Batu Hijau

THE SETTING, GEOMETRY AND TIMING OF INTRUSION-
RELATED HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS IN THE VICINITY OF

THE BATU HIJAU PORPHYRY COPPER-GOLD DEPOSIT,
SUMBAWA, INDONESIA
VOLUME ONE
Steven L. Garwin
B.S. Stanford University
M.Sc. University of British Columbia
This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the

University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia
Centre for Global Metallogeny,

Department of Geology and Geophysics
August, 2000
Supervisors: Professors David I. Groves and Marco T. Einaudi

Frontispiece: The photograph (top) displays the coastal area of the Batu Hijau district, south-
western Sumbawa, Indonesia (looking northwest); the illustration (bottom) shows the location
of the Batu Hijau ultimate pit (drawing by Pierre Mion).
ABSTRACT i
ABSTRACT
The Batu Hijau porphyry copper-gold deposit, in southwestern Sumbawa, Indonesia, lies within
a 12 km by 6 km region that contains several mineralized centers. Batu Hijau contains a
mineable reserve of 914 million tonnes at 0.53 % copper and 0.40 g/t gold (4.84 million tonnes
copper and 375 tonnes gold). The styles of peripheral mineral occurrences include porphyry and
structurally controlled vein types.
The Batu Hijau district consists of a gently dipping, Early to Middle Miocene andesitic
volcaniclastic succession > 1500 m thick, which locally contains thin intercalations of limestone
deposited in a fore-arc, mid-neritic paleoenvironment. The volcaniclastic succession has been
cut by several phases of intrusion, which include, sequentially: three types of hypabyssal
andesite (Middle to Late Miocene), at least four quartz diorite plutons (Late Miocene to mid-
Pliocene), and a series of porphyritic tonalite stocks and dykes (early- to mid-Pliocene). An
andesitic diatreme and dyke complex, situated in the center of the area, post-dates these
intrusions. At Teluk Puna, about 8 km south of Batu Hijau, a Late Miocene, dacitic
volcaniclastic sequence unconformably overlies andesitic basement rocks.
The volcaniclastic rocks and intrusions in the district, typically of low-K calc -alkaline affinity,
comprise part of the Sunda-Banda magmatic arc, which is underlain by oceanic crust in the
vicinity of Sumbawa. The isotopic signature of the igneous rocks, characterized by 143 Nd/144 Nd
> 0.5129, 87 Sr/86 Sr < 0.704, 206 Pb/204 Pb < 18.7, and γOs similar to that of the present-day mantle,
is consistent with a sub-arc, MORB-like mantle wedge source.
The margins of easterly-elongate quartz diorite plutons have acted as a focus for brittle
deformation, dyke emplacement and quartz vein deposition. The reactivation of pre-existing
faults and zones of crustal weakness are inferred to have influenced the distribution of volcano-
sedimentary facies and localized the emplacement of felsic intrusions. The intersection of fault
and fracture zones with the complex margins of pre-mineral composite plutons controls, in part,
the distribution of porphyry centers. Two major types of quartz vein are present: early, “A” and
“B” veinlets and veins, and late, structurally controlled comb, massive and banded types.
Hydrothermal alteration is characterized by early alteration zones that are centered about
tonalite intrusions at Batu Hijau, and tonalite, quartz diorite and minor granodiorite intrusions at
three peripheral porphyry systems. Each of the four centers indicates a similar progression of
alteration from central biotite-magnetite+oligoclase through proximal actinolite-magnetite and
distal epidote-chlorite to background chlorite-calcite. Late, structurally controlled feldspar-
destructive alteration zones extend for over 15 km through the area and overprint all types of
early alteration. This later style of alteration includes intermediate argillic, sericitic (illitic) and
advanced argillic types. The geometry and clay-mica mineral assemblages of these zones
indicate higher temperatures and more acidic fluid conditions in the vicinity of Batu Hijau. The
aerial extent of the late alteration zones is significantly greater than that of the secondary biotite
or actinolite zones, and provides a larger exploration target. Pervasive carbonate-clay-chlorite
ii ABSTRACT
alteration of the diatreme post-dates these other styles of alteration. The latest recorded
hydrothermal event consists of zeolite-smectite veins and fracture-fillings.
At Batu Hijau, hypogene chalcocite, digenite, bornite and native gold partly comprise early “A”
veinlets and chalcopyrite+bornite occur in transitional “B” veins. Late pyritic “D” veins contain
chalcopyrite+minor bornite. The peripheral porphyry systems lack the early copper-sulfide
assemblages, and are characterized by late-stage pyrite-chalcopyrite in the reopened portions of
early-formed, copper-poor “A” and “B” veins. Anomalous Au and Ag concentrations are
associated with pyrite+sphalerite+galena+chalcopyrite+tennantite bearing, comb and banded
quartz veins that occur within late, structurally controlled zones. This style of mineralization is
associated with late-stage feldspar-destructive alteration, which has remobilized and depleted
Cu in the upper levels of the Batu Hijau deposit. Auriferous quartz vein arrays extend for over 9
km from the flank of Batu Hijau into peripheral base-metal sulfide-bearing quartz vein
occurrences at Bambu and Teluk Puna, which indicate an increase in base-metal abundance
proximal to Batu Hijau. The general patterns of metal zoning with respect to the porphyry
centers indicate central Fe, Cu, Au and Ag, proximal Mo, and distal Pb, Zn, Ag, Au and As.
Silver/gold ratios also display a systematic variation with proximity to porphyry centers,
ranging from >50 in the Pb-Zn halo to ~1 to 2 in the Cu-Au core of each center.
The results of 206 Pb/238 U SHRIMP (zircon rims) and 40 Ar/39 Ar (hydrothermal biotite)
geochronology indicate that, within each porphyry center, the emplacement of the causative
intrusions and early hydrothermal alteration were nearly contemporaneous. The SHRIMP
results indicate four major felsic intrusive episodes, each separated by ~ 0.6 to 0.9 m.y. and
related to a distinct porphyry center (dates are given ± 2σ):
• 5.88 ± 0.14 Ma for a syn-mineral dyke in the oldest porphyry center (Sekongkang);
• 4.99 ± 0.16 Ma and 4.43 ± 0.14 Ma for plutons and stocks in the intermediate centers
(Arung Ara and Katala, respectively);
• 3.76 ± 0.10 Ma to 3.67 ± 0.12 Ma for the early-, syn- and late-mineral tonalite stocks and
dykes that comprise Batu Hijau; all three intrusions are emplaced within 90 + 160 k.y..
The multiple phases of intrusion within each porphyry center are not distinguished by the
SHRIMP zircon ages. The emplacement of the intrusions in each porphyry system was
evidently rapid, falling within the limits of precision of this dating method.
The Late Miocene ages of sericite from fault-controlled zones of feldspar-destructive alteration
and comb quartz veins southeast of Batu Hijau indicate that hydrothermal activity began as
early as ~ 7.1 Ma. This expands the series of distinct hydrothermal events to at least five,
constrained to have developed over a period of ~ 3.5 m.y. The duration of the Batu Hijau
hydrothermal system is 80 + 80 k.y., as determined from the argon closure of early biotite and
late sericite (3.73 + 0.08 Ma vs. 3.65 + 0.02 Ma).
The causative intrusions in the porphyry centers were emplaced at progressively higher crustal-
levels through time, as indicated by plagioclase-amphibole thermobarometry and (U-Th)/He
apatite thermochronometry results. The estimated depths of crystallization within the felsic
intrusions range from ~ 6 to 9 km for phenocrysts in the porphyritic tonalites at Arung Ara and
ABSTRACT iii
Katala (5.0 to 4.7 Ma), which constrain the depth of the causative magma chamber(s) to a
minimum of 8 km. The solidus emplacement of porphyritic intrusions ranges from ~3 to 5 km at
Arung Ara and Katala to as shallow as < 2 km for the tonalite porphyry stocks at Batu Hijau
(3.7 Ma) and late-stage porphyritic andesite dykes in the vicinity of the diatreme. The intensity
of hydrothermal alteration and metal tenor of the porphyry systems increase with causal
intrusion emplacement at progressively higher levels, with the most efficient release of metal-
bearing volatiles occurring early in the crystallization sequence of the tonalite porphyry
complex at Batu Hijau.
The majority of the porphyry centers, including Batu Hijau, and the peripheral vein systems at
Bambu and Teluk Puna, probably developed under stress-states imposed by nearly arc-
orthogonal compression related to subduction of the Indian Plate beneath the Banda arc,
characterized by a north-northeasterly directed, maximum compressive stress (σ1). In contrast,
the west-northwesterly zones of comb quartz veins, and related feldspar-destructive alteration,
in the vicinity of Batu Hijau are inferred to be related to subsequent relaxation events,
characterized by a north-northeasterly trending, minimum compressive stress (σ3). Average
exhumation rates during, and subsequent to, Pliocene porphyry development, determined from
(U-Th)/He apatite thermochronometry, range from about 0.5 + 0.2 mm/yr. for the mid-Pliocene
(3.7 Ma) to present, to 1.5 + 1.0 mm/yr. for the mid-Pleistocene (~1.0 Ma) to present.
The ~3.5 m.y. period, defined by felsic magmatism and related hydrothermal systems in the
district (~7.1 through 3.7 Ma), is attributed to the onset of arc-parallel expansion and tensional
reactivation of northeasterly trending, crustal-scale strike-slip fault networks in western
Sumbawa. The dilatent movement on these faults is probably related to the collision of the
leading edge of the Australian shelf, or a microcontinent, with the Banda arc in the vicinity of
Timor (~8 Ma) and the subsequent collision of the Australian Craton (~4.0 to 2.5 Ma). The arc-
transverse faults localized the rapid ascent of magma, which facilitated the efficient release of
mineralizing fluids at high crustal-levels. The subduction of the buoyant, Roo Rise oceanic
plateau, south of Sumbawa, is inferred to have caused a kink, or tear, in the down-going slab,
which enhanced the delivery of mantle -derived melts to the overlying arc, where the episodic
reactivation of crustal-scale fault- and fracture-systems increased crustal permeability.
The Batu Hijau deposit displays many of the characteristics of global porphyry copper systems.
However, significant differences are related to the low-K calc -alkaline composition of the
tonalitic melts at Batu Hijau. The resultant magmatic -hydrothermal fluids are responsible for the
K-poor alteration types that distinguish this deposit from others, particularly those porphyry
systems associated with quartz monzonite in continental settings. At Batu Hijau, secondary
oligoclase supplants K-feldspar in the central biotite zone, and paragonite proxies for sericite (fine
-grained muscovite) locally. In addition, the abundance of advanced argillic alteration at Batu Hijau
exceeds that which typically characterizes late-stage alteration in many other porphyry systems.
iv CONTENTS
CONTENTS v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(Volume One)
ABSTRACT i
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES xiii
LIST OF FIGURES xv
LIST OF MAPS AND SECTIONS xxi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xxiii
PREFACE xxv
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................1

