertainty.
Exposure

The presence of people; livelihoods; species or ecosystems; environmental functions, services, and
resources; infrastructure; or economic, social, or cultural assets in places and settings that could be
adversely affected.
See also Hazard, Risk, and Vulnerability.

Extratropical Cyclone
Any cyclonic-scale storm that is not a tropical cyclone. Usually refers to a middle- or high-latitude
migratory storm system formed in regions of large horizontal temperature variations. Sometimes
called extratropical storm or extratropical low.
See also Tropical cyclone.
Extreme weather or climate event

See Climate extreme (extreme weather or climate event).
Extreme weather event

An extreme weather event is an event that is rare at a particular place and time of year. Definitions of
rare vary, but an extreme weather event would normally be as rare as or rarer than the 10th or 90th
percentile of a probability density function estimated from observations. By definition, the
characteristics of what is called extreme weather may vary from place to place in an absolute sense.
When a pattern of extreme weather persists for some time, such as a season, it may be classed as an
extreme climate event, especially if it yields an average or total that is itself extreme (e.g., drought or
heavy rainfall over a season).
See also Heat wave, and Climate extreme (extreme weather or climate event)
Fairness
Impartial and just treatment without favouritism or discrimination in which each person is considered
of equal worth with equal opportunity.
See also Equity, Equality and Ethics.
Feasible scenario commitment

Feasibility
The degree to which climate goals and response options are considered possible and/or desirable.
Feasibility depends on geophysical, ecological, technological, economic, social and institutional
conditions for change. Conditions underpinning feasibility are dynamic, spatially variable, and may
vary between different groups.
See also Enabling conditions.
Feedback
See Climate feedback.

Flexible governance
See Governance.
Flood
The overflowing of the normal confines of a stream or other body of water, or the accumulation of
water over areas that are not normally submerged. Floods include river (fluvial) floods, flash floods,
urban floods, pluvial floods, sewer floods, coastal floods, and glacial lake outburst floods.
Food security
A situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to
sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active
and healthy life (FAO, 2001).
Food wastage
Food wastage encompasses food loss (the loss of food during production and transportation) and food
waste (the waste of food by the consumer) (FAO, 2013).
Forcing
See Radiative forcing.
Forest
A vegetation type dominated by trees. Many definitions of the term forest are in use throughout the
world, reflecting wide differences in biogeophysical conditions, social structure and economics. For a
discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation,
see the IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (IPCC, 2000). [Footnote:
See also information provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC, 2013) and the Report on Definitions and Methodological Options to Inventory Emissions
from Direct Human-induced Degradation of Forests and Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types
(IPCC, 2003).]
See also Afforestation, Deforestation, and Reforestation.
Fossil fuels
Carbon-based fuels from fossil hydrocarbon deposits, including coal, oil, and natural gas.
Framework Convention on Climate Change

See United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Gender equity
See Equity.
General purpose technologies (GPT)

General Purpose Technologies can be or are used pervasively in a wide range of sectors in ways that
fundamentally change the modes of operation of those sectors (Helpman, 1998). Examples include the
steam engine, power generator and motor, ICT, and biotechnology.
Geoengineering
In this report, separate consideration is given to the two main approaches considered as
‘geoengineering’ in some of the literature: solar radiation modification (SRM) and carbon dioxide
removal (CDR). Because of this separation, the term ‘geoengineering’ is not used in this report.
See also Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) and Solar radiation modification (SRM).
Glacier
A perennial mass of ice, and possibly firn and snow, originating on the land surface by the
recrystallisation of snow and showing evidence of past or present flow. A glacier typically gains mass
by accumulation of snow, and loses mass by melting and ice discharge into the sea or a lake if the
glacier terminates in a body of water. Land ice masses of continental size (>50 000 km2) are referred
to as ice sheets.
See also Ice sheet.
Global climate model (also referred to as general circulation model, both abbreviated as GCM)
See Climate model.
Global mean surface temperature (GMST)

Area-weighted global average of land surface air temperature over land and sea surface temperatures,
unless otherwise specified, normally expressed relative to a specified reference period.
See also Land surface air temperature, and Sea surface temperature (SST).
Global warming
An increase in global mean surface temperature (GMST) averaged over a 30-year period, relative to
1850-1900 unless otherwise specified. For periods shorter than 30 years, global warming refers to the
estimated average temperature over the 30 years centred on that shorter period, accounting for the
impact of any temperature fluctuations or trend within those 30 years.
See also Climate change, Climate variability, and Global mean surface temperature (GMST).
Governance
A comprehensive and inclusive concept of the full range of means for deciding, managing,
implementing and monitoring policies and measures. Whereas government is defined strictly in terms
of the nation-state, the more inclusive concept of governance recognizes the contributions of various
levels of government (global, international, regional, sub-national and local) and the contributing
roles of the private sector, of nongovernmental actors, and of civil society to addressing the many
types of issues facing the global community.
Adaptive governance

An emerging term in the literature for the evolution of formal and informal institutions of governance
that prioritize social learning in planning, implementation and evaluation of policy through iterative
social learning to steer the use and protection of natural resources, ecosystem services and common
pool natural resources, particularly in situations of complexity and uncertainty.
Climate governance
Purposeful mechanisms and measures aimed at steering social systems towards preventing,
mitigating, or adapting to the risks posed by climate change (Jagers and Stripple, 2003).
Deliberative governance
Deliberative governance involves decision making through inclusive public conversation which
allows opportunity for developing policy options through public discussion rather than collating
individual preferences through voting or referenda (although the later governance mechanisms can
also be proceeded and legitimated by public deliberation processes).
Flexible governance
Strategies of governance at various levels, which prioritize the use of social learning and rapid
feedback mechanisms in planning and policy making, often through incremental, experimental and
iterative management processes.
Governance capacity
The ability of governance institutions, leaders, and non-state and civil society to plan, co-ordinate,
fund, implement, evaluate and adjust policies and measures over the short, medium and long term,
adjusting for uncertainty, rapid change and wide ranging impacts and multiple actors and demands.
Multi-level governance
Multi-level governance refers to negotiated, non-hierarchical exchanges between institutions at the
transnational, national, regional and local levels. Multi-level governance identifies relationships
among governance processes at these different levels. Multi-level governance does include negotiated
relationships among institutions at different institutional levels and also a vertical ‘layering’ of
governance processes at different levels. Institutional relationships take place directly between,
transnational, regional and local levels, thus bypassing the state level (Peters and Pierre, 2001).
Participatory governance
A governance system that enables direct public engagement in decision-making using a variety of
techniques for example, referenda, community deliberation, citizen juries or participatory budgeting.
The approach can be applied in formal and informal institutional contexts from national to local, but
is usually associated with devolved decision making. [Footnote: This definition builds from Fung and
Olin Wright (2003) and Sarmiento and Tilly (2018).]
Governance capacity
See Governance.
Green infrastructure
The interconnected set of natural and constructed ecological systems, green spaces and other
landscape features. It includes planted and indigenous trees, wetlands, parks, green open spaces and
original grassland and woodlands, as well as possible building and street level design interventions
that incorporate vegetation. Green infrastructure provides services and functions in the same way as

conventional infrastructure. This definition builds from Culwick and Bobbins (2016).
Greenhouse gas (GHG)

Greenhouse gases are those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic,
that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of terrestrial radiation
emitted by the earth's surface, the atmosphere itself, and by clouds. This property causes the
greenhouse effect. Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4)
and ozone (O3) are the primary GHGs in the earth's atmosphere. Moreover, there are a number of
entirely human-made GHGs in the atmosphere, such as the halocarbons and other chlorine- and
bromine-containing substances, dealt with under the Montreal Protocol. Beside CO2, N2O and CH4,
the Kyoto Protocol deals with the GHGs sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and
perfluorocarbons (PFCs).
See also Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), and Ozone (O3).
Greenhouse gas removal (GGR)

Withdrawal of a GHG and/or a precursor from the atmosphere by a sink.
See also Carbon dioxide removal (CDR), and Negative emissions.
Gross domestic product (GDP)

The sum of gross value added, at purchasers' prices, by all resident and non-resident producers in the
economy, plus any taxes and minus any subsidies not included in the value of the products in a
country or a geographic region for a given period, normally one year. GDP is calculated without
deducting for depreciation of fabricated assets or depletion and degradation of natural resources.
Gross fixed capital formation (GFCF)

One component of the GDP that corresponds to the total value of acquisitions, minus disposals of
fixed assets during one year by the business sector, governments and households, plus certain
additions to the value of non-produced assets (such as subsoil assets or major improvements in the
quantity, quality or productivity of land).
Halocarbons
A collective term for the group of partially halogenated organic species, which includes the
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
halons, methyl chloride and methyl bromide. Many of the halocarbons have large Global Warming
Potentials. The chlorine and bromine-containing halocarbons are also involved in the depletion of the
ozone layer.
Hazard
The potential occurrence of a natural or human-induced physical event or trend that may cause loss of
life, injury, or other health impacts, as well as damage and loss to property, infrastructure, livelihoods,
service provision, ecosystems and environmental resources.
See also Disaster, Exposure, Risk, and Vulnerability.

