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Runoff
Runoff occurs whenever the rainfall intensity exceeds the
infiltration rate. Therefore to manage runoff, it is useful to know
WATER RESOURCES the volume of water that will run off an area and/or the
maximum rate of runoff. The volume of runoff is used to size
MANAGEMENT drainage structures and water impoundments. One of the uses
of the peak rate is to size drainage ways, culverts, and bridges.
The peak rate can be easily visualized if the flow rate is plotted
Engr. Jecar T. Dadole in the form of a hydrograph.
Hydrograph plots the runoff rate for a watershed versus time.
Watershed is a drainage basin where all of the water that runs
off passes through a single outlet point.

Runoff
Runoff is that portion of the precipitation that makes its way
toward stream channels, lakes, or oceans as surface or subsurface
flow. Model of a
The Runoff Process. Before runoff can occur the precipitation
must satisfy the demands of evaporation, interception, infiltration, Watershed
surface storage, surface detention, and channel detention.
Factors Affecting Runoff:
1. Rainfall Duration
2. Rainfall Intensity
3. Areal Distribution
4. Watershed Size, Shape, Orientation, Topography, Geology and
Surface Culture
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Aquifers and Wells Three Types of Unconsolidated Sand and Gravel Aquifers
Aquifer is an underground body of water perched
on top of bedrock or other impermeable layer. 1. Basin fill - formed due to uplift of mountains on either side
Most usable freshwater storage is within aquifers. of the basin and are filled with unconsolidated alluvial
5 major types of groundwater aquifers: sediments underlain by bedrock.
1. unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers – 2. Blanket sand and gravel
irrigated lands 3. Glacial deposit (glacial-fill)
2. semi-consolidated sand and gravel aquifers
3. volcanic aquifers
4. sandstone and carbonate rock aquifers
5. sandstone aquifers.
Wells – are structures dug in the ground in order
to supply water for irrigation and domestic use.

Groundwater Groundwater and Vadose Zone

The unsaturated zone above an
aquifer called the vadose zone. The
water table is defined as the
elevation at which water pressure is
zero gauge pressure. Water above
the water table is called the
capillary fringe. This water wicks up
above the water table because of
capillary potential of the small pores
in soil. The capillary fringe is thin for
coarse textured soils and can be up
to 15 m thick in fine textured soils.
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Groundwater flow Aquifer Parameters

Groundwater pumping changes
the hydrologic flow patterns in
basins. Aquifers in a basin may
have naturally provided water to
streams however, wells may
drop the water table below the
river and dry up the river. In arid
regions, the streams and rivers
only flow during major storms;
thus, the stream ecosystems
have been destroyed.
Specific Yield (Storativity) - The fraction of water that drains
naturally from an aquifer. It is The depth of water removed
from an aquifer divided by the change in aquifer elevation.
Specific Retention (Field Capacity) is the amount of water that
remains in the rock after gravity drainage.
Conductivity – determines how fast the water moves to the
well.
Piezometric (Potentiometric) Surface - is defined as the
sum of elevation + pressure. Artesian Wells are the free
flowing wells with water naturally flows from under ground to
the surface, this means that the water pressure is greater than
that of the surface pressure.

Measurement of Streamflow (Estimation of

Runoff Volume)
1. Mass Rainfall-Infiltration Method – Simplest method of estimating runoff.
Potentiometric
2. Basic Hydrograph - records of streamflow from which hydrographs may be
Surface over developed. A hydrograph is a graphical or tabular representation of runoff rate
Confined against time.
Aquifers 3. Current Meter - widely used in measurement of mean velocity of flow in open
channels.
4. Float Method - A crude estimate of the velocity of a stream may be made by
determining the velocity of an object floating with the current. Mean velocity
of the stream is often taken as 0.8 to 0.9 of the average surface velocity.
5. Weirs and Flumes - For accurate measurement of flow in open channels it is
desirable to install structures of known hydraulic characteristics. Flow through
such structures has a consistent relationship between head and discharge.
6. Water Level Recording Equipment
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Measurement of Streamflow (Estimation of

Soil Erosion
Runoff Volume)
Weirs. A weir consists of a Soil Erosion – the transport of soil particles form one place to
barrier placed in a stream to another, caused by disturbances of either natural or
constrict the flow and cause it manmade in origin
to fall over a crest. Soil - the primary medium of growth for plants. It supplies
nutrients, water, and a place to anchor roots. Soil is formed
Flumes. Specially shaped and from the erosion of rocks, As the forces of nature, wind, water,
stabilized channel sections heat, and cold, erode the parent material, the particle size
may also be used to measure gradually decreases, and nutrients, water, and organic matter
flow. are mixed in. However, its value for plants and animals can be
also be destroyed by erosion.

