WATER

HYDROLOGY
 HYDROLOGY
• study of the movement, distribution, and quality of
water  on the surface, beneath the surface and
through the atmosphere of the earth. With primary
concern of fresh water.
• The study of ocean is known as oceanography
Groundwater Watershed Area
recharge

River basin

Tributaries
Water table
GROUNDWATER RECHARGE & DISCHARGE
Aquifers are typically made up of gravel, sand, sandstone,
or fractured rock, like limestone. Water can move through
these materials because they have large connected spaces
that make them permeable. The speed at which
groundwater flows depends on the size of the spaces in the
soil or rock and how well the spaces are connectedcalled
aquifers.
• Groundwater is the water found
underground in the cracks and
spaces in soil, sand and rock. It
is stored in and moves slowly
through geologic formations of
soil, sand and rocks
What is an Aquifers?
• Aquifers are typically made up of gravel, sand,
sandstone, or fractured rock, like limestone. Water
can move through these materials because they
have large connected spaces that make them
permeable.

• The speed at which groundwater flows depends on

the size of the spaces in the soil or rock and how
well the spaces are connected called aquifers.

• Wells can be drilled into aquifers and water can be

pumped out. Rain slowly adds water (or ‘recharges’)
to the porous soils and rock of the aquifer. But you
have to be careful not to pump more water out than
the aquifer capacity – if you do, the water table will
drop and wells may run dry.
Movement and storage of groundwater
Saturated Zone: the subsurface
zone in which all rock opening are
fill in water

Water table: the upper surface of

the zone of saturation

The topography of the water

table follows the contours of the
land.

The water table rises or falls

depending on the season and the
amount of precipitation
Rainfall Measurement
“ In January, Kuala Lumpur received an
average of 147mm of rain”

This statement means, in the month of January, 1m2 area

in Kuala Lumpur is receiving an average 147mm in height
of rain water

147 mm
1000mm
1000mm
QUANTITATIVE HYDROLOGY

• Interception refers to precipitation that does

not reach the soil, but is instead intercepted by
the leaves, branches of plants and the forest
floor.’

• Interception is that portion of precipitation

which, while falling, is intercepted by aerial
portion of vegetation, buildings and other
objects
• The water that is retained by vegetation
surfaces that is later evaporated into the
atmosphere, or absorbed by the plant is called
INTERCEPTION LOSS.

• Interception loss prevents water from reaching

the ground surface and is regarded as a primary
water loss
 QUANTITATIVE HYDROLOGY

Throughfall is water which falls through spaces

Gauge to measure in the vegetation canopy, or which drips from
throughfall the leaves, twigs and stems and falls to the
ground

R ain
DIY uge
ga
Stemflow is precipitation
that travels down the
surface of stems to the soil
 QUANTITATIVE HYDROLOGY

• Infiltration is the downward entry of water into the soil.

• Infiltration rate is expressed in inches per hour. Rainwater

must first enter the soil for it to be of value. Water moves
more quickly through the large pores of a sandy soil
compared to slower movement through a clay soil with small
pores.

• Infiltration is an indicator of the soil’s ability to allow water

movement into and through the soil profile. Soil temporarily
stores water, making it available for root uptake, plant
growth and habitat for soil organisms.
QUANTITATIVE HYDROLOGY

• How much water evaporates from area with a pan of

water
• Measure and monitor how much water leaves the pan in a
day
• Estimate the evaporation from the lakes
• Pan evaporation from lakes multiplying with 0.75
QUANTITATIVE HYDROLOGY

Surface runoff/Runoff are precipitation

that falls to the earth surface and flow
above ground into the streams and rivers
Rational method to determine Runoff by
using mass balance
= -
S = Storage
P = Volume of precipitation
R = Volume of runoff
Water Resources Engineering
• Supplying water for human use
• Developing methods of avoiding
damage from excess water (floods)
• Removing water when humans are
finished using it
WATER
FLOOD WATER ENGINEERING
FLOOD WATER ENGINEERING Types of Floods
Flash Flood
Rapid flooding with water flow at
high speed. Mainly caused by
intense rain. Less interception by
vegetation would also cause
increase in surface runoff
The flood would stop abruptly as it
starts

Coastal Flooding
When seawater rises due to storm,
the coast is flooded by seawater

River ( or fluvial) Flood:

When a river is fill with water beyond
its capacity. The surplus water
overflows the banks and runs into
adjoining low-lying lands.
FLOOD WATER ENGINEERING Types and Causes of Flood
Urban Flooding
Increased urbanization means more concrete structure
and compacted land. Less water infiltrates ground and
nearly all precipitation needs to be transported to the
sewage system. High intensity rainfall can cause flooding
when the city sewage system and draining canals do not
have the necessary capacity to drain away the amounts
of rain that are falling.

