Professional Documents
Culture Documents
• Precipitation • Evaporation
• Transpiration
• Evapotranspiration
• River runoff
Stores: When water is stationary and Transfers: When water is moving within
not moving in a drainage basin. a drainage basin.
⚫ Saturated: Ground where the pores are full and can contain no more water.
⚫ Unsaturated: Ground where there is still space between the pores.
⚫ Water table: The border between saturated and unsaturated ground. The water table
may go up or down.
⚫ Permeable: Surfaces that allow water to pass through them.
⚫ Pores: Gaps between soil and gravel that water can fill.
⚫ Condenses: When water vapour turn into water droplets. Water can only condense
around condensation nuclei
⚫ Antecedent Moisture: Amount of water in the soil before additional precipitation
⚫ Topography: The shape of the land
Aquifer (rocks that can hold water)
⚫ The water balance is worked out from inputs and outputs and
affects how much water is stored in the basin. The general
water balance in the UK shows seasonal patterns:
⚫ in wet seasons, precipitation exceeds
evapotranspiration creating water surplus. the ground stores
fill with water so there's more surface runoff and higher
discharge- river levels rise
⚫ in drier seasons, precipitation is lower than
evapotranspiration. ground stores are depleted as some ware
is used and flows into the river channel but isn't replaced by
precipitation
⚫ at the end of a dry season there's a deficit of water in the
ground. the ground stores are recharged in the next wet
season.
River Discharge
Discharge= Q=AxV
Q= Discharge
A=Cross sectional area
V=Velocity
Flood storm hydrograph
⚫ lag time- is the delay between peak rainfall and peak discharge- delay happens
because it takes time for the rainwater to flow into the river
⚫ rising limb- part of the graph up to the peak discharge- increases as rainwater
flows into the river increase in discharge after start of precipitation event.
⚫ falling limb- part of the graph after the peak- discharge is decreasing because less
water is flowing into the river – decline in discharge after the precipitation event.
⚫ Hydrograph – a graph that shows river discharge and rainfall over time.
⚫ Base flow – represents the normal day to day discharge of the river and is the
consequence of groundwater seeping into the river channel.
⚫ Storm flow – Water that reaches the steam via overland flow and through flow
⚫ Bankfull discharge – the maximum discharge that a particular river channel is
capable of carrying without flooding.
⚫ Peak discharge – the point on a flood hydrograph when river discharge is at its
greatest.
⚫ Peak rainfall – the point on a flood hydrograph when rainfall is at its greatest.
Factors affecting flood storm hydrographs
⚫ in urban areas-
much of the soil is covered with man-
made impermeable materials like concrete
water can't infiltrate into the soil, which increases surface runoff, so
water flows more quickly into the river making lag time short and
increases peak discharge
⚫ man-made drainage systems affect the hydrograph in a
similar way. water flows down drains into the river
before it can evaporate or infiltrate into the soil,
causing a shorter lag time and increased peak
discharge
⚫ Deforestation means less interception, so rain reaches
the ground faster. The ground is likely to become
saturated and surface run-off will increase
River Channel Processes and Landforms
⚫ River erosion is the wearing away of the land as the water flows past the bed
and banks. There are four main types of river erosion. These are:
1. Abrasion (corrosion): This is the scraping and rubbing action of material carried
along by a river (bed load). Rivers carry rack fragments in the flow of water or drag
them along the bed, and in doing so wear away the banks and bed of the river channel.
Abrasion is most effective in short turbulent periods when the river is at Bankfull or in
flood. During times when river levels are low, the load consists of small particles such
as sand grains, and these tend to smooth the surface of the river.
2. Hydraulic Action: this is where the water in the river compresses air in cracks in the
bed and banks (Cavitation – force of air exploding) This results in increased pressure
caused by the compression of air, mini 'explosions' are caused as the pressure is then
released gradually forcing apart parts of the bed and banks
3. Solution: Is most active on rocks that contain carbonates such as limestone and
chalk. The minerals in rocks are dissolved by weak acids in the river water and are
carried away in solution.
4. Attrition: Is the reduction in the size of fragments and particles within a river due to
the collision of boulders with one another as they move down the river. The fragments
strike one another as well as the river bed, therefore, becoming smoother, smaller and
rounder. Consequently larger, more angular fragments tend to be found upstream,
which smaller, more rounded fragments are found downstream.
Erosion
⚫ When a river loses energy and therefore velocity, deposition occurs. This
is because the river doesn’t have enough energy to carry the material it is
transporting.
⚫ This could happen in an estuary when the river meets the sea and
slow down, depositing its load and creating a delta.
⚫ The main factors leading to deposition are:
1. Low rainfall reducing precipitation
2. A river entering the sea or a lake – reducing velocity
3. Water becoming shallower
4. Increase in load
5. River overflows its bank, depositing material on a flood plain.
⚫ May result in the formation of features such as slip off slopes (on the inner
bends of meanders); levees (raised banks) alluvial fans; meanders; braided
streams and the floodplain.
⚫ Remember - it is the largest material that will be dropped first as it
requires the most energy to be transported. Eroded material carried in
suspension and solution will be dropped last.
River Capacity
• Most of the time, larger particles such as boulders, need a higher velocity for them to be picked
up because of their large size
• However, the exception to this rule is clay and silt, as even though the particles are very small
, the particles tend to stick together, making them hard to pick up.
• Higher velocities are needed for picking up (entrainment) than just for transporting.
• When velocity falls below a certain level (settling velocity), particles are deposited
Patterns of Flow in a river:
⚫ 1. Vertical erosion (in the form of abrasion, hydraulic action and solution)
in the river channel results in the formation of a steep sided valley
⚫ 2. Over time the sides of this valley are weakened by weathering
processes and continued vertical erosion at the base of the valley
⚫ 3. Gradually mass movement of materials occurs down the valley
sides, gradually creating the distinctive v-shape.
⚫ 4. The material is gradually transported away by the river when there is
enough energy to do so.
⚫ As the river flows through the valley it is forced to swing from side to side
around more resistant rock outcrops (spurs). As there is little energy for
lateral erosion, the river continues to cut down vertically flowing
between spurs of creating interlocking spurs.
⚫ Potholes: Potholes are cylindrical holes drilled into the bed of a river that
vary in depth & diameter from a few centimetres to several metres. They’re
found in the upper course of a river where it has enough potential energy to
erode vertically and its flow is turbulent. In the upper course of a river, its
load is large and mainly transported by traction along the river bed. When
flowing water encounters bed load, it is forced over it and down cuts
behind the bed load in swirling eddie currents. These currents erode the
river’s bed and create small depressions in it.
• Rapids: Rapids are sections of a river
where the gradient of the river bed is
relatively steep resulting in an increase in
the river’s turbulence, velocity and
therefore erosive power. They form
where the gradient of the river is steep
and the bed is composed mainly of hard
rocks
Floodplains and Levee’s
⚫ Floodplains are large, flat expanses of land that form on either side of a river. The
floodplain is the area that a river floods onto when it’s experiencing high discharge.
When a river floods, its efficiency decreases rapidly because of an increase in
friction, reducing the river’s velocity and forcing it to deposit its load. The load is
deposited across the floodplain as alluvium. The alluvium is very fertile so
floodplains are often used as farmland.
⚫ The width of a floodplain is determined by the sinuosity of the river and how much
meander migration takes place. If there’s a lot of meander migration, the area that
the river floods on will change and the floodplain will become wider.
⚫ Deltas are depositional landforms found at the mouth of a river where the river
meets a body of water with a lower velocity than the river (e.g. a lake or the sea). For
a delta to develop, the body of water needs to be relatively quiet with a low tidal
range so that deposited sediment isn’t washed away and has time to accumulate.
⚫ When a river meets a stationary body of water, its velocity falls causing any material
being transported by the river to be deposited. Deltas are made up of three sediment
beds that have been sorted by the size of the sediment. The bottom most bed,
the bottomset bed, is composed primarily of clay and some other fine grained
sediments. Clay is the main constituent because when clay meets salt water a
process called flocculation takes place where clay & salt particles clump together
(flocculate) due to an electrostatic charge developing between the particles. This
makes the clay particles sink due to their increased weight producing the bottomset
bed. The bottomset bed stretches a fair distance from the mouth of the river as the
fine sediments can be transported a reasonable distance from the river’s mouth.
⚫ The foreset bed lies on top of the bottomset bed. The foreset bed is composed of
coarser sediments that are deposited due to a fall in the river’s velocity and aren’t
transported very far into the stationary body of water that the river flows into. The
foreset bed makes up the majority of the delta and is dipped towards deep water in
the direction that the river is flowing in.
⚫ The topset bed is, as the name suggests, the topmost bed of the delta. It too is
composed of coarse sediment but, unlike the foreset bed, the topset bed doesn’t dip,
it’s horizontally bedded
Delta Structure
There are three types of Deltas
1. Arcuate: Have rounded, convex
outer margins e.g. Nile River.
2. Cuspate: Where material brought
down by a river is spread out
evenly on either side of its
channel due to waves hitting it
head on, spreading the deposited
sediment out. E.g. Tiber River
3. Birds Foot: They extend
reasonably far into a body of
water and form when the river’s
current is stronger than the sea’s
waves. Bird’s foot deltas are
uncommon because there are
very few areas where a sea’s
waves are weaker than a river’s
current. As the same suggests it
looks like a birds foot. E.g.
Mississippi river
Meanders
A cross section of a meander would show that on the outside bend, the channel is very
deep and concave. This is because the outside bend is where the river flows fastest and
is most energetic, so lots of erosion by hydraulic action and abrasion takes place. River
cliffs form on the outside bend as the river erodes laterally. The inside bend is
shallower with a gentle slip-off slope made of sand or shingle that is brought across
from the outside bend by the helicoidal flow and centripetal force of the river. The
river flows much slower on the inside bend so some deposition takes place,
contribution to the slip-off slope.
River cliff and Slip off slope formation
⚫ River cliff
Water flows fastest on the outer bend of the river where the channel is deeper
and there is less friction. This is due to water being flung towards the outer bend as
it flows around the meander, this causes greater erosion which deepens the
channel, in turn the reduction in friction and increase in energy results in greater
erosion. This lateral erosion results in undercutting of the river bank and the
formation of a steep sided river cliff.
⚫ Slip off slope
In contrast, on the inner bend water is slow flowing, due to it being a low energy
zone, deposition occurs resulting in a shallower channel. This increased friction
further reduces the velocity (thus further reducing energy), encouraging further
deposition. Over time a small beach of material builds up on the inner bend; this is
called a slip-off slope
Oxbow Lakes
Oxbow Lakes
⚫ Alluvium (material in a
river) is dropped by the
river when it loses
momentum as it enters a
wide, flat valley known as a
piedmont, after leaving a
narrow mountain channel.
This happens as water
velocity, gradient and speed
reduces as the water enters
a wide unconfined channel,
so it is deposited at the
junction. It is the terrestrial
(land) equivalent of a delta
Definitions
⚫ Precipitation: -
Cloud seeding
introduces silver
iodide, solid carbon
dioxide (dry ice) or
ammonium nitrate
into the air to
encourage water
droplets to form.
⚫ -Mixed success but
in Australia and the
USA it has
increased
precipitation by 10-
30%
⚫ -In Urban areas
precipitation can be
increased by 10%
due to extra
pollutants in the air
The influence of human activity on the
hydrological cycle
⚫ The human impact on evaporation and
evapotranspiration is relatively small in relation to the
rest of the hydrological cycle but nevertheless
important. There are a number of impacts:
⚫ Dams: the construction of large dams have increased
evaporation. For example: Lake Nasser behind the
Aswan Dam loses up to a third of water due to
evaporation. Water loss can be reduced by using
chemical sprays or covering the dam in a form of
plastic.
⚫ Urbanisation: Leads to a huge reduction in
evapotranspiration due to the lack of vegetation. There
may also be a slight increase in evaporation because of
higher temperatures and increased surface storage.
The influence of human activity on the
hydrological cycle
⚫ Flooding occurs when a river’s discharge exceeds its channel’s volume causing the river to
overflow onto the area surrounding the channel known as the floodplain. The increase in
discharge can be triggered by several events. The most common cause of flooding is prolonged
rainfall. If it rains for a long time, the ground will become saturated and the soil will no longer
be able to store water leading to increased surface runoff. Rainwater will enter the river much
faster than it would if the ground wasn’t saturated leading to higher discharge levels and
floods.
⚫ As well as prolonged rainfall, brief periods of heavy rain can also lead to floods. If there’s a
sudden “burst” of heavy rain, the rainwater won’t be able to infiltrate fast enough and the
water will instead enter the river via surface runoff. This leads to a sudden and large increase
in the river’s discharge which can result in a flash flood.
⚫ Although many floods are triggered directly by precipitation just a few hours after it falls some
floods can be triggered by precipitation that fell many months ago. Precipitation that falls as
snow can remain as snow on the ground until it melts. This mightn’t be until the end of winter,
so potentially several months. When the snow does melt, large volumes of meltwater will enter
the river increasing its discharge and triggering floods. These floods are often annual,
occurring every year when snow melts in the spring. In Bangladesh, for example, melting snow
in the Himalayas triggers annual floods in the summer.
⚫ Flash floods can also be triggered by slightly more catastrophic events. Erupting volcanoes can
trigger very large flash floods called jökulhlaups when glaciers are partially or even fully
melted by an erupting volcano or some other form of geothermal activity. The meltwater can
enter rivers and greatly increase the river’s discharge leading to a flood. The eruption of
Eyjafjallajökull1 in 2010 triggered jökulhlaups as the volcano had been capped by a glacier that
melted when it erupted. Similarly earthquakes can bring about landslides – loosened soil may
be deposited in rivers causing overflowing.
Effects of flooding
⚫ Flooding can have numerous social, economic and environmental effects that can vary
depending on the demographics of a population and the economic development of an area.
⚫ Social Effects
⚫ The biggest, most obvious effect is death. Floods, especially flash floods, will kill people. Flood
water can travel surprisingly quickly and weighs3 a lot, so people can easily get swept away by
floods. Large chunks of debris and objects like cars can easily get picked up by floodwater and
can easily kill a person should they get hit by the debris. In a LEDC, you’re generally going to get
much more deaths than you would in a MEDC. In a MEDC, people and governments are better
prepared for floods. Rescue services can be dispatched to a flood quickly in a MEDC whereas in
a LEDC, rescue teams mightn’t arrive until several hours after the flood started.
⚫ During a flood, sewage pipes are often broken and raw sewage leaks into the floodwater. This
has two effects. First, it contaminates not just floodwater but drinking water too which leads to
a spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera especially in LEDCs where emergency drinking
water mightn’t be available. Second, the sewage gets into people’s homes.
⚫ In LEDCs, famines can follow floods which can lead to even more deaths. Floods will
commonly inundate farmland because farmland normally develops on floodplains. If the
floodwater is polluted by sewage, it will contaminate the farmland and make any food grown on
it dangerous to eat. Furthermore, cattle are often killed by floods which can lead to people
starving because they either don’t have a source of food or don’t have a source of income to buy
food with.
Effects of Flooding
⚫ Economic Effects
⚫ The big economic effect of a flood is property damage. Water can cause a lot of damage to
property and when it picks up large chunks of debris such as cars, it can act like a wrecking ball,
taking out chunks of buildings when cars crash into them. Very large and powerful floods can
even dislodge buildings from their foundations and move them. In a MEDC, property damage is
often extensive as people have lots of expensive possessions. This isn’t the case in LEDCs but
that’s only because people don’t have a lot to lose in the first place. This means that the overall
cost of a flood is generally substantially higher in a MEDC than in a LEDC.
⚫ Floods can cause extensive damage to infrastructure such as power lines, roads, water pipes etc.
Bridges frequently collapse during a flood as they aren’t designed to withstand the high
discharge of the river. The Northside Bridge in Workington, Cumbria collapsed when there
were large floods in 2009. Repairing bridges and other types of infrastructure is very costly. Not
only this, it can lead to a decline in the local economy as businesses are unable to operate
without power or road connections. Unemployment can even increase if businesses are unable
to fully recover from a flood. The economic impact of infrastructure damage and unemployment
is larger in MEDCs since these countries have modern and expensive infrastructure in place. In
LEDCs, this infrastructure is lacking, so there isn’t much economic damage. In fact, in a LEDC,
floods can lead to positive economic effects in the long term. An influx of funding to a less
developed area from charities and NGOs after a flood can result in new infrastructure being
constructed that is substantially better than the previously existing infrastructure. This, in turn,
creates new economic opportunities in an area by, for example, creating new trade routes.
⚫ Another economic benefit comes from when a river floods and deposits sediment across the
floodplain. This improves the fertility of the floodplain and can improve agricultural yield in
an area (assuming the floodwater wasn’t polluted).
Effects of flooding
⚫ Environmental Effects
⚫ Floodwater that is contaminated with sewage will pollute
rivers and land when it drains back into the river.
Similarly, if the river floods onto farmland, the water can
be polluted by pesticides and other chemicals sprayed
onto the farmland that, when drained back into the river,
can pollute it and kill off wildlife that inhabits the river.
If the floodwater isn’t polluted though, flooding can
create wetlands that can help introduce new habitats for
many species of animals.
⚫ Vegetation may be destroyed, along with natural habitats
and animal species.
Reducing impacts of floods
⚫ 1) Prediction
⚫ Using weather satellites to predict high rainfall amounts
⚫ Estimating rainfall and snow pack amounts
⚫ Using river gauges to study river levels over time and map flood recurrence
⚫ Create computer flooding models including information on human infrastructure and
what would be most at risk.
⚫
Advantages Disadvantages
⚫ Flood and drought control ⚫ Water losses – provide less than half
⚫ Irrigation – 60% water from the amount of water expected due to
Aswan Dam is used for evaporation.
irrigation and up to 4000km ⚫ Salinisation
of the desert is irrigated.
⚫ Displacement of population – up to
⚫ Hydro-electricity – accounts 100000 Nubian people have been
of 7000million kW hours each removed from their ancestral homes
year. ⚫ Seismic stress – the earthquake of
November 1981 is believed to have
⚫ Improved navigation been caused by the Aswan Dam; as
⚫ Recreation and tourism – water levels in the dam decrease so
too does seismic activity increase.
Aswan Dam contributes
500million to the Egyptian ⚫ Loss of nutrients – it is estimated
economy each year. that it costs 100million to buy
commercial fertilisers to make up for
the lack of nutrients each year.
⚫ Diseases have spread – such as bilharzia
Droughts
⚫ Economic impacts
⚫ Economic impacts range from direct losses in the broad agricultural and
agriculturally related sectors (including forestry and fishing), to losses in recreation,
transportation, banking, and energy sectors. Other economic impacts would include
added unemployment and loss of revenue to local, state, and federal government.
⚫ Environmental Impacts.
⚫ Environmental losses include damages to plant and animal species, wildlife habitat,
and air and water quality; forest and range fires; degradation of landscape quality;
and soil erosion. These losses are difficult to quantify, but growing public awareness
and concern for environmental quality has forced public officials to focus greater
attention on them.
⚫ Social impacts
⚫ Social impacts mainly involve public safety, health, conflicts between water users,
and inequities in the distribution of impacts and disaster relief programs. As with all
natural hazards, the economic impacts of drought are highly variable within and
between economic sectors and geographic regions, producing a complex assortment
of winners and losers with the occurrence of each disaster.
How to reduce impacts of droughts:
⚫ Dams – these are built across the river channel to stop the flow of the water. A lake or reservoir will form
behind the dam and water can be let out in a controlled manner to prevent flooding. One of the
disadvantages of a dam is that a large area of land has to be flooded and this can destroy natural habitat or
even mean humans have to be relocated. Dams are expensive to build and maintain although they can be
used to produce HEP. Dams do provide a high level of control to reduce the chances of flooding and are
very effective in reducing the risk in this way however, they stop sediment from flowing downstream and
this can lead to greater erosion in a similar way that holding back material on the coast by using groynes
reduces protection further along the cliff. A good example of a dual purpose dam is the Karibaon
the Zambezi in Mozambique .
⚫ Levees (reinforcing or man-made) – a levee is a naturally occurring feature on the bank of a river in
the middle and sometimes lower stages of a river, on the flood plain. When the river floods, any load it is
carrying in suspension is dropped and the heavier material is dropped first, just on the river bank. Over time
this will build up and has the effect of increasing the capacity of the river as the banks are higher. These
levees may be enforced in some way by humans. Planting vegetation on them helps to protect them. Adding
even more height to them is also effective. An artificial levee can be built from scratch and this has the same
effect as a natural one. Levees are very common in Holland where much of the country (more than 25%) is
below sea level and is at risk from flooding. The Dutch have a complex network ofwing dykes (see below)
and levees to protect the land.
Hard engineering
Energy received by the earth is converted into heat energy when it reaches
the surface. As the ground warms, some is re-radiated as long wave
radiation.
8% of this re-radiated energy is lost to space
The North Hemisphere has much more land so there is a lot of seasonal
change, whereas the South Hemisphere has a lot of water, so little seasonal
change occurs.
Air pressure: The gases in the atmosphere press down on the Earth’s
surface, exerting a force called air pressure.
It is differences in air pressure that cause different weather in our
atmosphere. You don’t feel it because you have equal pressure pushing out
from inside your body
Winds and air pressure: Changes in air pressure make winds blow. They
are due to seasonal differences in the overhead sun.
Air moves from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure, and this
produces winds.
“Winds blow from high to low !“
Pressure Variations
• Doldrums (ITCZ): Areas of
pressure in which sailing ships
have a hard time moving due
to lack of wind.
• Trade winds (30>equator)
Where lots of ships travel die
to strong easterlies.
• Coriolis effect: Due to the tilt of
the earth and its movement on
its axis, winds and ocean
currents curve instead of
traveling straight. This curving
is known as Coriolis effect.
• Hoarse Latitude: (30-60) little
wind, so in the past, horses
were thrown over board to
remove some weight.
• Summer in Southern Hemisphere, means winter in Northern Hemisphere…
this increases differences in polar and equatorial air.
• High level of Westerly's are stronger in NH in Winter
Exploring variations in
Temperature and winds:
Angle of the overhead sun, latitude and thickness of atmosphere: Lower
latitudes (equatorial regions) have higher temperatures than higher latitudes
(Poles) this is as a result of the amount of heating that each area receives. Places
near the equator receive direct heat on a small surface area, and experience little
energy loss via absorption, scattering and reflection, as there is a relatively small
amount of atmosphere to pass through. Towards the Poles, the surface area to be
heated increases, as does the amount of atmosphere to pass through, increasing
losses via, absorption, scattering, and reflection.
Height above sea level: It is important to remember that the atmosphere is heated
from ground level upwards via long-wave radiation. The higher up a mountain
you go, the smaller the surface area available to heat the atmosphere above. This,
in combination with a decrease in the ability of the air to retain heat results in
lower temperatures.
Distance from land and sea: Land and sea have vastly different specific heat
capacities (the amount of energy needed to raise 1kg of a substance by 1 degree).
They have different abilities to absorb, transfer and radiate heat energy.
Generally, land surfaces respond to heating on a daily basis (diurnal) meaning
that differences between day and night temperatures can be into double figures,
but sea surfaces respond over a period of months and retain heat for longer. The
sea heats up and cools down more slowly than the land, acting to moderate
temperatures for coastal locations.
Surface pressure
There are many pressure belts existing on Earth, due to the rotation and tilt of the Earth on its
axis, these vary.
In the equator region, warm air rises causing a low pressure belt. Whereas at the polar regions cold
air sinks, thus creating a high pressure belt. The sub polar regions, around latitudes 60-65 degrees
North and South of the equator, the rotation of the Earth flings the bulk of the air towards the
equator,, creating a low pressure belt. These four main pressure belts however are not continuous
because the surface of the earth is composed of both land and water, which are heated in different
ways.
1. The first main pressure belt is the equatorial low pressure belt, which extends 5 degrees north and
south. Being at the equator is receives direct sunlight and thus the air here is warm, this air
expands and rises, creating low pressure in the process. This is a region of calm air known as the
Doldrums, due to its very little winds.
2. The second pressure belt, is the subtropical high pressure belt, that coincides with latitudes of 30-
33degrees north and south. The air that rises eventually meets the tropopause where it can rise no
further, it cools while rising and spreads outwards towards the poles, gradually cooling back down
to the surface of 30degrees, which causes an increase in air pressure. The air flings off the polar
region due to the rotation of the earth and also descends in this region thus adding to the already
high pressure existing in this region. The subtropical high pressure belt is an area of low winds and
so it is also known as the horse latitudes (an area where ship crew would throw horses overboard
to lighten the load and spare food after being caught in these areas).
3. The third major belt is the sub polar low pressure belt at latitudes 60-65degres. It is created mainly
to the rotation of the Earth, which swings the bulk of air towards the equator, these are areas of
storminess, especially in winter.
4. The forth and final pressure belt is the polar high pressure belt, located in the polar region. This
belt is created because in this region the air is extremely cold and heavy, leading to a high pressure.
5. Pressure belts are caused mainly due to the temperature differences on the Earths surface and
therefore move in stresponse to the migration of the sun. The sun shines vertically oer the Tropical
st
of
Cancer on June 21 . At this time all the pressure belts move about 5degreesndNorth. On the 21
September, the sunshine's vertically over the equator and on December 22 the sun shines
vertically over the tropic of Capricorn, thus all belts move 5degrees south (winter). The shifting of
pressure belts affects the direction of wind flow, causing wind belts during the year and as these
wind belts shift with the season, belts of precipitation change also.
Ocean Currents
Ocean currents
Ocean currents can be either warm or cold and they act to either raise or
lower temperatures of the coastal areas. Warm currents transfer heat away
from the Equator and towards the poles whilst cold currents carry water
towards the Equator. Major ocean currents circulate clockwise in the NH
and anticlockwise in the SH. They are caused by the influence of prevailing
winds blowing across the oceans, and mean in the same motion.
The dominant pattern is roughly circular and known as a GYRE
Water with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity.
converted to ice.
By contrast, heat is absorbed in the process of sublimation (snow
patches that disappear without melting.
Factors affecting…
occurs.
{ Evaporation
Initial humidity of the
air- if air is very dry
then strong
evaporation occurs;
if it is saturated then
very little occurs.
Supply of heat – the
WEATHERING
Weathering
• Describes the processes that break up rocks. There are three
types of weathering…
1. Chemical Weathering (Decomposition): Processes that
break down rocks atom by atom through chemical
reactions. Water plays a key role here.
2. Mechanical Weathering (Disintegration): The tearing
apart and breaking of rocks through physically destroying
them
3. Biological Weathering: When animals and vegetation (root
wedging) break up rocks.
Salt Crystallisation
Exfoliation
Pressure Release
Chemical Weathering
• Carbonation: Occurs on rocks with calcium carbonate such as chalk
and limestone. Rainfall combines with dissolved CO2 to form a
weak carbonic acid. When the carbonic acid and calcium carbonate
in rocks react they form a calcium bicarbonate which is soluble. This
is then carried away in percolating water, removing particles
holding the rock together and slowly breaking it apart.
• Hydrolysis: Occurs on rocks containing feldspar – notably granite.
Feldspar reacts with acid water to form kaolin, which is a soft
clay mineral which weakens the rock. It is described as the
chemical breakdown due to a reaction with water.
• Hydration: is the process whereby certain minerals absorb
water, expand and change.
• Oxidation: Is the reaction of a substance with oxygen. Especially
with iron compounds leading to rusting.
Carbonation ^ Chemical Hydration ^
Weathering
Hydrolysis v Carbonation
Weathering Controls: Climate
• The type and rate of
weathering varies with climate.
• Pelletier's diagram (1950) shows
how weathering is related to
moisture availability and
average annual temperatures in
an area.
• Cold temperatures for
instance, would increase the
number of freeze thaw cycles.
• Whereas in warm moist
regions chemical weathering
increases.
• Van Hoff's law states that the rate
of chemical weathering increases
2- 3 times for everything increase
in temperature of 10degrees
Weathering Controls: Geology
• Rock type and structure also influence the rate and type of weathering due to…
• Chemical composition
• Nature of cements in sedimentary rocks
• Joints and bedding planes
• Rock type: Determines that resistance of the rock to the weathering
processes that operate in a particular environment. Each rock type consists of
different minerals which are joined together by crystallisation, chemical
bonding or dementing for example – limestone consists of calcium carbonate
and is therefore susceptible to carbonation, whereas granite contains
feldspar and is therefore susceptable to hydrolysis.
• Rock structure: is also important as rocks consisting of many joints or faults
have lines of weakness along which penetrating weathering agents can attack,
whereas rocks without these are more resistance to weathering.
• Grain size: influences the speed at which rocks weather. Coarse grained rocks
weather quickly due to a large void space and high permeability, whereas fine
grained rocks offer a greater surface area and are therefore more resistant. The
importance of individual materials was stressed by Goldish (1938). Rocks
formed of resistance minerals such as quartz and feldspar in granite will resist
weathering, by contrast to those consisting of weaker
Limestone scenery
• Limestone pavement is a habitat with a high geological
interest. Forms of limestone pavement can be found in many
places in the world, especially in Alpine and Mediterranean
areas, but these lack the distinctive surface patterning seen
on British pavements.
How does limestone
scenery form?
1. Limestone is a hard sedimentary rock consisting of calcium carbonate, formed by
the deposition of plant and animal remains on the sea floor and is thus known as a
calcareous rock.
2. As limestone is a sedimentary rock, it is laid down in layers or ‘beds’ separated by
‘bedding planes’ which are caused by changes in deposition rates or content of
material deposited. Limestone pavements in England, Wales and Ireland are mainly
formed on deep beds of Carboniferous limestones which were deposited about
350 million years ago.
3. The formation of limestone pavements in the UK and Ireland began with the
scouring of the limestone by kilometre thick glaciers during the last ice age. The
weight of the ice removed the soil that lay over the limestone, and also fractured the
limestone along bedding planes. Fractured rocks were stripped away leaving level
platforms of limestone
4. From the flat limestone surfaces, the characteristic features of limestone pavement
have been formed by water in the glacially deposited soil exploiting cracks and
fissures in the rock such as bedding planes and joints (lines of weakness in the rock
generally running at 90o to bedding planes). These faults allow water to percolate
into the rock and dissolve it via carbonation solution, forming caverns and other
features.
5. Limestone pavement is a type of karst landform. Karst is the word for an area of
soluble rock in which the landforms are of a solutional nature where drainage is
usually underground through rock fissures rather than in surface streams.
Characteristics of
limestone
scenery
Features of limestone scenery
• Due to the solubility of limestone, limestone pavements are associated
with some very curious and unusual landforms. The most characteristic
surface feature of limestone pavements is their division into blocks,
called clints, bounded by deep vertical fissures known as grikes.Clints
and grikes form under relatively deep cover of soil where water,
carrying carbonic acid which is formed from dissolved carbon dioxide as
well as organic acids from decaying vegetation, picks out vertical lines
of weakness (joints) in the rock. These fissures widen over the years as
the acidic water preferentially attacks the lines of weakness. As the
carbonic acid dissolved the lime stone a swallow hole usually is formed
where water percolates through bedding planes and joints in the
limestone due to gravity. As it moves in faults in the limestone, it
continues to chemically weather the rock (carbonation solution)
creating a cavern. As calcium bicarbonate drips off the ceiling of the
cavern, wheather evaporates leaving behind a calcite deposit which
forms stalactites and stalagmites. As these grow bigger they sometimes
form, creating a pillar, therefore reversing the erosional process.
Sometimes however the cavern becomes very large and collapses under
gravity, leaving behind a gorge.
Factors controlling the
amount and rate of limestone
solution
1. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,
groundwater and soil
2. The amount of water in contact with the limestone
3. Water temperature (limestone is more soluble with lower
temperatures)
4. The turbulence of water
5. The presence of lead, iron, sulphides, sodium or
potassium in the water.
6. Limestone weathers more quickly under soil cover than bare
surfaces.
Granite Tors
• Granite is an igneous rock made up of 3
very resistant minerals to weathering
1. Quartz
2. Mica
3. Feldspar
Granite tors: are isolated blocks of granite which have weathered slower than the
granite around them.
Linton in 1955 advocated deep chemical weathering as the exponent, suggesting
that where joints in the rock were closer together the rock would be more deeply
weathered and so easily removed by later erosion. He saw a prolonged chemical
weathering under tropical conditions as the main factor in tor genesis.
A second theory favoured by arctic workers suggests mechanical weathering during
the ice age was responsible. King believed them to be nothing more than the
residual remains of sub aerial erosion surfaces.
SLOPE PROCESSES
AND DEVELOPMENT
Slopes
• A slope is described as an inclined surface or angle of
inclination and can be…
1. sub aerial (exposed)
2. sub-marine (underwater)
3. Aggradational (depositional)
4. Degradational (erosional)
5. Transportational
6. Or a mixture
• Given the large scale of the definition geographers generally
study the hill slope (the area between the water shed and
the base)
• Slope form = the shape of the slopes cross section
• Slope processes = activities acting on the slope
• Slope evaluation = development of slopes over time
Mass movement
• Mass movement, is the downward movement by gravity of rock, regolith
(loose, weathered rock) and/or soil on the sloped top layers of the Earth’s
surface. It is a significant part of the process of erosion because it moves
material from high elevations to lower elevations. It can be triggered by
natural events like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and floods but gravity
is its driving force. Water often acts as a lubricant in mass movement.
Causes of mass movement
• Safety Factor (relative strength or resistance of a slope) Rock particles on slopes are held on the slope
by friction in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Their steady state (not moving) represents a balance
between the internal (within/ between the particles known as internal or shear strength) and
external forces (known as external/shear stress). When shear strength = shear stress = no movement.
If one is greater than the other = movement.
• Volcanic activity many times causes huge mudflows when the icy cover of a volcano melts and
mixes with the soil to form mud as the magma in the volcano stirs preceding an eruption.
• Human modification of the land or weathering and erosion help loosen large chunks of earth and
start them sliding downhill.
• Vibrations from machinery, traffic, weight loading from accumulation of snow; stockpiling of rock
or ore; from waste piles and from buildings and other structures.
• Gravitational pull of the earth on soil, rocks, and mud.
• Water is a very important factor in influencing slope stability. Particles in the soil stick together if it
rains, the rain infiltrates via the pores and lubricates the weathered material therefore reduces
friction and makes the weathered material easier to move down the slopes. Water may also increase
external stress because it adds weight to the slope (because of an increase in pore pressure)
• If an area has decreased vegetation, it will be more prone to mass wasting. Vegetation stabilizes
soil particles on the surface and anchors soil under the surface through its root system. This is
much like comparing two sand dunes on a beach. If one sand dune has grasses growing on it, it will
resist the erosion of water and wind better than a sand dune without vegetation.
• Another factor that plays a role in mass wasting is earthquakes. The violent shaking that occurs in
a region where an earthquake takes place has the ability to break off sections of mountains or
hills, causing them to slide down the slope.
Shear Strength and Resistance
• Slope failure is caused by two factors…
1. A reduction in the internal resistance or shear strength of
a slope (ability to overcome gravity)
2. An increase in shear stress (forces trying to pull a
mass downslope)
3. When the shear strength and shear stress are in
equillibrium there is no mass movement – when shear
stress exceeds a slopes shear strength mass movement will
occur.
• Downward movement can be opposed by…
• Friction: can be overcome on gentle slope angles if water is
present.
• Cohesive forces: bind particles to the slope. Clay may have
high cohesion, but this may reduce as water contents get too
high.
• Vegetation: binds the soil and therefore stabilises slopes
Factors that contribute
to shear stress
• Removal of lateral support through undercutting or slope
steepening – Erosion by rivers, glaciers, wave action,
faulting, previous rock falls or slides.
• Removal of underlying support –Undercutting by rivers,
waves, sub-surface solution, loss of strength by extrusion
of underlying sediments.
• Loading of slope – Weight of water, vegetation,
and accumulation of debris.
• Lateral pressure – Water in cracks, freezing in cracks, swelling
and pressure release.
• Transient stresses – Earthquakes and movement of trees
in the wind.
Factors that contribute
to reduced shear
strength:
• Weathering effects – Disintegration of granular rocks,
hydration of clay materials, dissolution of cementing
minerals in rock or soil.
• Changes in pore water pressure – Saturation or softening
of material
• Changes in structure – Creation of fissures in shale's and
clays, remoulding of sand and sensitive clay.
• Organic effects – Burrowing of animals and decaying tree root
Slope Controls - Climate
• Many slopes vary with climate…
• In humid areas slopes are generally rounder due to
chemical weathering, soil creep and fluvial transport.
• By contrast, in arid areas, slopes are jaggered or straight owing
to mechanical weathering.
• Climatic geomorphology studies how different processes
operate in different climatic zones. Climate affects the type and
rate of processes that operate in the region. For example in
humid tropics, accelerated chemical weathering occurs due to
hot wet conditions and the availability of organic acids. Deep
clays are produced favouring low angle slopes.
Slope Controls – Geological
Structures
• Faults, angles of dip and vulcanicity
influence the strength of rocks and
create potential weaknesses within
it.
• Rock types and character affect
the vulnerability to weathering
and the degree of resistance to
downslope movement.
• Faulting may produce steep valley
sides and folding can produce steep
or gentle slopes.
• Geological structure can influence
the occurrence of land slides – slopes
consisting of multiple rock types are
more vulnerable to landslides due to
differential erosion.
• Regular jointing in rocks may also
increase the risk of movement as
well as increase the amount of water
that enters the rock.
Slope Controls - Regolith
• Regolith is the layer of
unconsolidated material (lose)
at the earths surface covering
bed rock. It includes…
• Soil
• Scree
• Weathered bedrock and
• Deposited material.
In terms of the planet as a whole, natural change accounts for all population
increase.
P=(B-D) ±M
P=population
B=Births
D=Deaths
M=Migration
Key definitions
Population Structure; the breakdown of a country’s population into groups defined by age and sex
Death Rate; the number of deaths per 1000 per year.