Types of Erosion Types of Erosion

1. Geological Erosion – referred as Natural or Normal Erosion. The
erosion in the natural environment under protective cover of
native vegetation. This type of erosion has contributed to the
formation of our soils and their distribution on the surface of
the earth. This long-time eroding process caused most of our
present topographic features, such as canyons, stream
channels, and valleys.
 takes place as a result of the action of water, wind, gravity, and glaciers.
 water causes erosion through sheet runoff, stream flow, wave action,
and ground water flow.
 Wind picks up and transports soil particles, thus causing a general
mixing of the soil at the surface.
 Gravity causes mass movement, such as soil creep, rock creep, mudflow,
rock slide, and subsidence of the soil surface.
1. Accelerated Erosion – soil loss in excess "of geological erosion.
It is normally associated with changes in natural cover or soil
conditions and is caused primarily by water and wind. The
forces involved in accelerated erosion are (1) attacking forces
which remove and transport the soil particles and (2) resisting
forces which retard erosion.
* Water erosion is the removal of soil from the land’s surface by
running water, including runoff from melted snow and ice.
Water erosion is subdivided into raindrop, sheet, rill, gully, and
stream channel erosion.
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Factors Affecting Erosion by Water Types of Water Erosion

1. Climate 1. Raindrop Erosion - soil splash resulting from the impact of
water drops directly on soil particles or on thin water surfaces.
2. Soil
2. Sheet Erosion - the uniform removal of soil in thin layers from
3. Topography sloping land.
4. Vegetation – 3. Rill Erosion - the removal of soil by water from small but well-
 (1) interception of rainfall by absorbing the energy of the raindrops defined channels or streamlets when there is a concentration
and thus reducing runoff of overland flow. Advanced stage of sheet erosion.
 (2) retardation of erosion by decreased surface velocity,
4. Gully Erosion - produces channels larger than rills. These
 (3) physical restraint of soil movement, channels carry water during and immediately after rains, and,
 (4) improvement of aggregation and porosity of the soil by roots and as distinguished from rills, gullies cannot be obliterated by
plant residue, tillage. Thus, gully erosion is an advanced stage of rill erosion.
 (5) increased biological activity in the soil,
 (6) transpiration, which decreases soil moisture, resulting in increased
5. Stream Channel Erosion - channel erosion consists of soil
storage capacity. removal from stream banks or soil movement in the channel.

Erosion Control Erosion Control

1. Contouring - Contouring is the 3. Terracing - a practice to reduce runoff, soil erosion, and
practice of performing field sediment delivery from upland areas by constructing broad
operations, such as plowing, channels across the slope of rolling land.
planting, cultivating, and harvesting,
parallel to elevation contours. It
reduces surface runoff by
impounding water in small
depressions, and decreases the
development of rills.
2. Strip Cropping - Strip cropping is the
practice of growing alternate strips
of different crops in the same field.
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Erosion Control Water Source Development

3. Vegetated Waterways - surface drains that convey natural
Reasons for Developing a Water Supply
concentrations of runoff or carry the discharge from terrace
systems, contour furrows, poorly drained low areas, diversion 1. Irrigation - largest user of water worldwide.
channels, or emergency spillways for farm ponds or other 2. Potable: Human and Livestock
structures.
3. Recreation - Fishing, boating, and water sports
4. Wildlife Habitat
5. Process Water - Manufacturing, Food Processing and Waste
Handling

Water Quality Considerations

Irrigation
The quality of waters used for irrigation can vary widely, particularly in dissolved
solids. Crop tolerances to salts determine the minimum quality water that may be
used and the amount of excess water that must be applied to flush accumulated salts
from the root zone.
Potable
Water supplies are important for both human and animal consumption. A few sources
(most typically groundwater) are sufficiently pure to be used with little or no
treatment.
Most supplies, however, will require some level of treatment to remove contaminants
and pathogens prior to consumption. As a rule, surface waters require disinfection for
human use.
Drinking water for livestock can be of lesser quality. Surface supplies are commonly
used for watering livestock without treatment, but they are vulnerable to direct
contamination. Livestock access to surface waters must be restricted to prevent
contamination and the spread of pathogens.