Ponding (or pluvial) Flood

Pluvial flooding occurs when an
extremely heavy rain saturates
drainage systems and the excess
water cannot be absorbed.
FLOOD CONTROL AND BARRIERS

STORM WATER DRAINAGE

• It’s a network of structures, channels and
underground pipes that carry stormwater
(rain water) to ponds, lakes, streams and
rivers. The network consists of both
public and private systems.

• It’s an integral part of the system in the

county that is designed to control the
quantity, quality, timing and distribution
of storm runoff. It’s not part of the which
carries water and waste from drains
(sinks, bathtubs, showers, etc.) and toilets
to a treatment plant to be treated and
filtered.

• Stormwater does not flow to a treatment

plant.
 FLOOD CONTROL AND BARRIERS
FLOOD CONTROL
Reforestation, dams, levee,
weir, floodway and reservoirs

Q=CxixA
Q = Maximum rate run off
C = runoff coefficient
i = rainfall intensity
A = drainage basin area

If all rainfall becomes runoff, C would be 1, however due to

interception, evaporation and infiltration, the C reduce
accordingly. It depends on type of soil, vegetation and slope
Levees as A Flood Mitigation Option

• The most economical flood mitigation option for reducing

flood risks is the construction of levees, which are also
known as dikes and earth embankments

• Levees are defined as raised earth embankments built

along rivers, lakes and seas to protect floodplains and low-
lying areas from flooding

• Some of the major levee implementation projects that has

been completed in Malaysia can be found at Sungai Perai
(Penang), Sungai Muda (Kedah) and Sungai Kerian (Perak,
Kedah and Pulau Pinang).

• These levee projects have benefited the communities

previously living in flood prone areas by reducing flood
occurrences and improving their social economic life
 Channelization of Rivers or Streams 

Channelization involves human modification

and control of natural, existing waterways,
usually to permit or promote economic
development or to protect already
established urban, agricultural and industrial
developments.

A specific channelization project may be

undertaken for one or more of a number of
reasons:

(1) for flood control,

(2) to drain wetlands,
(3) to improve navigation and
(4) to prevent bank erosion and channel
migration, and thus to protect
neighboring property
 Diversion and Spillways

• These artificial channels divert water away from areas at particular risk of flooding, sending it
back into the river further downstream.
• Spillways generally have floodgates, which control the volume of water in the spillway .
 Dredging

Dredging is the removal of sediments and debris from the bottom of lakes,
rivers, harbors, and other water bodies.
 FLOOD CONTROL AND BARRIERS

Levees / embankment

FLOOD CONTROL
Reforestation, dams, levee, weir,
floodway and reservoirs

Weirs
 FLOOD CONTROL AND BARRIERS

The Thames Barrier, England

The Hagestein Weir , Netherlands
 FLOOD CONTROL AND BARRIERS

Eastern Scheldt Storm Surge Barrier,

Netherlands Watergates , Japan
WATER
DRINKING WATER
 What is the Malaysian Industrial Effluent Regulation?

• Industrial Effluent Regulation 2009 outlines the regulations that apply to any premises
which discharge or release industrial effluent or mixed effluent onto or into any soil, or
into any inland waters in Malaysia.

What is Standard A & Standard B? If your facility is nearby a river

(water intake), you will most
Standard A is applicable to discharge likely have to adhere to
into any water within any catchment Standard A. If your facility is far
areas, and standard B is applicable to from a river, you will most likely
discharge into any other inland have to adhere to Standard B.
waters or Malaysian waters.
For Negeri Sembilan, all industrial effluent must
adhere to Standard B regardless of location.
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand

• The rate of oxygen use by these microorganisms is commonly referred to as biochemical

oxygen demand (BOD).

