devices for col

COMPENSATION OF LINES
21.6
the use of electrical circuits to modifr
of lines is meant Cal
By compensation the compensated lines
will achieve the followine aL
cteristics
lines such
of the
that ctives:
so that a flat voltage profile will exist on the lino f..
is minimised all
G) Ferranti effect
loading condition.

alternator will be avoided and an economical mea.

Underexcited operation
of s of
(i)
will be achieved.
reactive power management

transfer capability of the system will be enhanced and hence stahilit.

ity
(iü) The power
margins increase.

effectiveness of a compensated system

a performance index
n in
In order to assess the evaluated. This criterion
of length of line and the power to be transmitted is n
terms of product
length lines it is not even possible to load lines to their
is selected as we know that for longer
natural loadings without compensation.
line can be achieved if the loading of the line
We know that flat voltage profile on the
Therefore, to achieve flat voltage profile, the
corresponds to its surge impedance loading.
that the effective or virtual surge impedance 2, of
compensating device should be so chosen
the line should give virtual natural loading equal to
the actual load. Since in actual practice
devices should also vary without
the actual load keeps on changing with time, the compensating
that time the effective surge impedance matches with the actual loading i.e.,
delay so every

P P
 POWER sSYSTEM
MMPENSATONIN P O W E R

695
loa The compensating devices are the
load. the sy
actual suitable connection
the
the
actuthe
to the line
lines. Compensation
ation
whe
when carried
of capacitors
wis
ndorinductors on out with the sole objective of
oftho
ors

surge
impedance of the
i m p e d a n c e
line, is known as
surge impedance compensation or Z,
the
Aing
ompensation. d
m y

operation of the.
cited operation of
the alternator or charging current problem of the.line can be
der ividing the line into shorter sections and this is known as compensation by
by
srnded
by
It is
by connecting constant voltage compensators at intervals along the
achieved

etioningr transmitted will be same through all sections, thee maximum power will
pow
ince tne smallest section and, therefore, there is increase in power transfercapability
smallest
the limit is increased.
hence stability
decrded

e and
ystem
he compensation' i.e., to increase power transfer capability of the
the
aspect of
af
the
third
The
The ieved by inserting capacitor at suitable location in series with the line so that the
s t e mi s a c h i e v e

net i n d u c t i v e
reactance
reactance of the line is reduced which is equivalent to reducing the effective
is known as line-length compensation.
engcthofthe. ine.
This method of compensation
the three types ofcompensations can be used if required.
an long length line, all
mpensators
are classified as passive and active compensators. Shunt reactors and
are he passive compensators and synchronous capacitors
and series capacitors
Capacitors

controlled capacitors
and reactors are the active compensators.
andthyristorised
thyr
machines also acts as strongg
excitation system used for synchronous
Rapid response
and improves both voltage
profile and stability.
compensating system useful to
a r e used at
discrete locations along the line, it is
Even though compensators distributed. The
assuming the effect of compensators as uniformly
relation
obtain certain system.
more or less true for practical
relations so desired are
We know that,
(21.32)
net shunt
used as a compensator, the
buppose shunt inductance L,h per unit is
SUSCceptance ill be
wC

jo =joC* joCjoC alLoC

sh C

1
joC CLsh (21.33)
= joC(1 - Ysh

where 1
sh CLsh XLsh
and y is
5Theknown as the degree of shunt compensation.
modified value of surge impedance will be
(21.34)
jaL
joC(1-Yh)1-Ysh
 696 ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS
is added, then Y, will be negative and h.
However, if shunt capacitance
increases the virtual surge impedance of the line can be
concluded that shunt inductance and hence
reduces the virtual surge impedance loading ot the line and shunt capacitance
duces the
virtual surge impedance.
Let us consider the effect of series compensation on the surge impedance loadino
ing.
Suppose C is the series capacitance per unit length tor series compensation. Thersi

be
Therefore,
the series reactance will
= jl -
joL
jol-
ose C joL

= jol1-oLC
1

j o l 1-Ae

=
jal(l Y -

(21.35)
virtual surge impedance
where y is known as degree of series compensation. Therefore,
joL(1-Yse
Z joC
Z1 - y ) (21.36)
have
and series compensation simultaneously,
we
Taking into consideration both shunt
1-Ys (21.37)
joc Ysh
Therefore, the virtual surge impedance loading
1-Y sh (21.38)

The wave number B is also modified to

(21.39)
P B(1-YneX1-Ysh) lines
The equation derived earlier for uncompensated lines are valid for compensated as
except the equivalent parameters e.g., inductance, capacitance etc., are to be sud

obtained in this section. tion,

From equations (21.37) and (21.38) it is clear that for a fixed degree of series compe line.
loading or
Capacitive shunt compensation decreases the virtual surge impedance
However, inductive shunt compensation increases the virtual surge impedance an0 the 100%

the virtual surge impedance loading of the line. If inductive shunt compensato voltage
flats
which implies that a
Virtualsurgeimpedance becomes infinite and the loading» zero

profile exists at zero load and Ferranti effect can be eliminated by the use otst
actors.