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)

Heating, ventilation and air conditioning technology is used to control temperature and humidity in an
indoor environment, be it in buildings or in vehicles, providing thermal comfort and healthy air
quality to the occupants. HVAC systems can be designed for an isolated space, an individual building
or a distributed heating and cooling network within a building structure or a district heating system.
The latter provides economies of scale and also scope for integration with solar heat, natural seasonal
cooling/heating etc.
Heat wave
A period of abnormally hot weather. Heat waves and warm spells have various and in some cases
overlapping definitions.
See also Extreme weather event.
Holocene
The Holocene is the current interglacial geological epoch, the second of two epochs within the
Quaternary period, the preceding being the Pleistocene. The International Commission on
Stratigraphy defines the start of the Holocene at 11,650 years before 1950.
See also Anthropocene.
Human behaviour
The way in which a person acts in response to a particular situation or stimulus. Human actions are
relevant at different levels, from international, national, and sub-national actors, to NGO, firm-level
actors, and communities, households, and individual actions.
Adaptation behaviour
Human actions that directly or indirectly affect the risks of climate change impacts.
Mitigation behaviour
Human actions that directly or indirectly influence mitigation.
Human behavioural change

A transformation or modification of human actions. Behaviour change efforts can be planned in ways
that mitigate climate change and/or reduce negative consequences of climate change impacts.
Human rights
Rights that are inherent to all human beings, universal, inalienable, and indivisible, typically
expressed and guaranteed by law. They include the right to life, economic, social, and cultural rights,
and the right to development and self-determination (based upon the definition by the UN Office of
the High Commissioner).
Procedural rights
Rights to a legal procedure to enforce substantive rights.
Substantive rights
Basic human rights, including the right to the substance of being human such as life itself, liberty and
happiness.
Human security
A condition that is met when the vital core of human lives is protected, and when people have the
freedom and capacity to live with dignity. In the context of climate change, the vital core of human
lives includes the universal and culturally specific, material and non-material elements necessary for
people to act on behalf of their interests and to live with dignity.
Human system
Any system in which human organizations and institutions play a major role. Often, but not always,
the term is synonymous with society or social system. Systems such as agricultural systems, urban
systems, political systems, technological systems, and economic systems are all human systems in the
sense applied in this report.
Hydrological cycle
The cycle in which water evaporates from the oceans and the land surface, is carried over the Earth in
atmospheric circulation as water vapour, condenses to form clouds, precipitates as rain or snow,
which on land can be intercepted by trees and vegetation, potentially accumulates as snow or ice,
provides runoff on the land surface, infiltrates into soils, recharges groundwater, discharges into
streams, flows out into the oceans, and ultimately evaporates again from the ocean or land surface.
The various systems involved in the hydrological cycle are usually referred to as hydrological
systems.
Ice sheet
A mass of land ice of continental size that is sufficiently thick to cover most of the underlying bed, so
that its shape is mainly determined by its dynamics (the flow of the ice as it deforms internally and/or
slides at its base). An ice sheet flows outward from a high central ice plateau with a small average
surface slope. The margins usually slope more steeply, and most ice is discharged through fast
flowing ice streams or outlet glaciers, in some cases into the sea or into ice shelves floating on the sea.
There are only two ice sheets in the modern world, one on Greenland and one on Antarctica. During
glacial periods there were others.
See also Glacier.
Impacts (consequences, outcomes)

The consequences of realized risks on natural and human systems, where risks result from the
interactions of climate-related hazards (including extreme weather and climate events), exposure, and
vulnerability. Impacts generally refer to effects on lives, livelihoods, health and wellbeing,
ecosystems and species, economic, social and cultural assets, services (including ecosystem services),
and infrastructure. Impacts may be referred to as consequences or outcomes, and can be adverse or
beneficial.
See also Adaptation, Exposure, Hazard, Loss and Damage, and loss and damages, and Vulnerability.
(climate change) Impact assessment

The practice of identifying and evaluating, in monetary and/or non-monetary terms, the effects of
climate change on natural and human systems.

Incremental adaptation
See Adaptation.
Indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge refers to the understandings, skills and philosophies developed by societies
with long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings. For many Indigenous peoples,
Indigenous knowledge informs decision-making about fundamental aspects of life, from day-to-day
activities to longer term actions. This knowledge is integral to cultural complexes, which also
encompass language, systems of classification, resource use practices, social interactions, values,
ritual and spirituality. These distinctive ways of knowing are important facets of the world’s cultural
diversity. This definition builds on UNESCO (2018).
Indirect land-use change

See Land-use change.
Industrial revolution
A period of rapid industrial growth with far-reaching social and economic consequences, beginning in
Britain during the second half of the 18th century and spreading to Europe and later to other countries
including the United States. The invention of the steam engine was an important trigger of this
development. The industrial revolution marks the beginning of a strong increase in the use of fossil
fuels, initially coal, and hence emission of carbon dioxide (CO2).
See also Pre-industrial.
Industrialized/developed/developing countries
There are a diversity of approaches for categorizing countries on the basis of their level of
development, and for defining terms such as industrialized, developed, or developing. Several
categorizations are used in this report. (1) In the United Nations system, there is no established
convention for designating of developed and developing countries or areas. (2) The United Nations
Statistics Division specifies developed and developing regions based on common practice. In
addition, specific countries are designated as Least Developed Countries (LCD), landlocked
developing countries, small island developing states, and transition economies. Many countries appear
in more than one of these categories. (3) The World Bank uses income as the main criterion for
classifying countries as low, lower middle, upper middle, and high income. (4) The UNDP aggregates
indicators for life expectancy, educational attainment, and income into a single composite Human
Development Index (HDI) to classify countries as low, medium, high, or very high human
development.
Inequality
See Equality.
Information and communication technology (ICT)

An umbrella term that includes any information and communication device or application,
encompassing: computer systems, network hardware and software, cellphone, etc.
Infrastructure commitment
Institution
Institutions are rules and norms held in common by social actors that guide, constrain and shape
human interaction. Institutions can be formal, such as laws and policies, or informal, such as norms
and conventions. Organizations - such as parliaments, regulatory agencies, private firms, and
community bodies - develop and act in response to institutional frameworks and the incentives they
frame. Institutions can guide, constrain and shape human interaction through direct control, through
incentives, and through processes of socialization.
See also Institutional capacity.
Institutional capacity
Institutional capacity comprises building and strengthening individual organisations and providing
technical and management training to support integrated planning and decision-making processes
between organisations and people, as well as empowerment, social capital, and an enabling
environment, including the culture, values and power relations (Willems and Baumert, 2003).
Integrated assessment
A method of analysis that combines results and models from the physical, biological, economic and
social sciences and the interactions among these components in a consistent framework to evaluate
the status and the consequences of environmental change and the policy responses to it.
See also Integrated assessment model (IAM).
Integrated assessment model (IAM)

Integrated assessment models (IAMs) integrate knowledge from two or more domains into a single
framework. They are one of the main tools for undertaking integrated assessments.
One class of IAM used in respect of climate change mitigation may include representations of:
multiple sectors of the economy, such as energy, land use and land use change; interactions between
sectors; the economy as a whole; associated GHG emissions and sinks; and reduced representations of
the climate system. This class of model is used to assess linkages between economic, social and
technological development and the evolution of the climate system.
Another class of IAM additionally includes representations of the costs associated with climate
change impacts, but includes less detailed representations of economic systems. These can be used to
assess impacts and mitigation in a cost-benefit framework and have been used to estimate the social
cost of carbon.
Integrated water resources management (IWRM)