• BOD is not a measure of some specific pollutant, but rather a measure of the amount of
oxygen required by aerobic bacteria and other microorganisms to stabilize decomposable
organic matter.

• If the microorganisms are brought into contact with a food supply (such human waste),
oxygen is used by the microorganisms during the decomposition.

• A very low rate of use would indicate

(1) contamination is absent,
(2) the available microorganisms are uninterested in consuming the available organics,
(3) the microorganisms are dead or dying.
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand

• The standard BOD test is run in the dark at 20 ◦C

for five days.
• This is defined as five-day BOD (BOD5), which is
the oxygen used in the first five days.
• The temperature is specified because the rate of
oxygen consumption is temperature dependent.
• The reaction must occur in the dark because
algae may be present and, if light is available,
may actually produce oxygen in the bottle.

The bottle is made of special nonreactive

glass and has a ground stopper with a lip,
which is used to create a water seal so that no
oxygen can get into or out of the bottle.
Figure 1 is a flow diagram of the
wastewater treatment process at the WTP,
indicating the four wastewater collection
points:

Raw wastewater (RW), primary effluent

(PE), secondary effluent (SE), and final
effluent (FE).

There were two additional points of

collection from the adjacent stream water,
upstream (US) and downstream (DS), at
distances of approximately 50 m from the
discharge point of the FE.
 JAR TEST

• A laboratory procedure that simulates

coagulation/flocculation with differing chemical doses.

• The purpose of the procedure is to estimate the

minimum coagulant dose required to achieve certain
water quality goals.

• Samples of water to be treated are placed in 6 jars.

• Various amounts of chemicals are added to each jar

and stirred, and the settling of solids is observed.

• The lowest dose of chemicals that provides

satisfactory settling is the dose used to treat the water
DRINKING WATER TREATMENT
Filter bed
Jar Test to determine
coagulant dosage, pH and
mixing and stirring rate
Aeration :
To remove dissolved gas such as hydrogen
sulfide
To precipitate Fe and Mn by oxidation
Pre-sedimentation:
To precipitate suspended matters through
force of gravity. Depends on detention time
(theoretical amount of time water remains in
tank)
Operate by low flow of water from inlet to
outlet
Coagulation and flocculation :
To remove suspended matters that cannot be
precipitated by gravity alone
Use of coagulant (eg : alum) and flocculation
(slowly mixing and stirring)
Sedimentation:
To precipitate coagulated matters through
force of gravity.
Filtration:
Removal of suspended particles by passing it
through layers of porous granular materials.
Maintenance of filtration bed by using by
backwashing
Drinking Water Distribution System
• To deliver water to all consumers in sufficient quantity
for potable drinking water and fire protection purposes, at
the appropriate pressure, with minimal loss, of safe and
acceptable quality, and as economically as possible
• Gravity, pumping or combination of both may be used
• Elevated storage reservoir are used to maintain adequate
pressure during high consumer demand and under
emergency conditions
Drinking Water Distribution System
• Branching System
Similar to a tree, not favoured because (1)
bacterial growth and sedimentation (2) difficult to
maintain chlorine residual at the dead ends (3)
when repairs made, service beyond of repair will
be without water (4) pressure at the end may not
be desirable

• Grid System

No dead end but determining the pipe size more

complicated
Drinking Water Distribution System Components

– Pipes : materials are steel, cast iron and

reinforced concrete
– Valves : gate valves, air relief valves and check
valves
– Fire hydrants
– Service (Building) Connections
Maintenance of Drinking Water Distribution System
– Disinfection of a new system:
• Introducing chlorine into the pipeline of 50 mg/L and
must remain in the system for 24 hour before flushed
out.
• After flushed out, the chlorine content must not be
more than 2 mg/L.
• WHO drinking water specification for residual
chlorine is  0.2mg/L. However, more than 5mg/L
would not be palatable
– Hydraulic efficiency reduce due to
encrustation and sediment deposit. Flushing
and scrapper are use.
 Relevant Drinking Water Standard

• Malaysia Drinking Water Standard

http://kmam.moh.gov.my/public-user/drinking-water-quality-standard.html

• WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality