2.

Biological Molecules
(Bio-molecules)
What is Biological molecules or bio-molecules?
• Molecules occurring naturally in
living cells.
• determine the structure and
functions of cells.

• the study of biological molecules

is ‘Molecular Biology’.
• All the bio-
molecules present in
cell cytoplasm are
collectively called
‘Cellular pool’.
Constituent elements
• Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N) are the
most important elements of biomolecules
• occupy around 99% of atoms present in these molecules
• Carbon is the principal element
Why?
• forms skeleton of organic bio-molecules
• many carbon atoms join together and
form long chain or ring like structure
• other groups of atoms attach to this
skeleton
Types of Biological molecules

Biological
Molecules

Organic Inorganic
biomolecules biomolecules
Carbohydrate protein
nucleic acid water
lipid
 Organic Bio-molecules

• further classified into two groups -

1. Micro-molecules: comparatively smaller and simpler
molecules.
• e.g. Monosaccharides, disaccharides, amino acid, fatty acid,
etc.
2. Macro-molecules: Larger bio-molecules with complex
structure
• There are three types of macromolecules in living
organisms, namely polysaccharide, polypeptide (protein)
and polynucleotide (nucleic acids).
• These are called 'polymers'.
• They are made up of many repeating subunits that are
similar to each other. These subunits are referred as
'monomers'.
• Process is polymerisation.
• Lipid is a macromolecule, but it is not considered as
polymer.
• It is made up of different types of simpler biochemicals.
Carbohydrates
What is carbohydrate?
• Saccharides (Gr. Saccharin = sugar)

• Contains Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

• The general formula is Cx(H2O)y

• each carbon atom in the molecule carries H and O in

ratio 2:1, similar to that of water (H2O) molecule

 ‘Hydrates of carbon’ = Carbohydrate

 Structure of carbohydrates

• Polyhydroxy alcohol: a compound that bears alcohol (-

OH) group attached to all the carbon atoms of its carbon
skeleton
• It is a aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydroxy
alcohol
• Aldose: Carbohydrate formed by replacing one of
the –OH group by aldehyde (- CHO) group.
 usually located at terminal position of C-
chain
 powerful reducing agents
• Ketose: Carbohydrate formed by replacing one of the –
OH group by Ketone (- C=O) group.
 This group is usually located at sub-terminal
position
Types of Carbohydrates
• According to the number of simple sugar monomer units

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides
• simple sugars and represented by only one sugar molecule

• cannot be degraded into further smaller sugar units

• Properties: crystal in form; soluble in water and sweet to

taste

• ‘reducing sugars’, as they readily reduce Cu++ to Cu+ ion

• consists of 3 to 7 carbon atoms

• based on the number of carbon atoms, they

may be trioses (3C), tetroses (4C), pentoses
(5C), hexoses (6C) and heptoses respectively.

• Common forms are pentose and hexose

• all the C-atoms except one have –OH group

attached Aldose Ketose

• Remaining part consists of either –CHO or

C=O group
• Pentose and hexose exists in open chain as well as ring forms

6 CH2OH
5 O

4 1
OH
OH
3 2 OH

OH
Alpha (α) and beta (β) isomers

CH2OH CH2OH
O O
OH
OH OH
OH OH OH
OH OH

 glucose  glucose
Molecular formula Structural formula

• (CH2O)n • Shows the arrangement

• Glucose – 6 C of the atoms

• (CH2O)6

• C6H12O6
Fructose
• Is a ketohexose.
• Forms a cyclic structure.

CH2OH
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH OH
C O O O
HO C H OH OH
H C OH OH CH2OH
H C OH OH OH
CH2OH
fructose α-fructose -fructose
Oligosaccharide
• the polymers of monosaccharides.
• They are sweet in taste and dissolve in water.
• Some of them are reducing sugars, where as others are non-
reducing.
• may contain 2 to 10 sugar molecules (monosaccharides).
• Monosaccharides are joined together by glycosidic bonds.
• e.g. disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides,
pentasaccharides, hexasaccharides and etc.
Disaccharide
• involves one pair of monosaccharides
• glucose is always present
• 2nd of the pair could be fructose, galactose or
another glucose molecule
• two monosaccharides combines by Condensation
reaction, rxn which involves the elimination of a
molecule of water.
• the bond thus formed is called glycosidic bond
• Water molecule is lost - dehydration synthesis
• The monosaccharide molecules linked by
glycosidic bond is called residues
• Three common examples are sucrose, lactose, and maltose

Monosaccharides Disaccharide
Glucose + glucose maltose + H2O
Glucose + galactose lactose + H2O
Glucose + fructose sucrose + H2O
Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides are composed of long chains of
monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic bonds.

• contain more than ten monosaccharide units

• They range in structure from linear to highly branched

• They are not sugar, and insoluble in water.

• results monosaccharides on hydrolysis

• Functions as food and energy store, and structural carbohydrate

• Storage polysaccharides – starch (plant) and glycogen (animal)

 Insoluble - do not affect osmotic and other chemical properties of
cell cytoplasm

 Compact molecule - energy derive by hydrolysis

• Structural polysaccharides – Cellulose, Chitin.

Starch
• Plant cells stores carbohydrate in the form of Starch
• insoluble in water
• Monomer : α-glucose
• hydrolysis by enzyme amylase
• Starch = Amylose (15–20%) + Amylopectin (80–85%).
Glycogen

• Storage polysaccharide of animal

and fungal cells
• monomer : α-glucose
• Stored at liver and muscle cells
Cellulose
• It is the principal structural component of plant cell wall
• It is unbranched polymer of β-glucose molecules.
• It is indigestible and has no important nutritional value.

• Enzymes digesting cellulose is – Cellulase

• Human does not produce enzyme

• Ruminant mammals like cow have bacteria in their gut

• Produces the enzyme

 Functions of Carbohydrate

• Sources of energy: The main function of carbohydrate is to

supply energy for the body processes. About sixty percent of
energy that we need is fulfilled by carbohydrates.
• Structural components: Some polysaccharides like
cellulose and hemicellulose are principal components of cell
wall.
 Pentose sugars (ribose and deoxyribose) are the structural
components of RNA and DNA).
Reserve foods: Plant cells store carbohydrates in the form of
starch. Glycogen (animal starch) is found stored in animal cells
and fungi.
• Antiketogenic role: Glucose prevents incomplete oxidation
of fats. It prevents accumulation of ketones in blood and
save the person from 'Ketosis'- a toxic condition of the body.
• Recognition Point: Oligosaccharides attached with cell
membrane help in recognizing the cell of their own kind.
• Anticoagulation: Heparin in blood cell prevents blood
clotting inside the blood vessels.
• Excess monosaccharides are converted into fats or amino
acids in liver.