A process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related
resources in order to maximise economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without
compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems.
Inter-generational equity
See Equity.
Inter-generational justice
See Justice.
Internal variability
See Climate variability.
Internet of Things (IoT)
The network of computing devices embedded in everyday objects such as cars, phones and
computers, connected via the internet, enabling them to send and receive data.
Iron fertilisation
See Ocean fertilisation.
Irreversibility
A perturbed state of a dynamical system is defined as irreversible on a given timescale, if the recovery
timescale from this state due to natural processes is substantially longer than the time it takes for the
system to reach this perturbed state.
See also Tipping point.
Justice
Justice is concerned with ensuring that people get what is due to them setting out the moral or legal
principles of fairness and equity in the way people are treated, often based on the ethics and values of
society.
Climate justice
Justice that links development and human rights to achieve a human-centred approach to addressing
climate change, safeguarding the rights of the most vulnerable people and sharing the burdens and
benefits of climate change and its impacts equitably and fairly. This definitions builds upon the one
used by the Mary Robinson Foundation - Climate Justice.
Distributive justice
Justice in the allocation of economic and non-economic costs and benefits across society.
Inter-generational justice
Justice in the distribution of economic and non-economic costs and benefits across generations.
Procedural justice
Justice in the way outcomes are brought about including who participates and is heard in the
processes of decision making.
Social justice
Just or fair relations within society that seek to address the distribution of wealth, access to resources,
opportunity, and support according to principles of justice and fairness.
See also Equity, Ethics, Fairness, and Human rights.

Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is
an international treaty adopted in December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, at the Third Session of the
Conference of the Parties (COP3) to the UNFCCC. It contains legally binding commitments, in
addition to those included in the UNFCCC. Countries included in Annex B of the Protocol (mostly
OECD countries and countries with economies in transition) agreed to reduce their anthropogenic
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)) by at least 5%
below 1990 levels in the first commitment period (2008-2012). The Kyoto Protocol entered into force
on 16 February 2005 and as of May 2018 had 192 Parties (191 States and the European Union). A
second commitment period was agreed in December 2012 at COP18, known as the Doha Amendment
to the Kyoto Protocol, in which a new set of Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least
18% below 1990 levels in the period from 2013 to 2020. However, as of May 2018, the Doha
Amendment had not received sufficient ratifications to enter into force.
See also United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and Paris
Agreement.
Land surface air temperature

The near-surface air temperature over land, typically measured at 1.25-2 m above the ground using
standard meteorological equipment.
Land use
Land use refers to the total of arrangements, activities and inputs undertaken in a certain land cover
type (a set of human actions). The term land use is also used in the sense of the social and economic
purposes for which land is managed (e.g., grazing, timber extraction, conservation and city dwelling).
In national greenhouse gas inventories, land use is classified according to the IPCC land use
categories of forest land, cropland, grassland, wetland, settlements, other.
See also Land-use change.
Land-use change (LUC)

Land-use change involves a change from one land use category to another.
Indirect land-use change (iLUC)

Refers to market-mediated or policy-driven shifts in land use that cannot be directly attributed to land
use management decisions of individuals or groups. For example, if agricultural land is diverted to
fuel production, forest clearance may occur elsewhere to replace the former agricultural production.
Land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF)

In the context of national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories under the UNFCCC, LULUCF is a GHG
inventory sector that covers anthropogenic emissions and removals of GHG from carbon pools in
managed lands, excluding non-CO2 agricultural emissions. Following the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for
National GHG Inventories, “anthropogenic” land-related GHG fluxes are defined as all those
occurring on “managed land”, i.e., “where human interventions and practices have been applied to
perform production, ecological or social functions”. Since managed land may include CO2 removals
not considered as “anthropogenic” in some of the scientific literature assessed in this report (e.g.,
removals associated with CO2 fertilisation and N deposition), the land-related net GHG emission
estimates included in this report are not necessarily directly comparable with LULUCF estimates in
National GHG Inventories.
See also Afforestation, Deforestation, Reforestation and the IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-
Use Change, and Forestry (IPCC, 2000).
Land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF)

See Land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF).
Lifecycle assessment (LCA)

Compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a
product or service throughout its life cycle. This definition builds from ISO (2018).
Likelihood
The chance of a specific outcome occurring, where this might be estimated probabilistically.
Likelihood is expressed in this report using a standard terminology (Mastrandrea et al., 2010). See
Section 1.6 for the list of likelihood qualifiers used.
See also Agreement, Evidence, Confidence, and Uncertainty.
Livelihood
The resources used and the activities undertaken in order to live. Livelihoods are usually determined
by the entitlements and assets to which people have access. Such assets can be categorised as human,
social, natural, physical, or financial.
Local knowledge
Local knowledge refers to the understandings and skills developed by individuals and populations,
specific to the places where they live. Local knowledge informs decision-making about fundamental
aspects of life, from day-to-day activities to longer term actions. This knowledge is a key element of
the social and cultural systems which influence observations of, and responses to climate change; it
also informs governance decisions. This definition builds on UNESCO (2018)
Lock-in
A situation in which the future development of a system, including infrastructure, technologies,
investments, institutions, and behavioural norms, is determined or constrained (“locked in”) by
historic developments.
Long-lived climate forcers (LLCF)

Long-lived climate forcers refer to a set of well-mixed greenhouse gases with long atmospheric
lifetimes. This set of compounds includes carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide, together with some
fluorinated gases. They have a warming effect on climate. These compounds accumulate in the
atmosphere at decadal to centennial timescales, and their effect on climate hence persists for decades
to centuries after their emission. On timescales of decades to a century already emitted emissions of
long-lived climate forcers can only be abated by greenhouse gas removal (GGR).
See also Short-lived climate forcers (SLCF).
Loss and Damage, and losses and damages

Research has taken Loss and Damage (capitalized letters) to refer to political debate under the
UNFCCC following the establishment of the Warsaw Mechanism on Loss and Damage in 2013,
which is to “address loss and damage associated with impacts of climate change, including extreme
events and slow onset events, in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse
effects of climate change.” Lowercase letters (losses and damages) have been taken to refer broadly to
harm from (observed) impacts and (projected) risks (see Mechler et al., 2018).
Maladaptive actions (Maladaptation)

Actions that may lead to increased risk of adverse climate-related outcomes, including via increased
GHG emissions, increased vulnerability to climate change, or diminished welfare, now or in the
future. Maladaptation is usually an unintended consequence.
Market exchange rates (MER)

The rate at which a currency of one country can be exchanged with the currency of another country.
In most economies such rates evolve daily while in others there are official conversion rates that are
adjusted periodically.
See also Purchasing power parity (PPP).
Market failure
When private decisions are based on market prices that do not reflect the real scarcity of goods and
services but rather reflect market distortions, they do not generate an efficient allocation of resources
but cause welfare losses. A market distortion is any event in which a market reaches a market clearing
price that is substantially different from the price that a market would achieve while operating under
conditions of perfect competition and state enforcement of legal contracts and the ownership of
private property. Examples of factors causing market prices to deviate from real economic scarcity are
environmental externalities, public goods, monopoly power, information asymmetry, transaction
costs, and non-rational behaviour.
Measurement, reporting and verification (MRV)
Measurement
“The process of data collection over time, providing basic datasets, including associated accuracy and
precision, for the range of relevant variables. Possible data sources are field measurements, field
observations, detection through remote sensing and interviews.” Source: UN REDD
Reporting
“The process of formal reporting of assessment results to the UNFCCC, according to predetermined
formats and according to established standards, especially the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) Guidelines and GPG (Good Practice Guidance).” Source: UN REDD
Verification
“The process of formal verification of reports, for example, the established approach to verify national
communications and national inventory reports to the UNFCCC.” Source: UN REDD
Megadrought
See Drought.

Methane (CH4)
One of the six greenhouse gases (GHGs) to be mitigated under the Kyoto Protocol and is the major
component of natural gas and associated with all hydrocarbon fuels. Significant emissions occur as a
result of animal husbandry and agriculture and their management represents a major mitigation
option.
Migration
The International Organization for Migration (IOM) defines migration as “The movement of a person
or a group of persons, either across an international border, or within a State. It is a population
movement, encompassing any kind of movement of people, whatever its length, composition and
causes; it includes migration of refugees, displaced persons, economic migrants, and persons moving
for other purposes, including family reunification.” (IOM, 2018).
Migrant
The International Organization for Migration (IOM) defines a migrant as “any person who is moving
or has moved across an international border or within a State away from his/her habitual place of
residence, regardless of (1) the person’s legal status; (2) whether the movement is voluntary or
involuntary; (3) what the causes for the movement are; or (4) what the length of the stay is.” (IOM,
2018).
See also (Internal) Displacement.
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

A set of eight time-bound and measurable goals for combating poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy,
discrimination against women and environmental degradation. These goals were agreed at the UN
Millennium Summit in 2000 together with an action plan to reach the goals by 2015.
Mitigation (of climate change)

A human intervention to reduce emissions or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases. Note that this
encompasses carbon dioxide removal (CDR) options.
Mitigation behaviour
See Human behaviour.
Mitigation measures
In climate policy, mitigation measures are technologies, processes or practices that contribute to
mitigation, for example renewable energy (RE) technologies, waste minimization processes, public
transport commuting practices.
See also Policies (for mitigation and adaptation).
Mitigation option
A technology or practice that reduces GHG emissions or enhances sinks.
Mitigation pathways
See Pathways.
Mitigation scenario
A plausible description of the future that describes how the (studied) system responds to the
implementation of mitigation policies and measures.
See also Emission scenario, Pathways, Socio-economic scenarios, and Stabilisation (of GHG or CO2-
equivalent concentration).
Monitoring and evaluation (M&E)

Monitoring and evaluation refers to mechanisms put in place at national to local scales to respectively
monitor and evaluate efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and/or adapt to the impacts of
climate change with the aim of systematically identifying, characterizing and assessing progress over
time.
Motivation (of an individual)

An individual’s reason or reasons for acting in a particular way; individuals may consider various
consequences of actions, including financial, social, affective, and environmental consequences.
Motivation can arise from outside (extrinsic) or inside (intrinsic) the individual.
Multi-level governance
See Governance.
Narratives
Qualitative descriptions of plausible future world evolutions, describing the characteristics, general
logic and developments underlying a particular quantitative set of scenarios. Narratives are also
referred to in the literature as “storylines”.
See also Scenario, Scenario storyline and Pathways.
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)

A term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
whereby a country that has joined the Paris Agreement outlines its plans for reducing its emissions.
Some countries NDCs also address how they will adapt to climate change impacts, and what support
they need from, or will provide to, other countries to adopt low-carbon pathways and to build climate
resilience. According to Article 4 paragraph 2 of the Paris Agreement, each Party shall prepare,
communicate and maintain successive NDCs that it intends to achieve. In the lead up to 21st
Conference of the Parties in Paris in 2015, countries submitted Intended Nationally Determined
Contributions (INDCs). As countries join the Paris Agreement, unless they decide otherwise, this
INDC becomes their first Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC).
See also United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and Paris
agreement.
Negative emissions
Removal of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from the atmosphere by deliberate human activities, i.e. in
addition to the removal that would occur via natural carbon cycle processes. For CO2, negative
emissions can be achieved with direct capture of CO2 from ambient air, bioenergy with carbon
capture and sequestration (BECCS), afforestation, reforestation, biochar, ocean alkalinization, among
others.
See also Net negative emissions, Net-zero emissions, Carbon dioxide removal (CDR), and
Greenhouse gas removal (GGR).
Net negative emissions

A situation of net negative emissions is achieved when, as result of human activities, more
greenhouse gases are removed from the atmosphere than are emitted into it. Where multiple
greenhouse gases are involved, the quantification of negative emissions depends on the climate metric
chosen to compare emissions of different gases (such as Global warming potential, Global
temperature change potential, and others, as well as the chosen time horizon).
See also Negative emissions, Net-zero emissions and Net-zero CO2 emissions.
Net-zero CO2 emissions

Conditions in which any remaining anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are balanced
globally by anthropogenic CO2 removals. Net-zero CO2 emissions are also referred to as carbon
neutrality.
See also Net-zero emissions, Carbon neutrality and Net negative emissions.
Net-zero emissions
Net-zero emissions are achieved when emissions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere are balanced
by anthropogenic removals. Where multiple greenhouse gases are involved, the quantification of net-
zero emissions depends on the climate metric chosen to compare emissions of different gases (such as
Global warming potential, global temperature change potential, and others, as well as the chosen time
horizon).
See also Net-zero CO2 emissions, Negative emissions, Net negative emission, and Carbon neutrality
Nitrous oxide (N2O)

One of the six greenhouse gases (GHGs) to be mitigated under the Kyoto Protocol. The main
anthropogenic source of N2O is agriculture (soil and animal manure management), but important
contributions also come from sewage treatment, fossil fuel combustion, and chemical industrial
processes. N2O is also produced naturally from a wide variety of biological sources in soil and water,
particularly microbial action in wet tropical forests.
Non-overshoot pathways
See Pathways.
Ocean acidification (OA)

Ocean acidification refers to a reduction in the pH of the ocean over an extended period, typically
decades or longer, which is caused primarily by uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere,
but can also be caused by other chemical additions or subtractions from the ocean. Anthropogenic
ocean acidification refers to the component of pH reduction that is caused by human activity (IPCC,

2011, p. 37).
Ocean fertilisation
Deliberate increase of nutrient supply to the near-surface ocean in order to enhance biological
production through which additional carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is sequestered. This can be
achieved by the addition of micro-nutrients or macro-nutrients. Ocean fertilisation is regulated by the
London Protocol.
Overshoot
The temporary exceedance of a specified level of global warming, such as 1.5°C. Overshoot implies a
peak followed by a decline in global warming, achieved through anthropogenic removal of CO2
exceeding remaining CO2 emissions globally.
See also Pathways (Subterms: Overshoot pathways, Non-overshoot Pathways).
Overshoot pathways
See Pathways.
Ozone (O3)
Ozone, the triatomic form of oxygen (O3), is a gaseous atmospheric constituent. In the troposphere, it
is created both naturally and by photochemical reactions involving gases resulting from human
activities (smog). Tropospheric ozone acts as a greenhouse gas. In the stratosphere, it is created by the
interaction between solar ultraviolet radiation and molecular oxygen (O2). Stratospheric ozone plays a
dominant role in the stratospheric radiative balance. Its concentration is highest in the ozone layer.
Paris Agreement
The Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) was adopted on December 2015 in Paris, France, at the 21st session of the Conference of
the Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC. The agreement, adopted by 196 Parties to the UNFCCC, entered
into force on 4 November 2016 and as of May 2018 had 195 Signatories and was ratified by 177
Parties. One of the goals of the Paris Agreement is “Holding the increase in the global average
temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the
temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels”, recognising that this would significantly
reduce the risks and impacts of climate change. Additionally, the Agreement aims to strengthen the
ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change. The Paris Agreement is intended to
become fully effective in 2020.
See also United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Kyoto Protocol, and
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
Participatory governance
See Governance.
Pathways
The temporal evolution of natural and/or human systems towards a future state. Pathway concepts
range from sets of quantitative and qualitative scenarios or narratives of potential futures to solution-
oriented decision-making processes to achieve desirable societal goals. Pathway approaches typically

focus on biophysical, techno-economic, and/or socio-behavioural trajectories and involve various

dynamics, goals, and actors across different scales.
1.5°C-consistent pathway
A pathway of emissions of greenhouse gases and other climate forcers that provides an approximately
one-in-two to two-in-three chance, given current knowledge of the climate response, of global
warming either remaining below 1.5°C or returning to 1.5°C by around 2100 following an overshoot.
Adaptation pathways
A series of adaptation choices involving trade-offs between short-term and long-term goals and
values. These are processes of deliberation to identify solutions that are meaningful to people in the
context of their daily lives and to avoid potential maladaptation.
Development pathways
Development pathways are trajectories based on an array of social, economic, cultural, technological,
institutional, and biophysical features that characterise the interactions between human and natural
systems and outline visions for the future, at a particular scale.
Mitigation pathways
A mitigation pathway is a temporal evolution of a set of mitigation scenario features, such as
greenhouse gas emissions and socio-economic development.
Overshoot pathways
Pathways that exceed the stabilization level (concentration, forcing, or temperature) before the end of
a time horizon of interest (e.g., before 2100) and then decline towards that level by that time. Once the
target level is exceeded, removal by sinks of greenhouse gases is required.
See also Overshoot.
Non-overshoot pathways
Pathways that stay below the stabilization level (concentration, forcing, or temperature) during the
time horizon of interest (e.g., until 2100).
Representative concentration pathways (RCPs)

Scenarios that include time series of emissions and concentrations of the full suite of greenhouse
gases (GHGs) and aerosols and chemically active gases, as well as land use/land cover (Moss et al.,
2008). The word representative signifies that each RCP provides only one of many possible scenarios
that would lead to the specific radiative forcing characteristics. The term pathway emphasizes the fact
that not only the long-term concentration levels, but also the trajectory taken over time to reach that
outcome are of interest (Moss et al., 2010). RCPs were used to develop climate projections in CMIP5.
RCP2.6
One pathway where radiative forcing peaks at approximately 3 W m-2 and then declines to be limited
at 2.6 W m-2 in 2100 (the corresponding Extended Concentration Pathway, or ECP, has constant
emissions after 2100).
RCP4.5 and RCP6.0

Two intermediate stabilisation pathways in which radiative forcing is limited at approximately 4.5 W
m-2 and 6.0 W m-2 in 2100 (the corresponding ECPs have constant concentrations after 2150).
RCP8.5
One high pathway which leads to >8.5 W m-2 in 2100 (the corresponding ECP has constant emissions
after 2100 until 2150 and constant concentrations after 2250).
See also CMIP, and Shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs).
Shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs)

Shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs) were developed to complement the RCPs with varying
socio-economic challenges to adaptation and mitigation (O’Neill et al., 2014). Based on five
narratives, the SSPs describe alternative socio-economic futures in the absence of climate policy
intervention, comprising sustainable development (SSP1), regional rivalry (SSP3), inequality (SSP4),
fossil–fueled development (SSP5), and a middle-of-the-road development (SSP2) (O’Neill, 2000;
O’Neill et al., 2017; Riahi et al., 2017). The combination of SSP-based socio-economic scenarios and
Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP)-based climate projections provides an integrative frame
for climate impact and policy analysis.
Transformation pathways
Trajectories describing consistent sets of possible futures of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,
atmospheric concentrations, or global mean surface temperatures implied from mitigation and
adaptation actions associated with a set of broad and irreversible economic, technological, societal,
and behavioural changes. This can encompass changes in the way energy and infrastructure are used
and produced, natural resources are managed and institutions are set up and in the pace and direction
of technological change (TC).
See also Scenario, Scenario storyline, Emission scenario, Mitigation scenario, Baseline scenario,
Stabilisation (of GHG or CO2-equivalent concentration), and Narratives.
Peri-urban areas
Peri-urban areas are those parts of a city that appear to be quite rural but are in reality strongly linked
functionally to the city in its daily activities.
Permafrost
Ground (soil or rock and included ice and organic material) that remains at or below 0°C for at least
two consecutive years.
pH
pH is a dimensionless measure of the acidity of a solution given by its concentration of hydrogen ions
([H+]). pH is measured on a logarithmic scale where pH = -log10[H+]. Thus, a pH decrease of 1 unit
corresponds to a 10-fold increase in the concentration of H+, or acidity.
Policies (for climate change mitigation and adaptation)

Policies are taken and/or mandated by a government - often in conjunction with business and industry
within a single country, or collectively with other countries - to accelerate mitigation and adaptation
measures. Examples of policies are support mechanisms for renewable energy supplies, carbon or
energy taxes, fuel efficiency standards for automobiles, etc.
Political economy
The set of interlinked relationships between people, the state, society and markets as defined by law,
politics, economics, customs and power that determine the outcome of trade and transactions and the
distribution of wealth in a country or economy.

Poverty
Poverty is a complex concept with several definitions stemming from different schools of thought. It
can refer to material circumstances (such as need, pattern of deprivation or limited resources),
economic conditions (such as standard of living, inequality or economic position) and/or social
relationships (such as social class, dependency, exclusion, lack of basic security or lack of
entitlement).
See also Poverty eradication.

Poverty eradication
A set of measures to end poverty in all its forms everywhere.
See also Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Precursors
Atmospheric compounds that are not greenhouse gases (GHGs) or aerosols, but that have an effect on
GHG or aerosol concentrations by taking part in physical or chemical processes regulating their
production or destruction rates.
See also Aerosol, and Greenhouse gas (GHG).
Pre-industrial
The multi-century period prior to the onset of large-scale industrial activity. The reference period
1850-1900 is used to approximate pre-industrial global mean surface temperature (GMST) in this
report.
See also Industrial revolution.
Procedural equity
See Equity.
Procedural justice
See Justice.
Procedural rights
See Human rights.
Projection
A projection is a potential future evolution of a quantity or set of quantities, often computed with the
aid of a model. Unlike predictions, projections are conditional on assumptions concerning, for
example, future socio-economic and technological developments that may or may not be realized.
See also Climate projection, Scenario, and Pathways.
Purchasing power parity (PPP)

The purchasing power of a currency is expressed using a basket of goods and services that can be
bought with a given amount in the home country. International comparison of, for example, gross
domestic products (GDP) of countries can be based on the purchasing power of currencies rather than
on current exchange rates. PPP estimates tend to lower the gap between the per capita GDP in
industrialised and developing countries.
See also Market exchange rate (MER).
Radiative forcing
Radiative forcing is the change in the net, downward minus upward, radiative flux (expressed in W m-
2
) at the tropopause or top of atmosphere due to a change in an driver of climate change, such as a
change in the concentration of carbon dioxide or the output of the Sun. The traditional radiative
forcing is computed with all tropospheric properties held fixed at their unperturbed values, and after
allowing for stratospheric temperatures, if perturbed, to readjust to radiative-dynamical equilibrium.
Radiative forcing is called instantaneous if no change in stratospheric temperature is accounted for.
The radiative forcing once rapid adjustments are accounted for is termed the effective radiative
forcing. Radiative forcing is not to be confused with cloud radiative forcing, which describes an
unrelated measure of the impact of clouds on the radiative flux at the top of the atmosphere.
Reasons for concern (RFCs)

Elements of a classification framework, first developed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report, which
aims to facilitate judgments about what level of climate change may be dangerous (in the language of
Article 2 of the UNFCCC) by aggregating risks from various sectors, considering hazards, exposures,
vulnerabilities, capacities to adapt, and the resulting impacts.
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)

An effort to create financial value for the carbon stored in forests, offering incentives for developing
countries to reduce emissions from forested lands and invest in low-carbon paths to sustainable
development (SD). It is therefore a mechanism for mitigation that results from avoiding deforestation.
REDD+ goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation, and includes the role of conservation,
sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. The concept was first
introduced in 2005 in the 11th Session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) in Montreal and later
given greater recognition in the 13th Session of the COP in 2007 at Bali and inclusion in the Bali
Action Plan which called for 'policy approaches and positive incentives on issues relating to reducing
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (REDD) and the role of
conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stock in
developing countries'. Since then, support for REDD has increased and has slowly become a
framework for action supported by a number of countries.
Reference period
The period relative to which anomalies are computed.
See also Anomalies.
Reference scenario
See Baseline scenario.