1.1 Preamble ....................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Global Significance and Characteristics of Porphyry Deposits ........................ 1
1.1.2 Regional Localization of Intrusion-related Copper and Gold Deposits –
Indonesia as a Case-Study ............................................................................ 3
1.1.3 The Need for District-scale Studies − Batu Hijau District as a Case-study........ 5
1.1.3.1 Batu Hijau District.......................................................................................5
1.1.4 Timing and Duration of Hydrothermal Systems ............................................. 6
1.2 Objectives of Thesis....................................................................................7
1.2.1 Primary Objectives ...................................................................................... 7
1.2.2 Subsidiary Objectives................................................................................... 7
1.3 Work Accomplished...................................................................................7
1.3.1 Field Work .................................................................................................. 7
1.3.1.1 Geological Mapping, Drill Core Logging, and Data Recordation and
Presentation ................................................................................................8
1.3.1.2 Geochemical and Radiometric Age Date Sampling.........................................9
1.3.1.3 X-ray Diffraction Clay-Mica Sampling..........................................................9
1.3.2 Laboratory Work ......................................................................................... 9
1.3.2.1 Petrography and Electron Microprobe (EDS-SEM) Analysis..........................9
1.3.2.2 Paleontology .............................................................................................10
1.3.2.3 Whole Rock and Trace Element Analysis.....................................................10
1.3.2.4 Radiogenic Isotope Analysis.......................................................................11
1.3.2.5 X-ray Diffraction Analysis..........................................................................12
1.3.2.6 Numerical Stress Modeling.........................................................................12
206
1.3.2.7 Pb / 238U SHRIMP Analysis....................................................................13
1.3.2.8 (U-Th)/He Thermochronometry ..................................................................13
1.3.2.9 Radiometric 40 Ar/39 Ar Analysis...................................................................14
1.4 Location...................................................................................................15
1.5 Previous Work .........................................................................................16
1.6 Exploration and Development History at Batu Hijau ...............................17
1.7 Terminology.............................................................................................18
1.8 Thesis Organization .................................................................................20
1.8.1 Chapters.................................................................................................... 20
1.8.2 Organization of Figures, Tables, Plans, Sections and Appendices.................. 21
CHAPTER 2 SETTINGS AND STYLES OF GOLD AND COPPER
MINERALIZATION IN THE INDONESIAN REGION ............23
2.1 Introduction.............................................................................................23
2.2 Rationale and Methodology......................................................................23
2.3 Tectonic Setting of the Indonesian Archipelago........................................25
2.3.1 Major Tectonic Elements............................................................................ 25
vi CONTENTS
2.3.1.1 Characteristics of Crustal Basement and Microplates .................................. 25

2.3.1.2 Crustal-scale Lineaments, Faults and Relative Plate Movement Velocities.... 27
2.3.2 Earthquake Hypocenters and Topology of the Subducting Slab......................29
2.3.2.1 Earthquake Hypocenters ............................................................................ 29
2.3.2.2 Topology of the Subducting Slab................................................................. 32
2.3.3 Distribution of Volcanoes and Controls on Volcanism ..................................34
2.3.3.1 Distribution of Volcanoes........................................................................... 34
2.3.3.2 Composition and Geochemistry.................................................................. 36
2.3.4 Relationship of Arc Tectonics and Volcanism to Topology of the Subducting
Slab ...........................................................................................................37
2.4 Geologic Settings and Styles of Mineralization in the Tertiary Magmatic
Arcs of Indonesia ..................................................................................... 38
2.4.1 Sunda-Banda ..............................................................................................39
2.4.1.1 Geologic Setting ........................................................................................ 39
2.4.1.2 Mineral Deposit Styles ............................................................................... 41
2.4.2 North Sulawesi−Sangihe .............................................................................43
2.4.3 Halmahera..................................................................................................45
2.4.4 Central Irian Jaya−Papuan Fold Belt ............................................................46
2.4.5 Central Kalimantan.....................................................................................47
2.4.6 Other Magmatic Arcs..................................................................................50
2.5 Synthesis and Discussion.......................................................................... 51
2.5.1 Relationship Between Mineralization and Tectonic Setting............................51
2.5.1.1 Crustal Basement Control.......................................................................... 52
2.5.1.2 Crustal-scale Fault Control and Topology of the Subducting Slab................ 52
CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK OF SUMBAWA ...................... 55
3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................ 55
3.2 Geologic Setting ....................................................................................... 55
3.2.1 Crustal Basement........................................................................................56
3.2.2 Neogene to Recent Sedimentary and Volcanic Successions ...........................57
3.2.2.1 Volcano-Sedimentary Rocks and Limestone Horizons .................................. 57
3.2.2.2 Volcanic Successions................................................................................. 58
3.2.3 Quaternary Volcanoes.................................................................................60
3.2.4 Intrusions and Volcanic Domes ...................................................................61
3.2.5 Faults.........................................................................................................61
3.3 Copper and Gold Deposits and Occurrences............................................ 62
3.3.1 Western and Central Sumbawa....................................................................62
3.3.1.1 Porphyry Prospects ................................................................................... 62
3.3.1.2 Peripheral Vein Systems............................................................................. 62
3.3.1.3 Relationship of Gold Mineralization to Lineaments and Faults in
Southwestern Sumbawa ..........................................................................................65
3.3.2 Eastern Sumbawa.......................................................................................66
3.4 Summary ................................................................................................. 66
CHAPTER 4 VOLCANO-SEDIMENTARY AND INTRUSIVE EVOLUTION
OF THE BATU HIJAU DISTRICT............................................... 69
4.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 69
4.2 Andesitic Volcaniclastic Rock Succession................................................. 70
4.2.1 Crystal-rich Volcanic Sandstone ..................................................................70
CONTENTS vii
4.2.1.1 Field Relationships....................................................................................70

4.2.1.2 Petrography ..............................................................................................71
4.2.1.3 Mineral Composition .................................................................................73
4.2.2 Limestone Intervals Within the Volcanic Sandstone Unit .............................. 73
4.2.2.2 Petrography ..............................................................................................73
4.2.2.3 Paleontology .............................................................................................74
4.2.3 Crystal-rich Volcanic Lithic Breccia ............................................................ 75
4.2.3.2 Petrography ..............................................................................................77
4.2.4 Depositional Setting and Facies................................................................... 78
4.2.4.1 Distal Facies.............................................................................................79
4.2.4.2 Proximal Facies.........................................................................................79
4.2.4.3 Crystal-rich Volcaniclastic Rocks – The Need for Crystal Concentration
Processes..................................................................................................80
4.2.5 Geochemistry............................................................................................. 81
4.2.6 Geochronology .......................................................................................... 82
4.3 Andesite Intrusions ..................................................................................83
4.3.1 Hornblende-Plagioclase Phyric Andesite ..................................................... 83
4.3.1.2 Petrography ..............................................................................................85
4.3.2 Fine-grained Phyric Andesite and Micro Quartz Diorite ................................ 86
4.3.2.2 Petrography ..............................................................................................86
4.3.3 Pyroxene-Plagioclase Phyric Andesite ......................................................... 86
4.3.3.2 Petrography ..............................................................................................87
4.3.4 Geochemistry............................................................................................. 87
4.3.5 Geochronology .......................................................................................... 88
4.4 Hornfelsic Andesitic Rock ........................................................................89
4.4.1 Field Relationships ..................................................................................... 89
4.4.2 Petrography ............................................................................................... 89
4.4.3 Mineral Composition.................................................................................. 90
4.5 Teluk Puna Volcaniclastic Sequence.........................................................90
4.5.1 Field Relationships ..................................................................................... 90
4.5.2 Petrography ............................................................................................... 91
4.5.3 Depositional Setting ................................................................................... 91
4.5.4 Geochemistry............................................................................................. 92
4.5.5 Geochronology .......................................................................................... 92
4.6 Plutonic Rocks..........................................................................................93
4.6.1 Equigranular Hornblende Quartz Diorite...................................................... 93
4.6.1.2 Petrography ..............................................................................................94
4.6.2 Granodiorite and Tonalite Dykes Associated with Hornblende Quartz Diorite 97
4.6.2.2 Petrography ..............................................................................................98
4.6.3 Porphyritic Hornblende Tonalite ................................................................. 99
4.6.3.2 Petrography ..............................................................................................99
4.6.3.3 Mineral Composition ............................................................................... 101
4.6.4 Batu Hijau Porphyritic Dacite and Tonalite Porphyry Complex....................101
4.6.4.1 Field Relationships.................................................................................. 102
4.6.4.2 Petrography ............................................................................................ 103
viii CONTENTS

4.6.5 Porphyritic Andesite Dykes .......................................................................105
4.6.5.1 Field Relationships.................................................................................. 105
4.6.5.2 Petrography ............................................................................................ 105
4.6.6 Geochemistry ...........................................................................................106
4.6.6.1 Major-Oxide Elements............................................................................. 106
4.6.6.2 Trace-Elements ....................................................................................... 111
4.6.6.3 Zircon Saturation Temperatures............................................................... 113
4.6.7 Geochronology .........................................................................................113
4.6.8 Thermobarometry .....................................................................................121
4.6.8.1 Introduction to the Amphibole -Plagioclase Thermobarometry Technique.... 121
4.6.8.2 Application to Batu Hijau District Intrusions............................................. 125
4.6.8.3 Results .................................................................................................... 125
4.7 Santong Volcanic Breccia....................................................................... 128
4.7.1 Field Relationships ...................................................................................128
4.7.2 Petrography..............................................................................................129
4.7.2.1 Volcanic Breccia ..................................................................................... 129
4.7.2.2 Accretionary Lapilli-bearing Volcanic Sandstone...................................... 130
4.7.3 Mode of Emplacement ..............................................................................131
4.7.4 Geochemistry ...........................................................................................132
4.7.5 Geochronology .........................................................................................133
4.8 Coastal Volcaniclastic Rocks and Phyric Basaltic Andesite Dykes ........ 133
4.8.1 Volcaniclastic Sequence............................................................................133
4.8.1.1 Depositional Setting................................................................................. 134
4.8.2 Pyroxene-Plagioclase Phyric Basaltic Andesite Dykes.................................135
4.9 Radiogenic Isotopic Constraints............................................................. 136
4.9.1 Introduction to the Technique and Aims of the Present Study.......................136
4.9.2 Strontium–Neodymium Isotope Results......................................................137
4.9.3 Lead Isotope Results .................................................................................137
4.9.4 Interpretation ............................................................................................139
4.10 Interpretation ........................................................................................ 141
4.10.1 Depositional History of Volcano-sedimentary Succession............................141
4.10.1.1 Paleogeographic Depositional Setting ...................................................... 141
4.10.1.2 Quaternary Comparison .......................................................................... 142
4.10.2 Petrogenesis, Depth and Timing of Emplacement of Intrusions ....................143
4.10.2.1 Source and Ascent of Magmas–Radiogenic Isotopic and Chemical
Constraints ............................................................................................. 143
4.10.2.2 Crystallization Paths and Water Contents of Plutonic Rocks...................... 144
4.10.2.3 Depth, Temperature and Oxidation Estimates of Intrusion.......................... 147
4.10.2.4 Timing and Lo calization of Felsic Magmatism with Respect to Tectonic
Events..................................................................................................... 152
4.11 Summary ............................................................................................... 153
CHAPTER 5 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF THE BATU HIJAU DISTRICT
AND VICINITY............................................................................. 153
5.1 Introduction........................................................................................... 153
5.2 Bedding in Volcaniclastic Rocks............................................................. 154
5.2.1 Batu Hijau District....................................................................................154
5.2.2 Coastal Volcaniclastic Rock Sequence .......................................................155
5.3 Intrusive Contacts and Dykes................................................................. 155
5.3.1 Andesite Intrusions ...................................................................................155
5.3.2 Felsic Plutonic Rocks ................................................................................156
5.3.2 Coastal Basaltic Andesite Dykes................................................................157
5.3.4 Dykes as Paleostress-Direction Indicators...................................................157
5.3.4.1 Batu Hijau District.................................................................................. 157
5.3.4.2 Coastal Dykes............................................................................................... 158
CONTENTS ix
5.4 Faults and Fault Zones.................................................................................. 158

5.4.1 Bambu−Santong Fault Zone............................................................................ 159
5.4.2 Tongoloka−Batu Hijau Fault Corridor ............................................................ 160
5.5 Fractures......................................................................................................... 161
5.5.1 Fracture Orientation ........................................................................................ 161
5.5.2 Fracture Abundance ........................................................................................ 162
5.6 Quartz Veins and Veinlets ............................................................................ 165
5.6.1 “A” and “B” Quartz Veins and Veinlets ......................................................... 165
5.6.1.1 Quartz Vein Orientation.................................................................................. 166
5.6.1.2 Quartz Vein Abundance................................................................................... 167
5.6.2 Comb Quartz Veins ........................................................................................ 168
5.6.2.1 Quartz Vein Orientation.................................................................................. 168
5.6.2.2 Quartz Vein Abundance................................................................................... 168
5.6.3 Bambu Vein System........................................................................................ 169
5.6.4 Teluk Puna Vein System ................................................................................. 169
5.7 Apatite (U-Th)/He Thermochronometry and the Timing and Rate of
Exhumation .................................................................................................... 170
5.7.1 Introduction to the Method.............................................................................. 170
5.7.2 Application to Batu Hijau District Samples .................................................... 171
5.7.3 Results ............................................................................................................. 173
5.7.4 Discussion ....................................................................................................... 174
5.7.4.1 Style, Timing and Rate of Exhumation for the Batu Hijau District................. 174
5.7.4.2 Comparison to Orogenic Settings Elsewhere in Indonesia and the World ..... 176
5.8 Interpretation and Structural Models ......................................................... 176
5.8.1 Structural Evolution of the Batu Hijau Region ............................................... 176
5.8.1.1 Regional Events............................................................................................... 176
5.8.1.2 Local Events .................................................................................................... 179
5.8.2 Three-Dimensional Stress Model for the Batu Hijau Deposit Vicinity........... 180
5.8.2.1 Introduction and Aims ..................................................................................... 180
5.8.2.2 Numerical Modeling Software......................................................................... 181
5.8.2.3 Input Parameters............................................................................................. 181
5.8.2.4 Results ............................................................................................................. 184
5.9 Summary ........................................................................................................ 185
CHAPTER 6 STYLE, GEOMETRY AND TIMING OF THE HYDRO-
THERMAL SYSTEMS IN THE BATU HIJAU DISTRICT.....187
6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 187
6.2 Early Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization .................................. 188
6.2.1 Geometry and Scale of Early Hydrothermal Alteration .................................. 188
6.2.2 Secondary Biotite (Potassic-Sodic) Alteration ................................................ 189
6.2.2.1 Distribution and Conditions of Formation...................................................... 189
6.2.2.2 “A” and “B” Quartz Veins and Veinlets ........................................................ 190
6.2.2.3 Petrology ......................................................................................................... 199
6.2.2.4 Copper-Sulfide Minerals ................................................................................. 201
6.2.2.5 Mineral Chemistry........................................................................................... 202
6.2.3 Actinolite (Inner Propylitic) Alteration ........................................................... 204
6.2.3.2 Petrology ......................................................................................................... 204
6.2.4 Epidote-Chlorite (Outer Propylitic) Alteration ............................................... 206
6.4.2.2 Petrology ......................................................................................................... 207
6.2.5 Chlorite (Background) Alteration.................................................................... 208
6.2.5.2 Petrology ......................................................................................................... 208
6.2.6 Timing of Early Hydrothermal Events ............................................................ 209
x CONTENTS
6.2.6.1 Approach and Methodology............................................................................ 209

6.2.6.2 Sekongkang ..................................................................................................... 213
6.2.6.3 Arung Ara ....................................................................................................... 213
6.2.6.4 Katala.............................................................................................................. 217
6.2.6.5 Batu Hijau....................................................................................................... 218
6.3 Late Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization ................................... 218
6.3.1 Geometry and Scale of Late Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization .... 218
6.3.2 Pyritic “D” Veins, Late Quartz Veins and Pyrite Abundance ........................ 219
6.3.2.1 Distribution..................................................................................................... 219
6.3.2.2 Texture and Mineralogy.................................................................................. 221
6.3.2.3 Fluid Inclusion Characteristics ...................................................................... 222
6.3.3 Intermediate Argillic Alteration...................................................................... 223
6.3.3.1 Distribution and Conditions of Formation ..................................................... 223
6.3.3.2 Petrology......................................................................................................... 224
6.3.4 Sericitic / Paragonitic and Illitic Alteration .................................................... 224
6.3.4.2 Petrology......................................................................................................... 226
6.3.5 Advanced Argillic Alteration.......................................................................... 226
6.3.5.2 Petrology......................................................................................................... 227
6.3.6 Carbonate-Clay-Chlorite Alteration................................................................ 228
6.3.6.2 Petrology......................................................................................................... 229
6.3.7 Zeolite-Smectite Alteration............................................................................. 229
6.3.7.2 Petrology......................................................................................................... 230
6.3.8 Timing of Late Hydrothermal Events ............................................................. 230
6.3.8.1 Tongoloka-Puna Fault Zone ........................................................................... 231
6.3.8.2 Batu Hijau Area .............................................................................................. 232
6.4 Metasomatic Changes ................................................................................... 233
6.4.1 Approach and Rationale.................................................................................. 233
6.4.2 Early Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization ........................................ 235
6.4.2.1 Major-Elements............................................................................................... 235
6.4.2.2 Trace-Elements ............................................................................................... 236
6.4.3 Late Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization.......................................... 237
6.4.3.1 Major-Elements............................................................................................... 237
6.4.3.2 Trace-Elements ............................................................................................... 238
6.4.4 Santong Diatreme............................................................................................ 238
6.5 Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization of Peripheral Quartz Vein
Systems ........................................................................................................... 239
6.5.1 Bambu Area .................................................................................................... 239
6.5.1.1 Hydrothermal Alteration................................................................................. 239
6.5.1.2 Quartz Vein Texture, Mineralogy and Metal Contents................................... 240
6.5.2 Teluk Puna ...................................................................................................... 241
6.5.2.1 Hydrothermal Alteration................................................................................. 241
6.5.2.2 Quartz Vein Texture, Mineralogy and Metal Contents................................... 241
6.6 Metal Zoning Patterns .................................................................................. 242
6.6.1 Copper............................................................................................................. 245
6.6.2 Gold ................................................................................................................ 246
6.6.3 Silver and Silver-Gold Ratio (Ag/Au) ............................................................ 246
6.6.4 Molybdenum................................................................................................... 247
6.6.5 Lead and Zinc ................................................................................................. 247
6.6.6 Arsenic ............................................................................................................ 248
6.6.7 Remobilization of Early Metals ...................................................................... 248
6.6.8 Interpretation................................................................................................... 248
CONTENTS xi
6.7 Interpretatio n......................................................................................... 251

6.7.1 Localization, Timing and Duration of Hydrothermal Systems and the
Relation to Tectonic Events.................................................................................251
6.7.2 Fluid Compos ition, Chemical Activity and Metals Deposition......................253
6.7.3 Conditions of Vapor Separation and Trapping of Fluid Inclusions in Quartz
Veins at Batu Hijau ...................................................................................256
6.8 Summary................................................................................................ 258
CHAPTER 7 SYNTHESIS AND DISCUSSION ................................................263
7.1 Introduction........................................................................................... 263
7.2 Chronology of Geologic Events in the Batu Hijau District...................... 265
7.3 Correlation of Geologic and Hydrothermal Events to Regional
Tectonism .............................................................................................. 266
7.4 Geometry of the Batu Hijau Magmatic-Hydrothermal System............... 268
7.5 Genetic Model for the Development of the Hydrothermal Systems −
Controls on Mineralization..................................................................... 272
7.6 Cooling History for High-level Causative Intrusions Associated with
Mineralization........................................................................................ 275
7.6.1 Numerical Simulation of the Cooling of the Batu Hijau Tonalite Porphyry
Complex...................................................................................................276
7.6.1.1 Approach and Rationale ........................................................................... 276
7.6.1.2 Results .................................................................................................... 277
7.7 Comparison With Other Porphyry Copper Deposits and Districts......... 279
7.7.1 Geological Setting and Depth of Emplacement............................................279
7.7.2 Geometry and Style of Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization .............282
7.7.3 Duration of the Hydrothermal System ........................................................283
7.8 Linking Geologic and Exploration Models ............................................. 284
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR
EXPLORATION ............................................................................285
8.1 Introduction........................................................................................... 285
8.2 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 285
8.2.1 Batu Hijau District ....................................................................................285
8.2.2 Comparison to Global Porphyry Deposits ...................................................286
8.3 Exploration Model ................................................................................. 287
8.3.1 Vectors to Ore...........................................................................................287
8.3.2 Depth Considerations ................................................................................289
8.4 Recommendations for Future Studies..................................................... 289
8.4.1 Exploration and Mining Related Studies .....................................................289
8.4.2 Research...................................................................................................290
8.5 Concluding Statement............................................................................ 290
REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................291
xii CONTENTS
APPENDICES (Volume Two)
1 Abbreviations and formulae for common minerals in the Batu Hijau district
2 Summary of petrologic descriptions for selected rock samples
3 Operating conditions for electron microprobe analysis of silicate-and oxide-minerals
4 Chemical compositions of magmatic and hydrothermal minerals
5a Analytical methods and detection limits for chemical elements
5b Chemical compositions of representative rock samples
6a Summary of X-ray diffraction results
6b Results of quantitative X-ray diffraction analysis
6c X-ray diffraction peak charts
206
7a Pb/238 U SHRIMP procedures for Neogene zircons
7b Summary of 206 Pb/238 U SHRIMP age data
8a CSIRO (U-Th)/He thermochronometry facility intstrumentation and procedures
8b (U-Th)/He thermochronometry results
8c Length measurements, morphology and photographs of apatite grains
40
9a Ar/39 Ar incremental heating experiment results – Stanford Argon laboratory
40
9b Ar/39 Ar incremental heating experiment results – U.S.G.S. Argon laboratory
TABLES xiii
LIST OF TABLES
(Volume One)
1.1 Descriptive summary of the characteristics of global copper-gold porphyry deposits 1

1.2 Newmont Mining Company databases reviewed during course of study 3
1.3 Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company databases reviewed during this study 17
2.1 Summary of geologic and geophysical databases compiled for the Indonesian region 25
2.2 Significant gold and gold-copper deposits of Indonesia 40
3.1 K-Ar age data for igneous rocks of Sumbawa 60
3.2 Descriptive summary of major gold and copper deposits and prospects of Sumbawa 63
4.1 Summary of volcaniclastic rock units and andesite intrusions 72
4.2 Summary of foraminifera and other fossils within the Bambu limestones 76
4.3 General characteristics of intrusive rocks 84
4.4 Summary of predominantly equigranular plutonic rock types 95
4.5 Summary of porphyritic plutonic rock types 100
4.6 Major- and trace-element analyses for volcaniclastic rocks, andesite lava and
intrusions 107
4.7 Major- and trace-element analyses for phaneritic intrusions and late andesite dykes 108
4.8 Major- and trace-element analyses for diatreme breccia and other rock types 109
4.9 Major-element and Zr analyses of selected phaneritic intrusions 113
4.10 Summary of 206 Pb/238 U SHRIMP age data for igneous rocks 115
4.11 Significant differences for 206Pb/238 U SHRIMP age data 116
4.12 Compositions of co-existing amphibole and plagioclase and thermobarometry results 119
4.13 Pressure and temperature estimates for amphibole -plagioclase thermobarometer 122
4.14 Strontium, neodymium and lead isotope compositions of select least-altered rock
types 134
4.15 Comparative summary of tonalite porphyry intrusions in the Batu Hijau deposit
and causative intrusions in peripheral porphyry systems 141
5.1 Summary of zones of elevated fracture abundance and quartz vein abundance 164
5.2 (U-Th)/He apatite thermochronometry results 172
5.3 Significant age differences for (U-Th)/He apatite thermochronometry results 172
5.4 Stress model parameters for Batu Hijau area 183
6.1 Surface geometry of early hydrothermal alteration zones 191
6.2 Summary of early hydrothermal alteration and mineralization sequences 192
6.3 Summary of vein types associated with the major porphyry systems in the district 193
6.4 Classification of fluid inclusion types in quartz veins from the Batu Hijau deposit 197
6.5 Characteristics of daughter minerals in fluid inclusions in quartz from Batu Hijau 198
6.6 Summary of data for Type III fluid inclusions in quartz from the Batu Hijau deposit 199
6.7 Surface geometry of chalcopyrite and magnetite zones 203
6.8 Surface geometry of late pyritic zones 203
6.9 Summary of 40 Ar/39Ar age data 211
206
6.10 Pb/238U SHRIMP zircon ages, 40 Ar/39 Ar biotite ages and the relationship of
intrusions to hydrothermal alteration and mineralization 214
6.11 Significant differences for 206Pb/238U SHRIMP and 40Ar/39Ar age data 215
xiv TABLES
6.12 Surface geometry of late feldspar-destructive hydrothermal alteration zones 220

6.13 Summary of late hydrothermal alteration and mineralization sequence 225
6.14 Summary of quantitative X-ray diffraction results for carbonate-clay-chlorite altered
rock samples from the Santong diatreme 230
6.15 Anomalous thresholds for trace-element concentrations in soil and bedrock 243
6.16 Summary of trace-element concentrations for late-stage quartz veins, clay-mica altered
fault zones and variably altered wall-rock peripheral to the Batu Hijau deposit 244
7.1 Chronology of geologic events in the Batu Hijau district 264
7.2 Comparative summary of the Batu Hijau deposit and peripheral porphyry systems 274
7.3 Summary of host rocks and causative intrusions for selected porphyry deposits in
continental margin and volcanic island arc settings 280
FIGURES xv
LIST OF FIGURES
(Volume Two)
1.1 Map of the Indonesian archipelago and location of the Batu Hijau district (study area)
1.2 Simplified and interpretive geology of southwestern Sumbawa
1.3 Simplified map of the study area and prospect locations
1.4 Aerial photographs of the study area, showing local physiography
1.5 Photographs of the study area, showing local vegitation and development
2.1 Digital elevation model and bathymetry of the Indonesian region
2.2 Interpretation of the tectonic elements of the Indonesian region
2.3 Interpretation of the hypocenter data for earthquakes of the Indonesian region
2.4 Neogene magmatic arcs and Recent volcanoes of the Indonesian region
2.5 Major gold and copper districts, deposits and prospects of the Indonesian region
2.6 Fault plane solutions for shallow earthquakes in the western Banda arc of Indonesia
2.7 Schematic block diagrams illustrating the control of the topology of the subducting slab
on the styles of deformation and intrusion in the overlying magmatic arc
3.1 Strain release map for the eastern Sunda arc and western Banda arc
3.2 Simplified geological map and chronology of map units for Sumbawa
3.3 Structural elements of Sumbawa, showing the locations of gold and copper deposits
3.4 Alkali elements vs. SiO 2 classification of Sumbawa igneous rocks
3.5 Gold in stream sediment (sub-200 µm) from southwestern Sumbawa
4.1 Interpretive geology of the Batu Hijau district
4.2 Schematic geologic cross-sections for the Batu Hijau district
4.3 Schematic chronostratigraphic column for volcaniclastic rocks and intrusions
4.4 Photographs and photomicrographs of the volcanic sandstone unit
4.5 Cross-section for limestones within volcanic sandstone unit in the Bambu area
4.6 Photographs and photomicrographs of foraminifera from limestone in the Bambu area
4.7 Chronostratigraphy of Bambu limestone based on foraminiferal assemblages
4.8 Photographs and photomicrographs of the volcanic lithic breccia unit
4.9 Photograph and photomicrograph of plagioclase-hornblende phyric andesite
4.10 Photomicrographs of hornfelsic volcaniclastic rock
4.11 Photomicrographs of volcaniclastic rock from the Teluk Puna area
4.12 Photograph and photomicrograph of hypidiomorphic equigranular quartz diorite
4.13 Photographs and photomicrographs of equigranular granodiorite and tonalite dykes
4.14 Photographs and photomicrographs of porphyritic hornblende tonalite
4.15 Photographs and photomicrographs of Young Tonalite porphyry and porphyritic dacite
4.16 Photograph and photomicrograph of late-stage porphyritic andesitic dyke
4.17 Simplified geological log for the Santong volcanic breccia unit
4.18 Photographs and photomicrographs of Santong volcanic breccia unit
4.19 Photographs of coastal volcaniclastic sequence and basaltic andesite dyke
4.20 Interpreted crystallization sequences for minerals in major plutonic rock types
4.21 Compositions of plagioclase and orthoclase in major rock types
4.22 Histograms illustrating mole percent anorthite for plagioclase in major rock types
4.23 Cation compositions of amphibole in major rock types
xvi FIGURES
4.24 Compositions of magmatic biotite and biotite in hornfels

4.25 Pyroxene ternary diagram indicating pyroxene compositions for major rock types
4.26 Compositions of magnetite for the major rock types
4.27 Alkali elements vs. SiO 2 classification of least-altered rock types
4.28 Al2 O3 −Total FeO−MgO ternary compositional diagram for least-altered rock types
4.29 Total FeO/MgO vs. SiO 2 plot for least-altered rock types
4.30 Rock name classification and normative mineralogy of least-altered intrusions
4.31 Harker variation diagrams for major-oxide elements vs. SiO 2 of least-altered rock types
4.32 Major-oxide element trends and inferred mineral paragenesis of least-altered rock types
4.33 Harker variation diagrams for major trace - elements vs. SiO 2 of least-altered rock types
4.34 Immobile element ratio plot, Zr/Al2 O3 vs. TiO 2 /Al2 O3 , for least-altered rock types
4.35 Hf−TiO2 −La ternary immobile element plot for least-altered rock types
4.36 K/Rb vs. K2 O contents of least-altered rock types
4.37 Rb vs. Sr contents of least-altered rock types
4.38 Multi-element (spider) diagrams for least-altered rock types
4.39 Rare earth element patterns of least-altered rock types
4.40 Chemical differentiation plots for least-altered rock types
206
4.41 Pb/238 U SHRIMP age data for zircons from felsic igneous rocks
4.42 Thermobarometry results for equigranular and porphyritic intrusions
143
4.43 Nd/144 Nd vs. 87 Sr/86 Sr isotopic compositions of selected least-altered rock types
4.44 Lead isotopic compositions of Batu Hijau district rock types and global island arc
igneous suites
143
4.45 Nd/144 Nd vs. 206 Pb/204 Pb mixing model for the eastern Sunda and Banda arcs
4.46 Inferred paleogeographic setting of the Batu Hijau district volcano-sedimentary rock
sequence
4.47 Crystallization paths of intrusions related to porphyry copper-gold centers
4.48 Lithostatic depth estimates vs. time for the emplacement of felsic intrusions
4.49 Temperature - oxygen fugacity diagram displaying inferred cooling paths of intrusions
5.1 Interpretation of the chronology and relative intensity of deformation events
5.2 Poles to bedding in andesitic volcaniclastic rocks
5.3 Poles to intrusive contacts and dykes
5.4 Poles to fault surfaces
5.5 Photograph of fault and fault gouge
5.6 Mean strike- and dip-directions of fracture surfaces and zones of high fracture
abundance
5.7 Distribution and orientations of fracture surfaces in zones of high fracture abundance
5.8 Distribution and orientation of quartz veins and quartz vein arrays
5.9 Schematic sections of quartz vein density for “A” and “B” quartz veins and veinlets
5.10 Distribution and orientation of “A” and “B” quartz veins and veinlets at Batu Hijau
5.11 Photograph and sketch of “A” and “B” quartz vein and veinlet sets at Batu Hijau
5.12 Simplified geology of the Bambu vein system
5.13 Simplified geology of the Teluk Puna vein system
5.14 (U-Th)/He apatite thermochronometry age data for porphyritic felsic intrusions
FIGURES xvii
5.15 (U-Th)/He apatite and 206 Pb/238 U SHRIMP zircon ages as a function of inferred
paleodepth of intrusion
5.16 Average exhumation rates for orogenic regions in Indonesia and elsewhere in the world
5.17 Simplified geometry of the major structural elements of the Batu Hijau area
5.18 Batu Hijau area stress simulation model for N15o E-directed compression
5.19 Batu Hijau area stress simulation model for N15o E-directed relaxation
6.1 Chronology and relative intensity of hydrothermal events in the Batu Hijau district
6.2 Early hydrothermal alteration zones of the Batu Hijau district
6.3 Late hydrothermal alteration zones of the Batu Hijau district
6.4 Schematic cross-sections for the Batu Hijau district, showing hydrothermal alteration
zones
6.5 Schematic illustration of the relationships between tonalite intrusions, hydrothermal
alteration and mineralization styles in the Batu Hijau deposit area
6.6 Photograph and photomicrograph of early quartz veinlets and mineralization
6.7 Photograph and photomicrograph of quartz veins and mineralization at Katala
6.8 Photographs and photomicrograph of transitional quartz vein at Batu Hijau
6.9 Photographs and photomicrographs of biotite-altered rocks
6.10 Photomicrographs of secondary oligoclase and K-feldspar in biotite-altered rocks
6.11 Sulfide- and oxide-mineral distribution in the Batu Hijau district
6.12 Photograph and photomicrographs of actinolite-altered rocks
6.13 Photographs and photomicrograph of diopside-magnetite veinlets
6.14 Photograph and photomicrographs of epidote-altered rocks
6.15 Cation compositions of hydrothermal biotite
6.16 Compositions of hydrothermal feldspar
6.17 Cation compositions of chlorite
6.18 Compositions of hydrothermal magnetite
6.19 Pyroxene ternary diagram indicating compositions of hydrothermal diopside (salite)
40
6.20 Ar/39 Ar apparent age spectra for biotite and sericite
40
6.21 Ar/39 Ar age data for biotite and sericite
6.22 Relationship between 40 Ar/39 Ar hydrothermal biotite ages and 206 Pb/238 U SHRIMP
zircon ages
6.23 Photographs of feldspar-destructive alteration zones
6.24 Poles to mesoscopic feldspar-destructive alteration zones
6.25 Orientation and distribution of pyritic “D” veinlets in the Batu Hijau area
6.26 Photograpgh and photomicrographs of pyritic “D” veinlets and mineral selvages
6.27 Photographs of quartz veins associated with feldspar-destructive alteration
6.28 Photographs and photomicrograph of quartz veins in the vicinity of the Santong
diatreme
6.29 Characteristics of late hydrothermal alteration zones in andesitic volcanic lithic breccia
at Batu Hijau
6.30 Schematic representation of the mineral assemblages and characteristics of late
hydrothermal alteration zones at Batu Hijau
6.31 Photomicrographs of hydrothermal sericite and paragonite
6.32 Photomicrographs of hydrothermal minerals in advanced argillic -altered rocks
xviii FIGURES
40
6.33 Ar/39 Ar apparent age spectra for sericite
6.34 (Na2 O+K 2 O)-Al2 O3 -MgO and (Na2 O+K 2 O)-MgO-CaO ternary diagrams, indicating
compositions of least-altered rocks and rocks affected by hydrothermal alteration
6.35 Bivariate plots of major-oxide elements vs. Zr for rocks affected by hydrothermal
alteration
6.36 Variance in the abundance of major-oxide elements in hydrothermally altered
volcaniclastic rocks and quartz diorite with respect to least-altered equivalents
6.37 Bivariate plots of alteration indices vs. Zr for rocks affected by hydrothermal alteration
6.38 Histograms illustrating the frequency distribution of alteration indices for volcaniclastic
rocks affected by hydrothermal alteration
6.39 Histograms illustrating the frequency distribution of alteration indices for quartz diorite
affected by hydrothermal alteration
6.40 Bivariate plots of CaO vs. Sr and Rb vs. Sr for rocks affected by hydrothermal
alteration
6.41 Bivariate plots of trace-elements vs. Zr for rocks affected by hydrothermal alteration
6.42 Variance in the abundance of trace-elements and metals in hydrothermally altered
volcaniclastic rocks and quartz diorite with respect to leat altered equivalents
6.43 Bivariate plots of major-oxide elements for rocks affected by hydrothermal alteration in
the Batu Hijau deposit
6.44 Bivariate plots of trace-elements and metals vs. Zr for rocks affected by hydrothermal
alteration in the Batu Hijau deposit
6.45 Bivariate plots of major-oxide elements vs. Zr for volcanic breccia and tuff affected by
hydrothermal alteration in the Santong diatreme
6.46 Bivariate plots of trace-elements, total carbon and sulfur, and Log Al2 O3 /Na2 O vs. Zr
for volcanic breccia and tuff affected by hydrothermal alteration in the Santong
diatreme
6.47 Photographs of quartz veins at Bambu
6.48 Sulfide mineral assemblages, metal zoning and hydrothermal alteration assemblages
associated with quartz veins at Teluk Puna
6.49 Photographs of quartz veins at Teluk Puna
6.50 Distribution of Cu, Mo and Zn in outcrop and soil samples for the Batu Hijau district
6.51 Distribution of Au and As in outcrop and soil samples for the Batu Hijau district
6.52 Mineral stability diagrams for the system Na-K-Al-Si-O-H2 O at 500 bars, showing
possible cooling paths for fluids derived from tonalite and granodiorite magmas in the
Batu Hijau district
6.53 Mineral stabilities at 300o C and Ptotal=P H2O =500 bars for hydrothermal alteration styles
in the Batu Hijau district
6.54 Mineral stability diagrams for the system FeO-CuO-H2 O at 300o C and 500 bars and the
system Fe-Cu-S-O at 1.5 Kbar for copper-sulfide mineral assemblages in the Batu Hijau
district
6.55 Formation conditions of hypersaline, Type III fluid inclusions in chalcopyrite-bornite
bearing, quartz veins near the center of the Batu Hijau deposit
6.56 Isothermal (pressure – wt. % NaCl) projection of coexisting phases in the NaCl-H2 O
system for Type III fluid inclusions in quartz veins from the Batu Hijau deposit
7.1 Simplified geology of the Batu Hijau area
FIGURES xix
7.2 Schematic cross-section for the Batu Hijau area showing lithological contacts and faults
7.3 Simplified hydrothermal alteration zones of the Batu Hijau area
7.4 Schematic cross-section for the Batu Hijau area showing hydrothermal alteration zones
7.5 Simplified sulfide- and oxide-mineral zones of the Batu Hijau area
7.6 Schematic cross-section for the Batu Hijau area showing sulfide and oxide mineral
zones
7.7 Simplified metal zoning patterns of the Batu Hijau area
7.8 Schematic cross-section for the Batu Hijau area showing metal zoning
7.9 Simplified geophysical characteristics of the Batu Hijau area
206
7.10 Pb/238 U SHRIMP zircon, 40 Ar/39 Ar biotite and (U-Th)/He apatite thermo-
chronometric data
7.11 Numerical cooling model of Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry stock
7.12 Characteristics of selected global porphyry deposits and those of the Batu Hijau deposit
8.1 Intrusive relationships and zonal patterns as a function of depth in the Batu Hijau
deposit area
MAPS AND SECTIONS xxi
LIST OF MAPS AND SECTIONS

(CD-ROM Inside Jacket Cover of Volume Two)
Maps
1 Topography, drainage, road access and drill hole locations
2 Interpretive geology
3 Quartz veins and fracture abundance
4 Early hydrothermal alteration zones
5 Late hydrothermal alteration zones
6 Sulfide and oxide mineral distribution
7 Metal zoning map − copper, molybdenum and zinc
8 Metal zoning map − gold and arsenic
9 Petrologic, geochemical, isotope and geochronology sample locations
10 X-ray diffraction sample locations and results
Sections
1 Schematic cross-section − interpretive geology
2 Schematic cross-section − “A” and “B” quartz vein abundance
3 Schematic cross-section − hydrothermal alteration
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xxiii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company, an Indonesian subsidiary of Newmont Mining

Corporation, provided the field and laboratory costs, and logistical support for this study. The
project objectives and budget were approved by senior management from both exploration and
mine operations. The Batu Hijau project staff were particularly helpful in providing geologic
input and discussion during the course of field-based research. Office-based studies and
laboratory research benefited from interaction with staff and students in the Department of
Geology and Geophysics and the Centre for Global Metallogeny, both at the University of
Western Australia. The supervision of Professors David I. Groves and Dr. Marco T. Einaudi,
and informal contributions by Dr. Peter A. Mitchell and Dr. John M. Proffett, are also
appreciated.
Particular expressions of gratitude are given to the author’s family, friends and Suzanne M.
Brown.
PREFACE xxv
PREFACE
This thesis represents the first comprehensive study of the Batu Hijau district in southwestern
Sumbawa, Indonesia. Previous publications have focussed on the Batu Hijau porphyry copper-
gold deposit or the exploration methodology that led to the discovery of the ore body by
Newmont geologists in 1990. The geology and styles of mineral deposits exposed in the district,
and elsewhere in Sumbawa, have been documented in only general terms by previous
researchers.
It is recognized that this study, which represents the findings of about eight months of field
mapping and extensive la boratory work, consists of comprehensive descriptions of
characteristic rock types and alteration styles that occur in the district. In addition, the need to
generate a regional tectonic - and geologic-framework for copper-gold mineralization in
Sumbawa, and elsewhere in Indonesia, has led to substantial compilation that may not have
been necessary for the completion of a similar study in extensively documented districts in
North America or Australia. These factors have contributed to the length of this document. To
assist the reader assimilate the data, the important aspects are summarized in the final section of
each chapter. Since much of the district-scale work represents the research of the author, this
two-volume study provides a comprehensive and factual foundation for the benefit of future
exploration and research.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Preamble
1.1.1 Global Significance and Characteristics of Porphyry Deposits
Porphyry deposits are the worlds leading source of copper and molybdenum, with more than 15
billion tonnes of copper produced from the American Cordillera (Alaska to Chile) alone, since
the inception of mining in 1904 (Long, 1995). Porphyry deposits also contain a great abundance
of gold and silver, with several gold-rich deposits known to contain from 300 to more than 1500
tonnes of gold. Gold-rich porphyry deposits occur in both continental and island-arc orogenic
settings. Classic provinces in continental settings include the central Andes, western USA and
Papua New Guinea-Irian Jaya, whereas volcanic island-arc deposits occur throughout the
western Pacific. The largest of the gold-rich porphyry deposits include Grasberg, Indonesia
(1599t Au), Bingham, Utah (933t), Panguna, Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea (766t),
Bajo de la Alumbrera, Argentina (516t), Lepanto-Far South East, Philippines (441t), Batu Hijau,
Indonesia (366t), and Ok Tedi, Papua New Guinea (287t) (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1 Summary of selected large gold-rich porphyry copper deposits
Deposit, Location Au1 Cu2 Au2 Tectonic Chem. Age Reference(s)

(t) (%) (g/t) Setting 3 Assoc.4 (Ma)
Grasberg, Indonesia 1599 1.30 1.42 Cont KA 3 Freeport-McMoran (1994);
MacDonald and Arnold (1994)
Bingham, Utah, USA 933 0.70 0.31 Cont KA ~38 Tooker (1990);
Babcock et al. (1995)
Panguna, Papua New 766 0.46 0.55 VIA CA 3.4 Clark (1990)
Guinea
Bajo de la Alumbrera, 516 0.53 0.64 Cont KCA-SH 8 Guilbert (1995);
Argentina Mueller and Forrestal (1998)
Lepanto–Far South 441 0.73 1.24 VIA CA 1.4 Mitchell and Leach
East, Philippines (1991);Arribas et al. (1995)
Batu Hijau, Indonesia 366 0.53 0.40 VIA CA 3.7 Meldrum et al. (1994); Clode et
al. (1999); this study
Ok Tedi, Papua New 287 0.67 0.61 Cont KCA 1.2 Rush and Seegers (1990)
Guinea
Notes: 1) Contained metric tonnes of gold determined from reported reserves and past production, with the exception
of the resource figure quoted for Lepanto−FSE. 2) Average grades are those reported, or calculated from reserve and
production data, in the references indicated by italics. 3) Tectonic setting: Cont= continental; VIA= volcanic island
arc. 4) Chemical association of causative intrusions and related rocks: CA= calc-alkaline; KCA= high-K calc-
alkaline; KA= K-alkaline; SH= shoshonite.
Porphyry deposits are characterized by disseminated, veinlet- and fracture-controlled copper-