u n gs h u n t

However, under heavy loading condition, flat voltage profile can be obtained Dy
capacitances. Suppose, we want flat voltage profile corresponding to 1.2 P quation (21.38)

compensation, the shunt capacitance compensation required will be by using

P E N S A T I O NI N
OWER SYSTEM
POWER

1.2 1-Yah
1.44 1 -Yah or Yah 0.44 p.u.
arafile canal
voltageprofile can also be obtained by series compensation for heavy loading
38),
sing equation (21.38 and assuming shunt compensation to be zero, the
ndition. Again using

pensation r e q u i r e d for a loading 1.2 P, is

1.2
1-Yne
1
1.44 (1-s
Ye 0.306 p.u.
the lumped nature of series capacitors voltage control using series
hocause
b ecause ofthe
However,
recommended. These are normally useful for improving the stability
is ormally not
nacitors
system.
of the
imits
compensation on the line charging reactive power.
Nert we study the effect of distributed
Rewriting equation (21.20)

P.tan
by the generator for a radial line and for a
reactive power supplied
Q, is the leading
where

symmetrical line,
= - P. tan Bl/2
these equations become
However, for compensated lines,
P. tan (BI) radial line -
(21.40
(21.41)
and ,= - P. tan(BL/2 - Symmetrical line,
shunt compensation and or
equation (21.39) it is clear that by using inductive
From
tres capacitive compensation, the effective length of the line can be reduced and hence (BY
values of P. and
Omes small so that tan (B/ = (BUY and tan (Bl/2 =(BZ/2). Substitutingwe have
(21.41),
O equations (21.38) and (21.39) into equations (21.40) and
(21.42
Yh BI/(1-Ysh X1-Yse
Q= P1-Y
= Pe BU(1-Ysh
for a
radial line and
(21.43)
lor a = P(1- Yh)
symmetrical line.
luadFrom the above it compensation has etfect the no on no

reactive power I
equations, is clear that series
compensated line
generates rouvki..quirements
rous as of the generator and, therefore, the series
load a completely as
reactive power at no
and pensated line
needs line ((for l n e
Ysh=
Yah0)
charging
the same length. However, if the length of the
of large line is
haveNe wt series
absorb compensation
On from stability point of view, the generators at the two
fror
ends wil
induetive) must be assoe
orbexcessi
excessivreactive power
associa
sociated with
that shunt compensatior
and, therefore, it is important
series mpensation
698
Let us consider shunt compensation ELE
only not TRICAL PO
well which is more or less similar uniformaly POWER Ss
distributed
to
compensation by
Suppose the line is
operating at its natural sectionin.nbuted but STEMS
P
sin8
P
loading. From equation (212
and if P
sin B
a
(21.25)
Tegulated
regul
the
=
P, 8 =
B
i.e.. transmission angle ð equals the
compensation be absent and assuming electrical
to
that of the length
continuously such that Pe P at all times then the shunt comnena line
=

B7 8 at all times =
Considerinrer
Could be
g
P Pe
Therefore,
substituting for P and B' from equations (21.38)
and (21.39)
respectively, we
have
Equation (21.44) shows a
B1-sh Bconstant
linear relation
between P and 8 and
the
21.44
slope given
is
7 LIC.oJLC by
Power angle relation is
given as
(21.45
P sin
X

Therefore, it's slope at 8 V

=0 is
and the P 8 straight line is -

characteristic of the 100% shunt tangent to P-i

100% shunt
compensation behavescompensated line as shown in Fig. 21.3 (a) since the line
exactly as a series inductance. with

Shunt compensation
regulated Pc= P
100% shunt
compensation Kgh 1.5
Ksh1.0
Ksh = 0.5

(a)
(b)
Fig. 21.3 (a) Effect of
regulatedshunt compe
(b) P-8 curves for
pensation in power transmission
Figure 21.3 (a) different vh
power suggests that if shunt
transmitted could
djusted continuously.the
be compensation could be
infinite. aaju
 SYSTEM
699
POWER

ATION IN
NPENSATIONIN

aracteristics for different values of shunt

oA)shows power angle
gure21.3 value of power is given by
igurehere the peak
mpensation
(21.46)
PmaxZ sin Bl
to operate along thesstraight line characteristic the
seen ithat as power varies,
be
it can it is
varied. In order to operate stably for angles >
u n toompensation
should also be
continuously but rapidly so as to
compensation should be varied
that not only the as compared to the
shunt
entiall in power P. If P is varied faster
with the change
nace the 'current'
P - ö c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and the system
would operate along
sation the system shunt compensation is
said to be dynamically
A line with ideal regulated
dd go unstable.
stabilised.
the compensation as constant
shunt compensation ia to design
Apractical ideal regulated it is equivalent to
everywhere could be kept constant to Vo,
as, if voltage
tage regulators whatever be the value of P.
to its virtual impedance loading
iading the line corresponding synchronous condensers,
compensators are active compensators e.g.,
These constant voltage
thyristor-controlled compensators etc.
Theoretically it appears
the shunt compensatorrequired is capacitive.
Whenever P>Pe, can be transmitted
but in actual practice it
that with shunt compensation, infinite power transmitted is to
and hence if power to be
a large amount of compensating capacitors
equres transmission voltage, use of
e
1DCreased, it is better to adopt alternative methods e.g., higher
senies capacitors, HVDC etc.
The other limitations of the method are:
(0) High speed of response of compensators.
u) if regulators fails, the whole system may become unstable.

compensation increases the virtual surge

been reported earlier that shunt
Das In fact with K 1.0
Pance ofthe line and hence decreases the surge impedance loading.
4, 100% shunt compensated line the voltage profile is lat at no load.
can't be distributed uniformly
owever, it is to be noted that shunt compensating reactorsline and/or at the mid-point of
alon ne. They are normally connected at the end of the
the
Eine usually at the intermediae substation as shown in Fig. 2l.4.

Intermediate S/s

Fig. 21.4 Shunt r e a e me

ongwith intermediate switching Ss on a long length