Reforestation
Planting of forests on lands that have previously contained forests but that have been converted to
some other use. [Footnote: For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation,
reforestation and deforestation, see the IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change, and
Forestry (IPCC, 2000), information provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC, 2013), the report on Definitions and Methodological Options to
Inventory Emissions from Direct Human-induced Degradation of Forests and Devegetation of Other
Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003).]
See also Deforestation, and Afforestation, and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Region
A region is a relatively large-scale land or ocean area characterized by specific geographical and
climatological features. The climate of a land-based region is affected by regional and local scale
features like topography, land use characteristics and large water bodies, as well as remote influences
from other regions, in addition to global climate conditions. The IPCC defines a set of standard
regions for analyses of observed climate trends and climate model projections (see Fig. 3.2; AR5,
SREX).
Remaining carbon budget

Cumulative global CO2 emissions from the start of 2018 to the time that CO2 emissions reach net-zero
that would result in a given level of global warming.
See also Carbon budget.
Representative concentration pathways (RCPs)

See Pathways
Resilience
The capacity of social, economic and environmental systems to cope with a hazardous event or trend
or disturbance, responding or reorganising in ways that maintain their essential function, identity and
structure, while also maintaining the capacity for adaptation, learning and transformation.[Footnote:
This definition builds from the definition used by Arctic Council (2013).]
See also Hazard, Risk, and Vulnerability.
Risk
The potential for adverse consequences where something of value is at stake and where the
occurrence and degree of an outcome is uncertain. In the context of the assessment of climate impacts,
the term risk is often used to refer to the potential for adverse consequences of a climate-related
hazard, or of adaptation or mitigation responses to such a hazard, on lives, livelihoods, health and
wellbeing, ecosystems and species, economic, social and cultural assets, services
(including ecosystem services), and infrastructure. Risk results from the interaction of vulnerability
(of the affected system), its exposure over time (to the hazard), as well as the (climate-related) hazard
and the likelihood of its occurrence.

Risk assessment
The qualitative and/or quantitative scientific estimation of risks.
See also Risk, Risk management, and Risk perception.
Risk management
Plans, actions, strategies or policies to reduce the likelihood and/or consequences of risks or to
respond to consequences.
See also Risk, Risk assessment, and Risk perception.
Risk perception
The subjective judgment that people make about the characteristics and severity of a risk.
See also Risk, Risk assessment, and Risk management.
Runoff
The flow of water over the surface or through the subsurface, which typically originates from the part
of liquid precipitation and/or snow/ice melt that does not evaporate or refreeze, and is not transpired.
See also Hydrological cycle.
Scenario
A plausible description of how the future may develop based on a coherent and internally consistent
set of assumptions about key driving forces (e.g., rate of technological change (TC), prices) and
relationships. Note that scenarios are neither predictions nor forecasts, but are used to provide a view
of the implications of developments and actions.
See also Baseline scenario, Emission scenario, Mitigation scenario and Pathways.
Scenario storyline
A narrative description of a scenario (or family of scenarios), highlighting the main scenario
characteristics, relationships between key driving forces and the dynamics of their evolution. Also
referred to as ‘narratives’ in the scenario literature.
See also Narratives.
Sea ice
Ice found at the sea surface that has originated from the freezing of seawater. Sea ice may be
discontinuous pieces (ice floes) moved on the ocean surface by wind and currents (pack ice), or a
motionless sheet attached to the coast (land-fast ice). Sea ice concentration is the fraction of the ocean
covered by ice. Sea ice less than one year old is called first-year ice. Perennial ice is sea ice that
survives at least one summer. It may be subdivided into second-year ice and multi-year ice, where
multiyear ice has survived at least two summers.
Sea level change (sea level rise/sea level fall)

Sea level can change, both globally and locally (relative sea level change) due to (1) a change in
ocean volume as a result of a change in the mass of water in the ocean, (2) changes in ocean volume
as a result of changes in ocean water density, (3) changes in the shape of the ocean basins and changes
in the Earth’s gravitational and rotational fields, and (4) local subsidence or uplift of the land. Global
mean sea level change resulting from change in the mass of the ocean is called barystatic. The amount
of barystatic sea level change due to the addition or removal of a mass of water is called its sea level
equivalent (SLE). Sea level changes, both globally and locally, resulting from changes in water
density are called steric. Density changes induced by temperature changes only are called
thermosteric, while density changes induced by salinity changes are called halosteric. Barystatic and
steric sea level changes do not include the effect of changes in the shape of ocean basins induced by
the change in the ocean mass and its distribution.
Sea surface temperature (SST)

The sea surface temperature is the subsurface bulk temperature in the top few meters of the ocean,
measured by ships, buoys, and drifters. From ships, measurements of water samples in buckets were
mostly switched in the 1940s to samples from engine intake water. Satellite measurements of skin
temperature (uppermost layer; a fraction of a millimeter thick) in the infrared or the top centimeter or
so in the microwave are also used, but must be adjusted to be compatible with the bulk temperature.
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 outlines seven clear targets and four
priorities for action to prevent new, and to reduce existing disaster risks. The voluntary, non-binding
agreement recognizes that the State has the primary role to reduce disaster risk but that responsibility
should be shared with other stakeholders including local government, the private sector and other
stakeholders, with the aim for the substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods
and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons,
businesses, communities and countries.
Sequestration
See Uptake.
Shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs)

See Pathways.
Short-lived climate forcers (SLCF)

Short-lived climate forcers refers to a set of compounds that are primarily composed of those with
short lifetimes in the atmosphere compared to well-mixed greenhouse gases, and are also referred to
as near-term climate forcers. This set of compounds includes methane, which is also a well-mixed
greenhouse gas, as well as ozone and aerosols, or their precursors, and some halogenated species that
are not well-mixed greenhouse gases. These compounds do not accumulate in the atmosphere at
decadal to centennial timescales, and so their effect on climate is predominantly in the first decade
after their emission, although their changes can still induce long-term climate effects such as sea-level
change. Their effect can be cooling or warming. A subset of exclusively warming short-lived climate
forcers is referred to as short-lived climate pollutants.
See also Long-lived climate forcers (LLCF).

Short-lived climate pollutants (SLCP)

See Short-lived climate forcers (SLCF).
Sink
A reservoir (natural or human, in soil, ocean, and plants) where a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a
precursor of a greenhouse gas is stored. Note that UNFCCC Article 1.8 refers to a sink as any process,
activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas
from the atmosphere.
See also Sequestration, and Uptake.
Small Island Developing States (SIDS)

Small Island Developing States (SIDS), as recognised by the United Nations OHRLLS (Office of the
High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small
Island Developing States), are a distinct group of developing countries facing specific social,
economic and environmental vulnerabilities (UN-OHRLLS, 2011). They were recognized as a special
case both for their environment and development at the Rio Earth Summit in Brazil in 1992. Fifty
eight countries and territories are presently classified as SIDS by the UN OHRLLS, with 38 being UN
member states and 20 being Non-UN Members or Associate Members of the Regional Commissions
(UN-OHRLLS, 2018).
Social costs
The full costs of an action in terms of social welfare losses, including external costs associated with
the impacts of this action on the environment, the economy (GDP, employment) and on the society as
a whole.
Social cost of carbon (SCC)

The net present value of aggregate climate damages (with overall harmful damages expressed as a
number with positive sign) from one more tonne of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2),
conditional on a global emissions trajectory over time.
Social inclusion
A process of improving the terms of participation in society, particularly for people who are
disadvantaged, through enhancing opportunities, access to resources, and respect for rights (UN,
2016).
Social justice
See Justice.
Social learning
A process of social interaction through which people learn new behaviours, capacities, values, and
attitudes.
Social value of mitigation activities (SVMA)

Social, economic and environmental value of mitigation activities that include, in addition to their
climate benefits, their co-benefits to adaptation and sustainable development objectives.
Social-ecological systems
An integrated system that includes human societies and ecosystems, in which humans are part of
nature. The functions of such a system arise from the interactions and interdependence of the social
and ecological subsystems. The system’s structure is characterized by reciprocal feedbacks,
emphasising that humans must be seen as a part of, not apart from, nature. [Footnote: This definition
builds from Arctic Council (2016) and Berkes and Folke (1998).]
Societal (social) transformation

See Transformation.
Socio-economic scenario
A scenario that describes a possible future in terms of population, gross domestic product (GDP), and
other socio-economic factors relevant to understanding the implications of climate change.
See also Reference scenario, Emission scenario, Mitigation scenario and Pathways.
Socio-technical transitions
Socio-technical transitions are where technological change is associated with social systems and the
two are inextricably linked.
Soil carbon sequestration (SCS)

Land management changes which increase the soil organic carbon content, resulting in a net removal
of CO2 from the atmosphere.
Soil moisture
Water stored in the soil in liquid or frozen form. Root-zone soil moisture is of most relevance for
plant activity.
Solar radiation management

See Solar radiation modification (SRM).
Solar radiation modification (SRM)

Solar radiation modification refers to the intentional modification of the Earth's shortwave radiative
budget with the aim of reducing warming. Artificial injection of stratospheric aerosols, marine cloud
brightening and land surface albedo modification are examples of proposed SRM methods. SRM does
not fall within the definitions of mitigation and adaptation (IPCC, 2012b, p. 2). Note that in the
literature SRM is also referred to as solar radiation management or albedo enhancement.
Stabilisation (of GHG or CO2-equivalent concentration)

A state in which the atmospheric concentrations of one greenhouse gas (GHG) (e.g., carbon dioxide)
or of a CO2-equivalent basket of GHGs (or a combination of GHGs and aerosols) remains constant
over time.
Stranded assets
Assets exposed to devaluations or conversion to ‘liabilities’ because of unanticipated changes in their
initially expected revenues due to innovations and/or evolutions of the business context, including
changes in public regulations at the domestic and international levels.
Stratosphere
The highly stratified region of the atmosphere above the troposphere extending from about 10 km
(ranging from 9 km at high latitudes to 16 km in the tropics on average) to about 50 km altitude.
See also Atmosphere, and Troposphere.
Subnational actor
Subnational actors include state/provincial, regional, metropolitan and local/municipal governments
as well as non-party stakeholders, such as civil society, the private sector, cities and other subnational
authorities, local communities and indigenous peoples.
Substantive rights
See Human rights.
Supply-side measures
See Demand and supply-side measures.
Surface temperature
See Global mean surface temperature (GMST), Land surface air temperature, and Sea surface
temperature (SST).
Sustainability
A dynamic process that guarantees the persistence of natural and human systems in an equitable
manner.
Sustainable development (SD)

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987) and balances social, economic and environmental
concerns.
See also Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Development pathways (under Pathways).
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The 17 global goals for development for all countries established by the United Nations through a
participatory process and elaborated in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, including
ending poverty and hunger; ensuring health and wellbeing, education, gender equality, clean water
and energy, and decent work; building and ensuring resilient and sustainable infrastructure, cities and
consumption; reducing inequalities; protecting land and water ecosystems; promoting peace, justice
and partnerships; and taking urgent action on climate change.
See also Sustainable development (SD).
SDG-interaction score
A seven-point scale (Nilsson et al., 2016) used to rate interactions between mitigation options and the
SDGs. Scores range from +3 (indivisible) to -3 (cancelling), with a zero score indicating ‘consistent’
but with neither a positive or negative interaction. The scale, as applied in this report, also includes:
direction (whether the interaction is uni- or bi-directional), and confidence as assessed per IPCC
guidelines.
Technology transfer
The exchange of knowledge, hardware and associated software, money and goods among
stakeholders, which leads to the spread of technology for adaptation or mitigation. The term
encompasses both diffusion of technologies and technological cooperation across and within
countries.
Tipping point
A level of change in system properties beyond which a system reorganizes, often abruptly, and does
not return to the initial state even if the drivers of the change are abated. For the climate system, it
refers to a critical threshold when global or regional climate changes from one stable state to another
stable state.
See also Irreversibility.
Transformation
A change in the fundamental attributes of natural and human systems.
Societal (social) transformation

A profound and often deliberate shift initiated by communities toward sustainability, facilitated by
changes in individual and collective values and behaviours, and a fairer balance of political, cultural,
and institutional power in society.
Transformation pathways
See Pathways.
Transformational adaptation
See Adaptation.
Transformative change
A system wide change. This requires more than technological change to consideration of social and
economic factors that with technology can bring about rapid change at scale.

Transient climate response

Transient climate response to cumulative CO2 emissions (TCRE)

The transient global average surface temperature change per unit cumulative CO2 emissions, usually
1000 GtC. TCRE combines both information on the airborne fraction of cumulative CO2 emissions
(the fraction of the total CO2 emitted that remains in the atmosphere, which is determined by carbon
cycle processes) and on the transient climate response (TCR).
See also Transient climate response (TCR) (under Climate sensitivity).
Transit-oriented development (TOD)

An approach urban development that maximizes the amount of residential, business and leisure space
within walking distance of efficient public transport, so as to enhance mobility of citizens, the
viability of public transport and the value of urban land in mutually supporting ways.
Transition
The process of changing from one state or condition to another in a given period of time. Transition
can be in individuals, firms, cities, regions and nations, and can be based on incremental or
transformative change.
Tropical cyclone
The general term for a strong, cyclonic-scale disturbance that originates over tropical oceans.
Distinguished from weaker systems (often named tropical disturbances or depressions) by exceeding a
threshold wind speed. A tropical storm is a tropical cyclone with one-minute average
surface winds between 18 and 32 m s-1. Beyond 32 m s-1, a tropical cyclone is called a hurricane,
typhoon, or cyclone, depending on geographic location.
See also Extratropical cyclone.
Troposphere
The lowest part of the atmosphere, from the surface to about 10 km in altitude at mid-latitudes
(ranging from 9 km at high latitudes to 16 km in the tropics on average), where clouds and weather
phenomena occur. In the troposphere, temperatures generally decrease with height.
See also Atmosphere, and Stratosphere.
Uncertainty
A state of incomplete knowledge that can result from a lack of information or from disagreement
about what is known or even knowable. It may have many types of sources, from imprecision in the
data to ambiguously defined concepts or terminology, incomplete understanding of critical processes,
or uncertain projections of human behaviour. Uncertainty can therefore be represented by quantitative
measures (e.g., a probability density function) or by qualitative statements (e.g., reflecting the
judgment of a team of experts) (see IPCC, 2004; Mastrandrea et al., 2010; Moss and Schneider,
2000).

See also Confidence, and Likelihood.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

The UNFCCC was adopted in May 1992 and opened for signature at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro. It entered into force in March 1994 and as of May 2018 had 197 Parties (196 States and the
European Union). The Convention’s ultimate objective is the “stabilisation of greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference
with the climate system”. The provisions of the Convention are pursued and implemented by two
treaties: the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
See also Kyoto Protocol, and Paris Agreement.
Uptake
The addition of a substance of concern to a reservoir.
See also Carbon sequestration and Sink.
Vulnerability
The propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected. Vulnerability encompasses a variety of
concepts and elements including sensitivity or susceptibility to harm and lack of capacity to cope and
adapt.
See also Exposure, Hazard, and Risk.
Water cycle
See Hydrological cycle.
Wellbeing
A state of existence that fulfils various human needs, including material living conditions and quality
of life, as well as the ability to pursue one’s goals, to thrive, and feel satisfied with one’s life.
Ecosystem well-being refers to the ability of ecosystems to maintain their diversity and quality.
Zero emissions commitment


References
Arctic Council (2013). “Glossary of terms,” in Arctic Resilience Interim Report 2013 (Stockholm,
Sweden: Stockholm Environment Institute and Stockholm Resilience Centre), viii.
Arctic Council (2016). Arctic Resilience Report 2016. , eds. M. Carson and G. Peterson Stockholm
Sweden: Stockholm Environment Institute and Stockholm Resilience Centre.
Berkes, F., and Folke, C. (1998). Linking Social and Ecological Systems: Management Practices and
Social Mechanisms for Building Resilience. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Culwick, C., and Bobbins, K. (2016). A Framework for a Green Infrastructure Planning Approach in
the Gauteng City-Region. Johannesburg: GCRO.
FAO (2001). “Glossary,” in The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2001 (Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations (FAO)).
FAO (2013). Food wastage footprint. Impacts on natural resources. Summary Report. Rome, Italy:
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.
Fung, A and E.O Wright, 2003, Deepened Democracy: Institutional innovation in Empowered
Participatory Governance. Verso, London.
Helpman, E. (1998). General Purpose Technologies and Economic Growth. , ed. E. Helpman
Cambridge, MA, USA: MIT Press.
IBI (2018). Frequently Asked Questions About Biochar: What is biochar? Available at:
http://www.biochar-international.org/biochar/faqs#question1.
IOM (2018). Key Migration Terms. Available at: https://www.iom.int/key-migration-terms.
IPCC (2000). Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry: A Special Report of the IPCC. , eds. R. T.
Watson, I. R. Noble, B. Bolin, N. H. Ravindranath, D. J. Verardo, and D. J. Dokken Cambridge, UK.
IPCC (2003). Definitions and Methodological Options to Inventory Emissions from Direct Human-
induced Degradation of Forests and Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types. , eds. J. Penman, M.
Gytarsky, T. Hiraishi, T. Krug, D. Kruger, R. Pipatti, et al. Hayama, Kanagawa, Japan.
IPCC (2004). IPCC Workshop on Describing Scientific Uncertainties in Climate Change to Support
Analysis of Risk of Options. Workshop Report. , eds. M. R. Manning, M. Petit, D. Easterling, J.
Murphy, A. Patwardhan, H.-H. Rogner, et al. Geneva, Switzerland.

IPCC (2011). Workshop Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Workshop on
Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Biology and Ecosystems. , eds. C. B. Field, V. Barros, T.
F. Stocker, D. Qin, K. J. Mach, G.-K. Plattner, et al. Stanford, California, United States of America:
IPCC Working Group II Technical Support Unit, Carnegie Institution.
IPCC (2012a). Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change
Adaptation. A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. , eds. C. B. Field, V. Barros, T. F. Stocker, Q. Dahe, D. J. Dokken, K. L. Ebi, et al.
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press
doi:9781107607804.
IPCC (2012b). Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change
Adaptation. A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC). , eds. C. B. Field, V. Barros, T. F. Stocker, D. Qin, D. J. Dokken, K. L. Ebi, et al.
Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press.
ISO (2018). ISO 14044:2006. Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Requirements
and guidelines. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/38498.html [Accessed May 31, 2018].
Jagers, S. C., and Stripple, J. (2003). Climate Governance Beyond the State. Glob. Gov. 9, 385–399.
Mastrandrea, M. D., Field, C. B., Stocker, T. F., Edenhofer, O., Ebi, K. L., Frame, D. J., et al. (2010).
Guidance Note for Lead Authors of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report on Consistent Treatment of
Uncertainties. Geneva, Switzerland.
MEA (2005). “Appendix D: Glossary,” in Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current States and
Trends. Findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group, Vol. 1, eds. R. Hassan, R. Scholes,
and N. Ash (Washington DC, USA: Island Press), 893–900.
Mechler, R., Bouwer, L., Schinko, T., Surminski, S., and Linnerooth-Bayer, J. (2018). Loss and
Damage from Climate Change. Concepts, Methods and Policy Options. Springer Heidelberg.
Mitchell, T., and Maxwell, S. (2010). Defining climate compatible development.
Moss, R., Babiker, M., Brinkman, S., Calvo, E., Carter, T., Edmonds, J., et al. (2008). Towards new
scenarios for analysis of emissions, climate change, impacts and response strategies. Geneva,
Switzerland.
Moss, R. H., Edmonds, J. A., Hibbard, K. A., Manning, M. R., Rose, S. K., van Vuuren, D. P., et al.
(2010). The next generation of scenarios for climate change research and assessment. Nature 463,
747–756.
Moss, R., and Schneider, S. (2000). “Uncertainties in the IPCC TAR: Recommendations to Lead
Authors for More Consistent Assessment and Reporting,” in, eds. R. Pachauri, T. Taniguchi, and K.
Tanaka (Geneva, Switzerland), 33–51.
Nilsson, M., Griggs, D., and Visback, M. (2016). Map the interactions between Sustainable
Development Goals. Nature 534, 320–322. doi:10.1038/534320a.
O’Neill, B. (2000). The Jury is still out on global warming potentials. Clim. Change 44, 427–443.
doi:10.1023/A:1005582929198.

O’Neill, B. C., Kriegler, E., Ebi, K. L., Kemp-Benedict, E., Riahi, K., Rothman, D. S., et al. (2017).
The roads ahead: Narratives for shared socioeconomic pathways describing world futures in the 21st
century. Glob. Environ. Chang. 42, 169–180. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.01.004.
O’Neill, B. C., Kriegler, E., Riahi, K., Ebi, K. L., Hallegatte, S., Carter, T. R., et al. (2014). A new
scenario framework for climate change research: The concept of shared socioeconomic pathways.
Clim. Change 122, 387–400. doi:10.1007/s10584-013-0905-2.
Park, S. E., Marshall, N. A., Jakku, E., Dowd, A. M., Howden, S. M., Mendham, E., et al. (2012).
Informing adaptation responses to climate change through theories of transformation. Glob. Environ.
Chang. 22, 115–126. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.10.003.
Riahi, K., van Vuuren, D. P., Kriegler, E., Edmonds, J., O’Neill, B. C., Fujimori, S., et al. (2017). The
Shared Socioeconomic Pathways and their energy, land use, and greenhouse gas emissions
implications: An overview. Glob. Environ. Chang. 42, 153–168.
doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.05.009.
UN-OHRLLS (2011). Small Island Developing States: Small Islands Big(ger) Stakes. New York,
NY: Office for the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing
Countries and Small Island Developing States (UN-OHRLLS).
UN-OHRLLS (2018). Small Island Developing States: Country Profiles.
UN (1992). Convention on Biological Diversity - Article 2: Use of Terms.
UN (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. New York.
UN (2016). “Identifying social inclusion and exclusion,” in Leaving no one behind: the imperative of
inclusive development. Report on the World Social Situation 2016 ST/ESA/362. (New York, NY,
USA), 17–31.
UNCHR (1998). Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement.
UNESCO (2018). Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems. Available at:

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/priority-areas/links/related-information/what-is-local-
and-indigenous-knowledge/ [Accessed May 15, 2018].
UNFCCC (2013). Reporting and accounting of LULUCF activities under the Kyoto Protocol.
Available at: http://unfccc.int/methods/lulucf/items/4129.php.
UNISDR (2009). 2009 UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction. Geneva, Switzerland.
Willems, S., and Baumert, K. (2003). Institutional Capacity and Climate Actions. Paris, France.

IPCC Sr15 Glossary 2020

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

IPCC Sr15 Glossary 2020

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Approval Session Glossary IPCC SR1.

Coordinating Editor: J. B. Robin Matthews (UK)

Date of Draft: 4/06/18

Do Not Cite, Quote or Distribute 1-1 Total pages: 55

1.5°C-consistent emissions pathways

1.5°C warmer worlds

2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

See also Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Acceptability of policy or system change

Do Not Cite, Quote or Distribute 1-2 Total pages: 55

See also Adaptation, Adaptive capacity, and Maladaptive actions (Maladaptation).

See also Adaptation, Adaptation options, and Maladaptive actions (Maladaptation).

See also Evidence, Confidence, Likelihood, and Uncertainty.

See also Aerosol, and Short-lived climate forcers (SLCF).

Ambient persuasive technology

See also Reference period.

See also Holocene.

See also Anthropogenic emissions, and Anthropogenic removals.

See also Anthropogenic, and Anthropogenic removals.

Artificial intelligence (AI)

Atmosphere-ocean general circulation model (AOGCM)

See also Emission scenario, and Mitigation scenario.

See also Biomass and Biofuel.

Bioenergy with carbon dioxide capture and storage (BECCS)

See also Biomass, and Bioenergy.

See also Bioenergy, and Biofuel.

See also Green infrastructure.

Black carbon (BC)

See also Aerosol.

Burden sharing (also referred to as Effort sharing)

Business as usual (BAU)

See also Remaining carbon budget.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS)

Carbon dioxide capture and utilisation (CCU)

See also Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS).

Carbon dioxide capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS)

Carbon dioxide removal (CDR)

Do Not Cite, Quote or Distribute 1-8 Total pages: 55

See also Climate neutrality.

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

Climate-compatible development (CCD)

Climate change commitment

Constant composition commitment

Zero emissions commitment

Constant emissions commitment

Feasible scenario commitment

Climate extreme (extreme weather or climate event)

See also Extreme weather event.

See also Earth system model (ESM).

See also Carbon neutrality.

Climate-resilient development pathways (CRDPs)

Equilibrium climate sensitivity

Effective climate sensitivity

Transient climate response

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA)

See also Climate change.

Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC)

CO2 equivalent (CO2-eq) emission

Conference of the Parties (COP)

See also United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

See also Agreement, Evidence, Likelihood, and Uncertainty.

Constant composition commitment

Constant emissions commitment