Birth Rate; the number of life births per 1000 per year
Infant Mortality; a measure of the number of infants dying under one year of age, usually
expressed as the number of deaths per 1000 live births per year.
Natural Increase/Decrease; the difference between the numbers of births and deaths for every
hundred people per year. Expressed as a percentage.
Dependency Ratio; shows how many young and old people depend on people of working age.
% 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 15 + % 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 65
100( % 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 15 𝑎𝑛𝑑 64 )
Life expectancy; the average age to which the population lives. Expressed in terms of years.
Male and female figures often given separately.
Optimum Population; the population at which the quality of life of the people of a country or a
region is the highest possible, at a given level of technological development.
Overpopulation; when any increase in population reduced the average quality of life of the
population.
Under Population; when an increase in population could increase the average quality of life.
Fertility
Fertility varies widely around the world with the Crude Birth Rate 52/1000 in Niger to only 7/1000 in
Monaco. The Crude birth rate is the most basic measure of fertility – this is the total number of births in a year
per 1000 people. However, for a more accurate measurement of fertility, the fertility rate is used. This is the
number of live births per 1000 women ages 15-49 in one year. The fertility rate ranges from a high 7.4 in
Niger to a low 1 in Hong Kong.
Factors affecting fertility – Social
Healthcare: Access to/ improvements in healthcare has a huge impact on
infant mortality rates
🞑 People have access to contraception and family planning which reduces fertility rates
🞑 Access to health care, better sanitation and diet also help decrease infant mortality rates
Education: Education plays an important role in fertility rates, especially in
females
🞑 Education allows women greater access to information about contraception/ family
planning, healthcare and nutrition
🞑 If women are more articulate/educated they can assume a more equal and less
subservient role in the household and society
🞑 Education allows women opportunities to expand their careers, this will reduce fertility rates
as marriages and child birth and more likely to be delayed
🞑 Higher female literacy rates lead to improved knowledge of birth control – as well as more
opportunities for employment and career choices – they may embark on their career instead
of having a family – this will lead to lower fertility rates due to greater social awareness and
opportunities
🞑 75% of the illiterate persons in the world are women
Factors affecting fertility – demographic
Economic
🞑 Children are seen as economic assets in LEDCs.
They can be used as workers on land or to bring in
more income.
🞑 In MEDCs they are seen as expensive as education and
the cost of childcare makes it more expensive to have
a child. In the UK the estimated cost of raising a child
to 21 is
£166,000.
Stronger economy tends to mean greater
investment in health, housing, nutrition and
education – thus lowering mortality
Fertility decline
The main reasons for slow down in population growth is that
fertility levels have fallen faster then previously expected. In
the late 1960s after a quarter century of increasing growth,
the rate of population growth began to slow down. Since then
some LEDCs have seen there speediest falls in fertility ever
known. A fertility of 2.1 children per women is the
replacement level fertility, below which populations begin
falling. According to the 2010 world population data sheet,
there are already 87 countries with total fertility below 2.1.
The movement to replacement level fertility is undoubtedly
one of the most dramatic social changes in history allowing
for more and more women to work and children to be
educated.
Highest fertility rates
Mortality
The crude death rate is a very generalised measure of mortality. The infant
mortality rate and life expectancy are much more accurate measures.
🞑 Crude death rate - The average annual number of deaths a year per 1000 of the
population.
🞑 Age specific death rate - This shows death rates per 1000 population by sex
for age groups e.g. under 1, 1 - 4, 5 - 15 etc.
🞑 Life Expectancy - The average number of years to be lived by a group of people
born in the same year, if mortality at each age remains constant in the future.
🞑 Infant Mortality rate - The number of deaths of children under the age of 1 per 1000
live births per year.
The causes of deaths vary significantly between LEDCs and MEDCs.
🞑 In LEDCs infectious and parasitic diseases account for over 40 % of all
deaths. Expected life expectancy 64 years in LEDCs
🞑 By contrast in MEDC these diseases are relatively low impact and instead heart
disease and cancers are the large killers. Expected life expectancy 75 years in
MEDCs
Factors affecting mortality rates
Age distribution - The higher the proportion of old people to young people, the
higher the death rate since older people are more likely to die.
Gender - Women generally have a higher life expectancy than men, possibly due
to the lifestyle or biological differences preventing certain diseases. Occupation - In
some countries people may be employed in dangerous occupations increasing the
death rate e.g. Timber cutters in America with 105 deaths in 2000.
Income - Low income levels correlate to a low life expectancy whilst high income
levels correlate with a high life expectancy. This is because a high income allows people
to afford medical care, higher standards of living and healthier foods, prolonging their
life.
Literacy/Education- Areas with high literacy levels have higher life expectancies
whereas areas with low literacy rates have low life expectancies. The reasoning behind
this is that when people can read & write, they can obtain higher paying jobs and
therefore receive a higher income improving their life expectancy. In addition, when
people can read they can read information on preventing the spread of disease and basic
hygiene standards improving life expectancy.
Factors affecting mortality rates
Access to food - Countries with a lack of food have low life expectancies since
the people suffer from malnutrition and are more susceptible to diseases due to a
weakened immune system increasing the mortality rates.
Medical Facilities - Access to vaccination programs helps to prolong life
expectancy and prevent the spread of diseases. Equipment such as mosquito nets
also help prolong life expectancy. Access to medical clinics and doctors will also
help to substantially lower the death rate. Access to and usage of these services is
dependant on income and literacy rates however.
Environmental factors – areas with extreme will be more prone to hypothermia
and heat stoke and thus pose greater threats to increase mortality rates.
Furthermore, areas in seismic zones are more likely to have higher mortality rates
as natural disasters can cause disasters (floods and earthquakes etc.)
Socio-economic factors – wealthier areas will have better sanitation and
housing, whereas poor countries that lack descent quality housing, fresh
uncontaminated water will have higher mortality rates.
WAR
Global Crude DR 1950-2005
Factors affecting infant mortality rates
Age of Mother: Younger mothers (less than 20 years) giving birth generally
results in higher infant mortality rates. The same is true for older women (40
- 49 years).
Health of mother: if the mother consumes alcohol, drugs, smokes or unhealthy
food whilst pregnant the infant mortality rate is likely to be higher
Sanitation: if the child is born at home in a poorly sanitised area, it may be
exposed to disease whilst its immune system is poor leading to death early on
Sex of Infant: Baby girls are more likely to die from neglect than boys due to the
requirement of a boy for work, looking after parents, land etc. in some countries.
This is particularly true in China
Education Level of Mother: Areas with high literacy rates generally have low
IMRs since mothers are able for learn about child care, what to eat & do during
pregnancy and how to stay healthy.
Income: Countries with a high IMR generally have a low income and countries
with a high income generally have a low IMR. Countries with more money have
access to better sanitary healthcare, vaccinations and more nutritious food resulting
in a reduced IMR.
Highest/Lowest IMR global
World IFMR
Factors that affect world population
Healthcare
🞑 A high standard of health care in a country will help to lower infant mortality, reducing the birth rate as people don’t need to have as
many children in order to ensure some survive.
🞑 High health care standards ensure people have good access to modern health treatment, prolonging life expectancy and lowering
death rate.
🞑 In areas with balanced, healthy diets the death rate will be lowered but in countries with poor diets or a lack of food the
death rate will increase due to malnutrition.
🞑 Countries with high health care standards will have access to retroviral drugs giving them the potential to tackle HIV and other
STIs.
Education
🞑 Emancipation of women will reduce the birth rate as women are able to get careers rather than staying at home and nurturing
children also making them less likely to have children.
🞑 Compulsory education ensures that people are educated about hygiene, STIs and contraception. Knowledge of basic hygiene will lower
the death rate since people can maintain a better standard of hygiene (assuming the necessary items are available). Education about
contraception will help reduce birth rate since people will be aware of the benefits of using contraception but again, this relies on the
provision of contraceptives from governments or charities.
