Lecture 3

BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES:
Carbohydrates & Lipids
Chapter 3: pp.48-56
Photo by Stefan Els
OVERVIEW

• Large biological molecule:

Ø Carbohydrates
Ø Lipids
CARBOHYDRATES
• Carbohydrates are defined as macromolecules containing C, H, and O in a
1:2:1 ratio (CH2O)n - General FORMULA
• Function: energy storage, structural role, cell recognition (most abundant of
all organic molecules)
• Smallest subunit (monomer) = monosaccharide
Eg. Glucose, fructose, galactose

Two monosaccharides = disaccharides

Eg. Sucrose, lactose, maltose

Polymer of monosaccharides = polysaccharides

Eg. starch, cellulose
 Length of C-spine
Carbohydrates: monosaccharides

• Differences due to:

Chain length (C-spine)
Position of carbonyl group (functional group) thus distinguishes
between aldehydes and ketones
Structural isomers
Stereo isomers

Glucose, galatose and fructose are structural isomers of each other.

Glucose and galactose are stereo isomers (mirror images) of each
other.
Carbohydrates: monosaccharides

• May occur in a linear and a ring form

only monosaccharides with 5 or more carbons in spine can form ring structures
ring shape exists as a α or β stereo isomer
Below PLANE is alpha glucose
Above PLANE is beta glucose
Carbohydrates: disaccharides

• Two monosaccharides linked together by means of a covalent

bond between the monomers
occurs with the help of a dehydration-synthesis reaction

• Covalent bonds that link monosaccharides are called glycosidic-

bonds
• bonds are indicated as α or β
Carbohydrates: disaccharides

• Formation of maltose (found in beer)

Binding between C1 of a glucose molecule and C4 of another glucose molecule
Coupling a α-glycosidic-bond
Must be able to identify and label this.
Carbohydrates: disaccharides

• Formation of sucrose (fruits)

Binding between C1 of a glucose molecule and C2 of a fructose molecule
Coupling a α-glycosidic-bond
Glucose has 6 carbon ring, while
Fructose has 5 carbon ring, this
Is due to the functional groups.

Glucose unit Fructose unit

Carbohydrates: disaccharides

• Formation of lactose (milk sugar)

Bond between C1 of a galactose molecule and C4 of a glucose molecule
Coupling a β-glycosidic-bond
Above Plane

Galactose unit Glucose unit

Carbohydrates: polysaccharides

• Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides (100-1000 units)

linked by glycosidic bonds

• Polysaccharides can
be linear, unbranched (e.g. cellulose)
have one or more branches (e.g. starch, glycogen)
consists of the same / different monosaccharides

Function determined by type of monomer and nature of the glycosidic

bonds
storage polysaccharides (e.g. starch, glycogen)
structural polysaccharides (e.g. cellulose, chitin)
Storage polysaccharides

• Plants store sugars in the form of starch

• polymer of glucose monomers (Starch)
monomers linked by α-glycosidic-bonds
consists of a combination of amylose (linear, unbranched form) and
amylopectin (branched form)

α(1-4)-linkage
Storage polysaccharides

• Animals store sugars in the form of glycogen

polymer of α-glucose monomers
monomers connected by α-glycosidic-bonds (O is below)
more branched than amylopectin
α(1-4)-
linkages

α(1-6)-linkages
Structural-polysaccharides

• Cell walls of plants consist of cellulose

unbranched polymer of glucose monomers
monomers connected by β-glycosidic bonds

β(1-4)-
linkage
Structural-polysaccharides

• Exoskeleton of arthropods (insects, spiders, crabs) consists of Chitin

unbranched polymer of modified glucose monomers (eg. N-acetyl glucosamine)
monomers connected by β-glycosidic bonds

β(1-4)-
linkage
LIPIDS

• Lipids are broadly defined as groups of molecules that are insoluble in

water
primarily non-polar
consists largely of hydrocarbons (C–H bonds)

Types of lipids most commonly found in living organisms

neutral lipids - triglycerides (fats and oils)

waxes
phospholipids (cell membrane)
Steroids
Lipids: fatty acids

• Neutral lipids, waxes and phospholipids

contain fatty acids
• A fatty acid is a single hydrocarbon chain with
a carboxylic group (–COOH) at one point
•

Stearic acid,
CH3(CH2)16COOH
Lipids: fatty acids

• Fatty acids differ in length as well as the number and position of double bonds
• Distinguish between:
Saturated fatty acids

- all internal C atoms are bonded to at least two H atoms

- - so the fatty acid is saturated with H
- - usually found in solid animal fats (butter)

Unsaturated fatty acids

- one or more double bonds between successive C atoms
- fatty acid has a kink (slight bend) in the hydrocarbon chain where there is a double bond
- usually found in plant/fish oil
Lipids: fatty acids

• Saturated fatty acids

Stearic Acid,
CH3(CH2)16COOH

• Unsaturated fatty acids

•

Oleic acid,
CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH
Lipids: Triglycerides

• Composed of two types of smaller molecule that are linked by means of a

dehydration synthesis reaction
1 glycerol molecule + 3 fatty acid molecule

E.g. fats and oils

also known as neutral lipids because no charge at cellular pH

Function: energy storage

Lipids: Triglycerides

• Formation of a triglyceride: dehydration synthesis

Lipids: waxes

• Waxes are esters formed when fatty acids combine with long-chain alcohols
• harder and less oily than fats fatty acid

• Function: protection, lubricant, structure

Lipids: phospholipids

• Phospholipids form cell membranes

• Consists of three subunits
1 glycerol
2 fatty acids
phosphate group (bound to another polar unit)
Lipids: phospholipids
Lipids: phospholipids

• Two sides of a phospholipid react differently with water

forms a bilayer (double layer) found around cells and organelles

Polar water solution

outside cell Water molecule
Polar side of
membrane molecule

Non-polar side of
Non-polar part
membrane molecule Membrane
inside membrane
surrounding cell

Polar water solution

inside cell
Lipids: Steroids

• Steroids are lipids composed of a C-framework of four fused rings

Eg. cholesterol and sex hormones
- Estradiol and estrogen

Arrangement of Cholesterol, a sterol

carbon rings in a
steroid

Testosterone
Additional Resources