BIOMOLECULE:

CARBOHYDRATES
T. Smith
What do all of the following
have in common?
 Objectives:
By the end of the lesson students should be able to:
• Explain what is a Biomolecule
• List the types of biomolecules
• Differentiate between a monomer and a polymer.
• Explain how polymers are created by condensation and
separated by hydrolysis.
• Define carbohydrates
• Explain the properties of carbohydrates.
• Describe the structure and function of monosaccharides
such as glucose.
• Describe the structure and function of disaccharides such
as sucrose.
• Describe the structures and functions of polysaccharides
such as glycogen, starch and cellulose.
 BIOMOLECULES
• Living things, or organisms such as plants and
animals, are made of uncountable numbers of
molecules. But one thing they all have in
common is they contain carbon atoms. Life on
earth is based on carbon compounds that we
call biomolecules.
Biomolecules are macromolecules or “giant
molecules” produced by living organisms.
 Types of Biomolecules
There are 4 types of Biomolecules:
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids.

All of which are macromolecules

 Macromolecules

Macromolecules are giant molecules made from

many repeating units, molecules built like this
are known as Polymers
Polymers are made up of smaller
molecules called monomers
 How are polymers formed?
Polymers are formed by condensation reactions
(removal of water).
 How are polymers seperated?
• Polymers can be separated by hydrolysis
(addition of water).
 Carbohydrates
• A group of substances whose molecules are
made of sugar units.
• A group of organic compounds whose
molecules contain carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen only.
 Properties of Carbohydrates:
• Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only.
• They have the general formula Cx(H2O)y, also
represented as CnH2nOn or (CH2O)n.
• All three formulas show that the ratio of carbon to
hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1
• All contain several hydroxyl (OH) groups.
• Can be placed into three subtypes- monosaccharides,
disaccharide and polysaccharides
• Monosaccharides are either aldehydes or ketones.
 Carbohydrates include:
• Sugars
- soluble in water and sweet tasting.
- can be monosaccharides or disaccharides
Eg- fructose found in fruits, sucrose (brown sugar).

• Starches and Cellulose

- Polysaccharides
- Insoluble in water and do not taste sweet.
Eg- yam, cellulose in plants
 MONOSACCHARIDES
• A carbohydrate molecule containing just one sugar
unit.
• Monosaccharides have the general formula Cx(H2O)y,
also represented as (CH2O)n.
• Monosaccharides cannot be further hydrolysed.
• A monosaccharide is the simplest form of sugar.
• When they are in solution they readily reduce other
chemicals; they are called reducing sugars.
• A monosaccharide is either an aldehyde or ketone.
 Monosaccharides can be classified
based on:
• Whether or not they are aldehyde or ketone.
• The number of carbon atoms in their molecule
• Their ability to form straight chain or ring
structures
 What you need to know about
Aldehydes and Ketones:
• Both contain carbonyl groups- functional
group composed of a carbon atom
double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O

The carbon atom of this group has two

remaining bonds.
• If the carbonyl group is
bonded to at least one
hydrogen atom, the
compound is an aldehyde.
• An R group is a group of
atoms starting with C
(Carbon).
• Aldehyde groups are
always at the end of the
chain of carbon atoms.
• If a monosaccharide
contains an aldehyde
group it is called an aldose
or aldo sugar.
• if the carbonyl group
bonds to two carbon
atoms the compound is
a ketone.

If a monosaccharide
contains a ketone group
it is called a ketose or
keto sugar.
Tell the aldehyde and ketone
apart:
 Answer:
Aldehyde Ketone Aldehyde
 Monosaccharides are classified based on the
number of carbon atoms in each molecule:
# of Type of Example Function
carbon sugar

3 Triose Glyceraldehyde First carbon formed during

photosynthesis, used in
respiration
5 Pentose Ribose, Constituents of
Deoxyribose macromolecules (RNA, DNA,
ATP)
6 Hexose Glucose Energy production
Fructose Stored in fruits to aid seed
Galactose dispersal
(glucose and fructose)
 Hexose and their functions
Monosaccha Functions Note
rides
Glucose ▪ Energy source during ▪ Polar and water soluble.
respiration ▪ Contains a aldehyde group
▪ Polymerised to form ▪ Easily metabolised
polysaccharides for energy
storage.
▪ Used to make disaccharides
Fructose ▪ Energy production ▪ Contains a ketone group
▪ Stored in fruits to aid seed ▪ Found in fruits
dispersal
Galactose ▪ Energy production ▪ Contains an aldehyde group
▪ Found in milk
Name the type of monosaccharide based
on the number of carbon atoms present:
 ANSWERS:

Triose Hexose Pentose

 Some monosaccharides can be
represented as straight chain or ring
structures
• Pentose and Hexose molecules are able to flip into
their ring form, in which the chain links up with itself.
• In solution glucose and other monosaccharides
continuously flip between its ring and chain form.
• The ring structure is the form used to make
disaccharides and polysaccharides.
• Straight chain
Glucose straight chain Glucose ring structure

6 Carbon atom 1 joins to the oxygen

on carbon atom 5, the ring contains
oxygen but carbon atom 6 is not a
part of the ring.
Galactose straight chain Galactose ring structure

1 6

4 1

2
3
6
 Glucose versus Galactose

6
6

1
1
Fructose straight chain Fructose ring structure

6
1

5 2

4
3

6
6 6
6

1 5 2 1

1
4
3
Ribose straight chain Ribose ring structure
Deoxyribose straight chain Deoxyribose ring structure
 Pop Quiz

• Write the molecular formula for each molecule

above.
• Are these two molecules the same?
 Answers:
• Molecular formula: C6H12O6
• Yes, although both molecules have
different arrangement of the OH group
on carbon 1 they both represent glucose.
• Glucose forms two isomers in its ring
form.
 What is an isomer?
A molecule with the same molecular formula
but a different arrangement of atoms in the
molecule and different properties.

• Glucose, fructose and Galactose form isomers

Glucose isomers
• Glucose can exist in two possible ring forms
known as alpha glucose or beta glucose based
on the orientation of the H and OH group on
Carbon atom 1.
In alpha glucose the
hydroxyl (OH) group on
carbon atom
1 is projected below
the ring
In beta glucose the
hydroxyl (OH) group
on carbon atom
1 is projected
above the ring.
Fructose isomer
Beta fructose

Hydroxyl
group
above on
Carbon
atom 2
 Alpha fructose

6
1
Hydroxyl
group
5 2 below on
4
3 Carbon
atom 2
Galactose isomer
Galactose
 Note the following: Important Carbons
• Carbon 1 in glucose and galactose
The location of the hydroxyl (OH) group on Carbon 1 will
determine if the molecule is represented in its an alpha or
beta form. Also remember that the aldehyde group is on
carbon 1
• Carbon 2 in fructose
The location of the hydroxyl (OH) group on carbon atom 2 will
determine whether the molecule is a alpha or beta
representation of fructose. Also remember that the keytone
group is on carbon 2.
• Carbon 4
Carbon 4 is ONLY important when we are trying to tell a
glucose and a galactose molecule apart. In glucose OH group
on carbon 4 is below carbon 4 and in galactose the OH group
sits above carbon 4.
As small as this difference might be
it affect the types of disaccharides
and polysaccharides formed by the
monosaccharides.
 Disaccharides
• General formula: C12H22O11
• These are sugars whose molecules are formed
from two monosaccharides, usually hexose
sugar molecules, combine by means of a
condensation reaction.
• The reaction is reversible, as a disaccharide
can be broken down into hexose sugars by
means of a hydrolysis reaction.
Why is the general formula C12H22O11
and not C12H22O12 ?

• One of the oxygen atoms was lost in the

formation of water during the condensation
reaction which resulted in a gylcosidic bond
being formed between two monsaccharides to
form the disaccharide.
• The bond formed between two
monosaccharides as a result of condensation
is called a glycosidic bond
• A Glycosidic bonds is a type of covalent bond
and is therefore very strong.
• Glycosidic bonds are can be formed between:

- Carbon atoms 1 and carbon atom 4, these are

called 1,4 or 1-4 glycosidic bonds
- Carbon atom 1 and carbon atom 2, these are
called 1,2 or 1-2 glycosidic bond
 Naming glycosidic bonds
Glycosidic bonds are given special names based on:
1. The number allotted to carbon atoms that form the
glycosidic bond:
Ex- A glycosidic bond formed between carbon 1 of one
monosaccharide and carbon 4 of another monosaccharide is
called a 1,4 glycosidic bond.

2. The position of the hydroxyl group on the carbon involved in

the glycosidic bond (alpha or beta).
Ex- Carbon 1 in glucose and galactose and Carbon 2 in fructose
would indicate whether the bond is an alpha 1,4 or beta 1,4
glycosidic bond in the case of maltose and lactose or an alpha
1,2 or beta 1,2 in the case of sucrose.
Name the following glycosidic bond:
Answer- alpha 1,4 glycosidic bond
 Disaccharides
There are 3 disaccharides:
• Maltose = glucose + glucose
• Lactose = glucose + galactose
• Sucrose = glucose + frucose
Maltose alpha 1,4 glycosidic bond
Maltose beta 1,4 glycosidic bond
Maltose alpha 1,4 glycosidic bond
 In the previous slide a alpha and a beta
glucose was used to create maltose, yet the
glycosidic bond was called an alpha 1,4
glycosidic bond, why?
• The glycosidic bond was formed between carbon 1 and
carbon 4 of two different molecules of glucose. The
position of the OH group on carbon 1 determines if the
molecule is alpha or beta, therefore because the carbon
1 involved in the glycosidic bond was in its alpha form
the glycosidic bond was named alpha; the other carbon
one was not involved in the glycosidic bond therefore it
played no part in the naming of the bond.
Sucrose alpha 1,2 glycosidic bond
Sucrose alpha 1, beta 2 glycosidic bond
 Why was the bond in the previous slide
called alpha 1, beta 2 glycosidic bond
and not just alpha 1,2 glycosidic bond?

• The position of the OH group on carbon 1 of glucose

determines if the molecule is alpha or beta while
carbon 2 on fructose determines if the molecule is
alpha or beta; therefore, because both carbon one
of glucose and carbon 2 of fructose are involved in a
glycosidic bond they both play a role in the naming
of the glycosidic bond.
Lactose beta 1, 4 glycosidic bond
Lactose beta 1, 4 glycosidic bond
 Dissaccharides and their functions
Disaccharides Note

Maltose Occurs mainly as a breakdown product during the digestion

of starch by the enzyme amylase. This commonly happens in
animals and in germinating seeds.

Sucrose Polar and water soluble but not as reactive as glucose and
fructose as the aldehyde and ketone groups form a glycosidic
bond and are not available to react. This lack of reactivity
makes sucrose a non-reducing sugar. This is advantageous in
plant transport as this less reactive sugar molecule can be
transported around the plant without entering metabolic
processes, this also makes it easy to store as an energy
source.

Lactose A milk sugar, found exclusively in milk. An important energy

source for young animals. It can only be digested slowly so it
gives a slow steady release of energy.
 Reducing sugars
and Non-reducing
sugars
 Pop Quiz
1. Which carbon atom contains the aldehyde
group in glucose?
2. Which carbon atom contains the aldehyde
group in galactose?
3. Which carbon atom contains the ketone
group in fructose?
 Answers
1. Carbon atom 1
2. Carbon atom 1
3. Carbon atom 2
HEADS UP
Please note that the Benedict’s test focuses on
the aldehyde or ketone group present in a
molecule. It focuses on whether or nor they are
free (not involved in a bond).
 Reducing sugar versus non-reducing
sugars
• Reducing sugar- A reducing sugar is any sugar that is
capable of acting as a reducing agent (donate/give
electrons to another molecule) because it has a free
aldehyde group or a free ketone group which act
as the reducing agent.
• Non-reducing sugar- Non-reducing sugars are
sugars which do not have a free aldehyde group or
ketone group, therefore they have no free
electrons to donate.
 BENEDICT’S TEST
for reducing sugar
 What is it:
The Benedict’s test is a chemical test used to
determine if a reducing sugar is present in a
solution.
Watch the video and record the method for
testing for reducing sugar on a piece of
paper
See video at: https://youtu.be/SYgsxZg1330
How do we know that glycine is a
non-reducing sugar?
 How the Benedict’s test works
See video at: https://youtu.be/gsAqUwHwRrc
 Key points
• Benedict’s reagent contains Copper (ll) sulphate.
• If a free aldehyde or ketone group is present in a monosaccharide or
disaccharide, it will reduce the Copper (ll) sulphate to insoluble
Copper(l)oxide
• When Copper (ll) ions (Cu 2+) in Copper (ll) sulphate reacts with the free
aldehyde or ketone group in the reducing sugar the ions changes from
their natural blue colour to green, yellow, orange or brick red based on
the amount of reducing sugar present in the solution.
• The colour change is a result of the copper gaining an electron from the
aldehyde or ketone group on the reducing sugar which causes it to be
reduced to Copper(l)oxide which is rust red in colour.
• Copper(l)oxide is insoluble so a coloured precipitate is formed.
• Copper (ll) ions (Cu 2+) changes from a valency of 2 to a valency of 1.
• Cu2+ + e- Cu+
blue brick red precipitate
Possible results and what they indicate
Identify the molecules that would give a colour
change and molecules that would not. Explain
your answer.
A B C