Social Provisions
🞑 If proper social care is provided to the elderly and they are well looked after, death rate will be reduced since they are able to live
longer.
🞑 If clean water is available, death rate is reduced as water born diseases such as cholera aren’t prevalent. I
🞑 The availability of media makes it easier to educate people and raise awareness about outbreaks of diseases potentially reducing death
rate. The availability of media is also important for educating people about hygiene, avoiding disease etc. if they were unable to attend
school.
Factors that affect world population
Cultural Factors
In some cultures and religions, people are respected more if they have many children resulting in an
increased birth rate. For example, in some cultures having many children is seen as a sign of virility in men.
Certain religions view birth control and abortion as bad in the eyes of their beliefs. As a result they discourage the use
of these procedures resulting in an increased birth rate in countries where these religions are prevalent.
Some religions and cultures relegate the role of women preventing them from obtaining an education or
career and encouraging/forcing them to have large families which results in an increased birth rate.
Political Factors
Pro natal and Anti natal policies
If taxes in a country are high, people may not have children as they can’t afford to, decreasing the birth rate. In addition,
young people may migrate away from the country if they can afford to in order to escape the taxes reducing the countries
(young, fertile) population and also resulting in an increased death rate due to the knock on effects of an aging
population.
During times of warfare the birth rate will fall significantly (since people are occupied fighting) and the death rate
will often rise substantially. After a war however, there is often a “baby boom” resulting in a massive increase in the
birth rate of a country.
BR – DR relationship LEDC/MEDC
Birth Rates (BR) Death Rates (DR)
Economic
Topography Water
availability
Factors
affecting
population
distribution
Climate Natural
resources
Factors affecting population distribution
Factor
High population Low population
Topography of
low lying, flat areas will Low population: rugged high mountains
land encourage settlement. Flat are a particularly difficult place to settle
land is likely to have a deep e.g. Himalayas.
soil layer e.g. Nile Delta.
Water A fresh water supply will areas where the water supply is
encourage settlement. inconsistent, in short supply or polluted
will have difficulty maintaining a
population e.g. Ethiopia
Climate Nice, stable climates : harsh climates will discourage
settlement. Such as Australian outback
Vegetation temperate areas have Vegetation such as that found in the
easily manageable Amazon rainforest can be a very
vegetation. physical barrier to settlement.
Factors affecting population distribution
Factor High population Low population
Soils high population - Deep humus filled Thin, unproductive or damaged soils cannot
soils or those enriched by silt produce high yields so fail to support a large
deposits allow a good agricultural population.
yield so can support a larger
population e.g. Nile Delta
Diseases A country can have sufficient Many countries particularly around the tropics
and pests finance to eradicate diseases and have huge problems with diseases and pests
pests
Economic Countries with successful industry, Poorly developed economies with little
rich economies and good communication, industry and technological
communication and transport systems advancements cannot support major populations
often are densely populated. and therefore are often sparsely populated.
Natural countries with easily accessible countries lacking raw/natural materials don't have
resources natural resources can sustain a the ability to trade them and exploit them for profit
large population and therefore have sparse populations
Population distribution
Population distribution describes the way that people are
spread out across the Earth’s surface.
Population density describes the number of people living
in a given area. Total population / total land area in km2
Demographic transition model
The Demographic Transition Model (DMT) shows how the birth and death rate of
a population affect the overall population over time. It is split into four distinct
stages. Many have questioned the possibility of a fifth section which our global
population would be entering in the 21st century.
Stage one (High fluctuating)
A period of high birth rates and death rates which both fluctuate.
Population growth is small.
Reasons for high birth rates:
1. Limited birth control and family
2. Lack of education
3. Children viewed as source of income
4. Infant mortality rates high so this encouraged people to have lots of
children in case complications arose.
Reasons for high death rates:
1. Poor healthcare and sanitation/hygiene levels
2. Poor nutrition and famine
3. High rates of diseases
In stage one, the high birth and death rates cancel each other out,
resulting in a low total population.
Stage 1 represents the global population a few hundred years ago or the
modern local population of areas such as the Amazon and very remote
areas of Bangladesh.
Stage two (Early expanding)
A period of high birth rates but falling death rates. The
population begins to rise almost exponentially as there is a
dramatic drop in the death rate.
Reasons for falling Death Rates:
1. Improved health care – medical advances
2. Technological advancements
Reasons for no change in birth rates:
1. Lack of education
2. Lack of contraception
3. Religion influential and opposed contraception meaning that the
total population rose quickly
Stage 2 represents the global population during the industrial
revolution or local populations in areas such as Ghana or
Afghanistan
Stage three (late expanding)
A period of falling Birth rates and continually
falling death rates.
Reasons for falling birth rates:
1. Improvements in education
2. Changing socio-economic conditions
3. Growing availability of contraception and family
planning
4. Rise in materialism
5. Compulsory schooling – children expensive
Stage 3 represents the global population during the
mid-20th century or countries such as Mexico
Stage four (late fluctuating)
A period with low birth rates and death rates which
fluctuate. Population growth is small/slow as fertility
levels continue to drop and the birth and death rates
begin to cancel each other out.
Why?
1. Birth rates are the lowest they have ever been as women
begin to choose a career over having multiple children or
have smaller families to increase their income and
improve their quality of life.
Stage 4 represents the current global population or
countries such as South Korea and the United States.
Stage five (decline)
There is some controversy over whether stage 5 should be
incorporated into the model, however in this stage the birth
rate actually falls below the death rate, resulting in a
natural decrease in the population. In this period the death
rate remains low and the population begins to age.
Reasons for low birth rate:
1. Ageing population
2. Greater financial independence of women
3. Non tradition lifestyles – same sex couples
4. Concern of impact of rising population
Stage 5 possibly represents the future global
population or countries such as Italy and Japan.
Age/gender pyramids
The population pyramid can be split into three sections…
1. The young dependent population (<15)
2. The economically active (16-64)
3. The elderly dependent population (65>)
Advantages Disadvantages
Can be applied to all countries As with all models, the DTM is
in world predictions just a guide and cannot be used
Flexible timescales to predict changes. Many
Easy to understand and offers countries will have not and will
reasons for level of development not pass through some of the
stages, for example the United
Provides a starting point for States entered the model at the
the study of demographic second stage as they gained
change their population through
Enables comparisons to be emigration. The model does not
made demographically account for these sorts of
human and natural impacts
which could cause a huge
change to a countries
population.
Demographic Transition Stage 4 Case
Study: Argentina
Since the middle of the 19th Century, Argentina has maintained a strong economy, keeping on par with
Western Europe and North America. Much of the country’s development in economic and social
mobility has been steady, combining with the technological and medical advances that allow for a quite
rapid progression through Stages 1-3 of the DTM. Through industrialization cities became the epicentre
of life, causing internal migration as people move from rural to urban areas. Due to the limited space
within cities, and the changing demands of work, smaller family size becomes an indirect result of
urbanization. Argentina’s transition to Stage 4 is unique when compared to the rest of South America
because of how early it was accomplished – the birth rate has been in decline since the early 1900s with
the only exception being the “baby boom” post World War II.
Today Argentina’s rate of natural increase is 1.1%. Though this figure is below replacement level the
country still has a higher birth rate (19/1000) than death rate (7/1000), so total population will still rise.
But why the early decline in birth rate? The simple answer: gender equality. Argentine women have
been protected, at least in theory, by a civil code that outlaws gender discrimination since 1869.
Women maintain a relatively high level of employment and educational opportunities in relation to
men. Gender equality and a high status of women are large components of lowered birth rates. And
while the Argentine government has historically been against contraception, today condoms and birth
control are widely available without cost.
Low birth rates and low death rates characterize the countries in Stage 4 of the Demographic
Transition Model. Not since Stage 1 of the DTM have birth rates and death rates been so equal in
value, the main difference being that in Stage 4 total population is already high. Countries will remain
categorized as Stage 4 until they reach the point where death rate exceeds birth rate, the definition of
Stage 5; but there is no formula or estimate for how long that transition will take.
Demographic Transition Model Stage 2 Case
Study: Afghanistan
In 2013, Afghanistan had one of the higher rates of natural increase (birth rate minus death rate; or net increase)
in the world at 2.7% – much higher than any other central Asian nation. Data provided from
the Population Reference Bureau had the Afghan birth rate at (35/1000) and the death rate at (8/1000). What is most
significant here is that the death rate in Afghanistan is low and it continues to decline. Only a decade ago the death rate
was over 20/1000, peaking around 2004. This fast reduction in the death rate is interesting to demographers because
although life expectancy has risen quickly, one of the primary indicators of a lowered death rate (child mortality)
remains high. Afghanistan currently has the highest rate of child mortality in the world, where one in ten children do not
live passed the age of 5. Why then the decrease in death rate? Overall public health has greatly improved, and even
though the child mortality rate is still high it is an improvement, as is the increased access to food and sanitation that has
allowed adults to live longer. Quite remarkable for a country that has experienced so much war during the same time
period.
Looking beyond the numbers of birth and death rate brings the discussion back to the Demographic Transition Model’s
focus on progress. Like Afghanistan, many countries in Stage 2 are categorized as “developing.” The rates of birth and
death are both the cause and effect of social and political factors within a country. Afghanistan has experienced decades
of war both internally, and externally, and this has had significant impacts on the overall health and health care system
of the country. With continued improvement to both, the expected outcome determined by the DTM is a transition into
Stage 3 where total population growth continues, but at a lower rate. The DTM does not provide a time table for
transition, but the large gap between the birth and death may signal that the country is nearing the end of Stage 2. For
that transition to occur, Afghanistan will need to address outstanding social and economic factors that lead to lower birth
rates, most notably in the areas of education and the status of women. Afghanistan has a very high illiteracy rate and
limited educational opportunities for women, both indicators towards a high birth rate. Without either of those issues
being addressed, the country will remain in Stage 2, with a high rate of population growth. If the current growth rate
continues the total population of Afghanistan is expected to double in just 25 years.
Population pyramids
Population pyramids give information about a
country. They show the population structure by age
and sex as well as the relative proportion of the
population who are dependents or economically
active
The population pyramid can be split into three
sections:
🞑 Young dependents (<15)
🞑 Economically Active (16-64)
Economically active
(16-64)
Females on average
live longer than
males
Advantages Disadvantages
Yields are 2-4x greater than that of
traditional varieties. High inputs of fertiliser and pesticides are
The shorter growing season has allowed the required to optimise production. This is costly
introduction of an extra crop in some areas. in both economic and environmental terms.
Farming incomes have increased, allowing the High yielding varies require more weed
purchase of machinery, better seeds, fertilisers control and are often more susceptible to
and pesticides.
pests and disease.
The diet of rural communities is now more
varied. Middle- and higher income farmers have often
Local infrastructure has been upgraded to benefited much more than the majority on low
accommodate a stronger market approach. incomes, thus widening the income gap in
rural communities.
Employment has been created in
industries supplying farms with inputs Mechanisation has increased rural
unemployment.
Some HYVs have an inferior taste
The role and constraints of
sustaining populations
There are a number of potential constraints in developing resources to
sustain changing populations…
🞑 War is a major issue for development. It significantly retards development and the ability
for a country to sustain its population. This is due to that fact that in conflicts water, food
and other resources are deliberately destroyed in the attempt to make life as difficult as
possible for the opposing side.
🞑 Trade barriers are another significant constraint. If tariffs, quotas and regulations
imposed by MEDCs are too stringent this will reduce the export potential of poorer
countries and therefore hinder their ability to develop
🞑 Climatic and hazardous factors also play a key role. For example flooding can lead to
deprived investment in agriculture and other aspects of development because of the
potential losses involved.
Droughts and desertification have considerable impact on the ability to sustain changing
populations.
Volcanic eruptions can devastate large areas, covering farmland with lava, burying
settlements and destroying infrastructure.
Earthquakes can have a significant impact on resource development
Overpopulation, optimum
population and under population
Optimum population is when there is a balance between the population size
and the amounts of resources available.
🞑 The reality of achieving OPTIMUM population is difficult in practice because of 2
main reasons:
1. Population sizes are not static but DYNAMIC and grow or shrink over time.
2. Technology changes, allowing the exploitation of natural resources that might not
have previously been available (e.g. technology has allowed us to farm increasing
amounts of land in the UK that 200 years ago would have been inadequate for
farming).
However, beyond a certain level, rising numbers place increasing pressure on
resources and living standards begin to decline. Indeed, overpopulation is a
condition where there are too many people living in a nation or area relative to the
natural resources (food, water, fuel, building materials etc) that exist in that place
(the UK could be considered overpopulated in terms of food supply as we only
produce 60percent of the food we consume)
In contrast, under population is where there are too few people living in an area to
efficiently exploit and use the natural resources within that area (e.g. Northern
Canada has huge mineral wealth but too few people to exploit those minerals
because of climatic constraints)
Population theories - Pessimistic
The ideas of Thomas Malthus:
Malthus believed that the population increases faster than the supporting food resources and as a result an
increase in population will lead to an increase in demand for food, which will lead to less food per person,
resulting in increased mortality, decreased fertility and eventual decrease in population growth. Malthus believed
that food supply increased arithmetically (1-2-3) whilst human population tends to increase geometrically
multiplying itself (1-2-4-8) and thus population would outstrip food supply until a catastrophe occurred in the
form of famine, disease or war.
However, Malthus was clearly influenced by events that had occurred in or before the 18th century and therefore he
couldn’t have foreseen some technological advancements in agriculture that allow resources to be produced well
above his mathematical predictions.
Supporters of Thomas Malthus ideology are called Neo-Malthusians and they argue that expanding population
will lead to unsustainable pressure on food and other resources, highlighting that in recent years..
🞑 Steady global decline in the area of farmland per person
🞑 The steep rise in the cost of many food products in many years.
🞑 The growing scarcity of fish in many parts of the world
🞑 The already apparent impact of Climate change on agriculture in some world regions
Population theories - Optimistic
Boserup’s theory:
In 1965 Ester Boserup, a Danish economist asserted that an increase in population would
stimulate technologists to increase food production. As boserup said any rise in population
would increase demand for food and this would act as an incentive to change agrarian
technology and produce more food. Her theory can be summed up by the sentence
‘necessity is the mother of invention’. Therefore population growth will spark innovators
who will solve the problems the increasing population has caused therefore making it
sustainable for a growing population.
Supporters of Boserup’s theory are known as Neo-Malthusians and they have optimists
believing that human ingenuity will continue to conquer resource problems. They highlight a
number of continuing advances which include
1. The development of new resources
2. The replacement of less efficient with more efficient resources
3. The rapid development of green technology with increase research and
development in this growing economic sector
4. Important advances in agricultural reserch
5. Stabilising levels of consumption in some MEDCs
The concept of a population ceiling and
population adjustments over time
Studies of growth of animal and fungus
populations show that population numbers may
either crash after reaching a high level or reach an
equilibrium around the carrying capacity. These
contrasting scenarios are represented by S and J-
growth curves. Both incorporate the concept of a
population ceiling
Population ceiling is the point beyond which a
population cannot grow because of the influence
of limiting factors such as lack of food, space and
disease.
S-Growth curve
S-curves begin with exponential growth, but beyond
a certain population size the growth rate gradually
slows, eventually resulting in a stable population.
Research shows that population growth reduces
more in larger populations.