D E

F
 Answers
Will give a colour change
• A, B, C, E and F because they have an unbonded
aldehyde or ketone group on carbon 1 of glucose
or galactose and carbon 2 of fructose.
Will not give a colour change
• D because both the aldehyde and ketone groups
are involve in the glycosidic bond so they are not
available to reduce the Cu2+ to Cu+
 Fun fact:
• The Bendict’s test is used to test the presence of
reducing sugars such as glucose in urine.
BENEDICT’S TEST
for non-reducing
sugar
Benedict’s test for non-reducing sugar
steps
• https://youtu.be/QU0VBcHnQOk
 Questions
1. What is the role of the Hydrochloric acid and
why is it important?
2. What is the role of the sodium hydroxide?
3. Why did we heat the solution?
4. Why did we use a control?
 Answers
1. Hydrochloric acid was used to break the glycosidic
link between carbon 1 and 2 in sucrose. This is
important because it frees the aldehyde group
present on carbon 1 of glucose and the ketone
group present on carbon 2 of fructose.
2. Sodium hydroxide neutralises the Hydrochloric
acid.
3. Heat catalyses (speeds up) the reaction.
4. The control show the result that would be
obtained if no reducing sugar is present.
Benedict’s test for non-reducing sugar explanation
• See video at: https://youtu.be/7YFH2_-t7IY
 Sucrose
• not as reactive as glucose and fructose as the
aldehyde and ketone groups form a glycosidic
bond and are not available to react. When
sucrose is boiled with Benedict’s solution
nothing happens. If sucrose is hydrolysed by
reacting it with HCl or the enzyme sucrase
then the glucose and fructose released reacts
with the benedict’s solution to give a colour
change.
Let us investigate why sucrose is the
only none reducing disaccharide
Answer: No free aldehyde or ketone
group
 Note
• Non-reducing sugar test works on the basis
that none reducing sugar does not reduce
Benedict’s solution unless the glycosidic bonds
are broken using a strong acid (HCl), releasing
the reducing sugars
Why did we do reducing
and non-reducing sugars
before polysaccharides?
 Answer:
• Benedict’s test is only used for simple
carbohydrates such as monosaccharides and
disaccharides.
POLYSACCHARIDES
 Polysaccharides
• These are the most complex and largest
carbohydrates.
• Made up of many monomers linked together by
glycosidic bonds to form chains; this results from a
condensation reaction.
• General formula: (C6H10O5)n
• Insoluble in water
• Not sweet.
• Used primarily for energy storage and for structure
and function (cellulose).
• Glucose is the monomer for starch, glycogen and
cellulose.
 Polysaccharides are convenient
storage molecules for several reasons:
• Their large size makes them more or less
insoluble in water so they have no osmotic or
chemical influence in the cell.
• They fold into compact shapes.
• They can easily be converted to sugars by
hydrolysis when required
 Types of Polysaccharides
• Starch
- Amylose
- Amylopectin
• Glycogen
• Cellulose
See video at: https://youtu.be/bXmn_jKaTxc
Glycogen consists of glucose molecules linked by alpha 1,4 glycosidic bonds to form a chain. The chain is branched every
ten or so units by adding an alpha glucose monomer to carbon six of the growing (original) chain. The alpha glucose is
added by means of a glycosidic bond between carbon 1 of the glucose molecule being added and carbon 6 of the glucose
molecule in the original chain; this type of bond is called an alpha 1,6 glycosidic bond. Another chain containing alpha
glucose molecules bonded by 1,4 glycosidic links starts to form from the first monomer of glucose that was added.
Glycogen is very similar to amylopectin but has more 1,6 glycosidic links and therefore more branches.
Glycogen is a highly branched polysaccharide.
Cellulose
Amylose

Cellulose
 Homework
• Watch this video: https://youtu.be/ekJRQds0pR4
• More notes:
https://alevelnotes.com/notes/biology/biological-mol
ecules/biological-molecules/carbohydrate-polymers
Answer the following questions
1. How soluble is each polysaccharide and why?
2. Why is cellulose considered to be a no calorie food?
3. Draw, label using hydroxyl group and differentiate
between the structure and functions of starch
(amylose and amylopectin), glycogen and cellulose