iron sulfide minerals distributed throughout a large volume of rock in association with
potassium silicate, sericitic, propylitic and, less commonly, advanced argillic alteration in
porphyritic plutons and in the immediate wall rocks (Meyer and Hemley, 1967; Lowell and
Guilbert, 1970; Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; Titley and Beane, 1981; Einaudi, 1982; Sillitoe and
Gappe, 1984). In porphyry systems, there exists a close spatial and temporal link between
volumetrically-small causative intrusions and broadly dispersed magmatic -hydrothermal
alteration and mineralization. Porphyry copper deposits are large (commonly hundreds to
thousands of million tonnes) and low to medium in grade (0.3 to 1.5% copper). The majority of
2 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
gold-rich porphyry deposits occur in the circum-Pacific and commonly contain 0.3 to 1.6 g/t
gold (Sillitoe, 1990, 1993).
The general characteristics of porphyry systems are described in Table 1.2. The most important
of these characteristics are:
1) small diameter (<2 km) causative intrusions of intermediate to felsic composition,
2) shallow levels of emplacement (typically 1-4 km),
3) porphyritic texture of causative intrusions, where feldspar, quartz and mafic phenocrysts are
contained in a fine-grained to aplitic groundmass,
4) multiple phases of intrusion, pre-, syn- and post-ore; late-stage diatremes are common in
western Pacific volcanic -arc settings,
5) several stages of hydrothermal alteration associated with each mineralizing intrusion,
6) extensive development of fracture-controlled alteration and mineralization in both
porphyritic intrusions and adjacent wallrock,
7) a progression from early, discontinuous and irregular veins and veinlets (“A veinlets”)
through transitional, planar veins (“B veins”) to late, through-going veins (“D veins”) and
breccia bodies (vein terminology follows that of Gustafson and Hunt, 1975),
8) a progression in hydrothermal alteration from early, central potassium silicate and distal
propylitic styles to late sericitic, advanced and intermediate argillic alteration types,
9) sulfide and oxide minerals which vary from early (bornite)-magnetite through transitional
chalcopyrite-pyrite to late pyrite-(hematite), pyrite-enargite or pyrite-bornite,
10) fluid inclusion studies which indicate that early alteration and copper mineralization are
generated by magmatic fluids with 30 to >60 wt. % NaCl equivalent over a temperature
range of 400o to >700o C, whereas the fluids related to late alteration and mineralization
commonly include a meteoric component and are more dilute (<15 wt. % NaCl equivalent)
and lower in temperature (200o to 400o C).
These characteristics are summarized from Gustafson and Hunt (1975), Beane and Titley
(1981), Titley and Beane (1981), Einaudi (1982), Sillitoe and Gappe (1984), and Einaudi
(1995).
Table 1.2 Descriptive summary of the characteristics of copper-gold porphyry deposits
Age Range Mainly Cenozoic and Mesozoic, but can be any age; Tertiary most
common
Classic Provinces Continental margin:

(Classic Deposits) Western USA (Bingham and Dos Pobres)
Central Andes
(Bajo de la Alumb rera and Marte)
Papua New Guinea-Irian Jaya
(Grasberg, Ok Tedi, Freida River)
Island arc:
Western Pacific (Panguna, Batu Hijau, Lepanto- Far South East)
Structural Style Mainly brittle, with early semi-ductile “A veinlets” related to magmatic
intrusion; fracture patterns indicate regional and local stress fields
Mineralization Style Steeply-dipping stockwork veins and fractures localized about causative
intrusion(s); progression of “A”, “B” and “D” veins through space and time
Host Rocks Intermediate to felsic calc-alkaline and K-alkaline porphyritic intrusions

and adjacent volcanic, sedimentary and other rock types; coeval andesitic
to dacitic volcanic rocks are common in island arc settings; K-alkaline
rocks more common in continental settings
Metal Associations Central Cu-Au (Mo, Ag); outer Pb-Zn (Ba, Mn); Mo commo n in core of
And Ratios continental deposits and in periphery of island arc deposits. Common Au
(ppm): Cu (%) of 1:3 to 1:1 with >1:1 for deposits with Au >0.6 ppm
Gold Fineness Native gold and electrum
Proximal Alteration Variation in space and time with respect to causative intrusion(s)
emplacement: central and early K-silicate alteration; peripheral and late
intermediate argillic, sericitic and advanced argillic alteration associated
with structures and lithocaps (advanced argillic)
P-T Conditions Shallow depth of emplacement (typically 1-4 km); early-stage fluids ~400-
>700o C; late-stage fluids ~200-400 o C
Ore Fluids Early-stage, near-neutral, oxidized, high salinity (>30 wt.% NaCl) fluids;
Late-stage, near-neutral to acid, more reduced, lower salinity (<15 wt.%
NaCl) fluids
Isotopes (Water) Early-stage magmatic fluid, δ18 = +6 to +10 o /oo (K-silicate aleration);
Late-stage external fluid, δ18 = -10 to +5 o /oo (phyllic and advanced argillic)
Other Features Topology of subducting slab exerts a control on porphyry mineralization in

the overlying arc; as do deformational settings that lead to crustal
thickening, block uplift and arc-transverse fault / fracture zones
References: Sheppard et al. (1969), Titley and Beane (1981), Beane and Titley (1981), Cox (1986),
Dilles et al. (1992), Sillitoe (1993), Titley (1993), and Einaudi (1995).
1.1.2 Regional Localization of Intrusion-related Copper and Gold Deposits –

Indonesia as a Case-Study
Most of the published papers concerning the controls on the localization of intrusion-related
copper and gold deposits have focussed on the general tectonic framework of volcano-plutonic
arcs, structural setting, magma composition, lithological association and crustal-scale faults.
Sillitoe (1993) cites that porphyry deposits occur in compressive to extensional regimes in both
continental and oceanic island-arcs. Corbett and Leach (1998) discuss the effects of orthogonal-
versus oblique-convergence on the styles of crustal deformation and deposit types in arc
settings, and note that intrusion-related mineralization typically develops in orthogonal arcs
during localized changes to oblique convergence. Solomon (1990) suggests that many gold-rich
porphyry deposits in the western Pacific arcs formed as a consequence of a reversal in
subduction polarity (e.g. north Luzon, Philippines and Bougainville, Papua New Guinea). The
development of calc -alkaline and K-alkaline magmas in this setting likely reflects the deep re-
melting of the previously melted mantle wedge above the subducting slab and mantle upwelling
in a dynamic tectonic environment. Several authors believe that there is a direct genetic link
between high-K igneous rocks and the formation of gold-rich porphyry copper and epithermal
deposits (Mueller and Groves, 1993; Sillitoe, 1997). In addition, many workers believe that it is
the high oxidation state of porphyry magmas that leads to metal enrichment, through the vapor
saturation of the crystallizing melt (Burnham, 1967; Candela, 1989; Cline, 1995; Sillitoe and
Thompson, 1998).
Some workers stress the importance of compressive deformation, crustal thickening and rapid
uplift in the localization of intrusion-related deposits at high crustal-levels in continental margin
settings (Sillitoe, 1998; Kay et al., 1999). The focussing of ascending magma and hydrothermal
fluids along major transcurrent faults and regional lineaments defined by satellite imagery and
geophysical data is a regularly cited theme. Porphyry and intrusion-related epithermal deposits
are localized along strike-slip faults and lineaments that extend subparallel or oblique to
perpendicular to magmatic arcs. Examples of arc-parallel fault zones that control the
distribution of mineral deposits include the Philippine Fault in the Philippines (Sillitoe and
Gappe, 1984) and the West Fissure-Domeyko Fault system in Chile (Baker and Guilbert, 1987).
Arc-transverse structural controls consist of the Lakekamu transfer structure−Bulolo graben
system in Papua New Guinea (Corbett and Leach, 1998) and cross-arc segmentation of
magmatism and mineral deposits in the Andes (Sillitoe, 1974). Work by Skewes and Stern
(1995), Sasso and Clarke (1998) and Kay et al. (1999) in the central Andes highlight the
potential relationship between the topology of the subducting slab, magma genesis and
mineralization in the overlying arc.
The great abundance of geophysical and geological data that recently have become available,
from sources such as the World Wide Web, facilitates the analysis of the relationship between
large-scale tectonic features and the distribution of intrusion-related mineral deposits. The
Neogene to Recent magmatic arcs of Indonesia contain an abundance of intrusion-related
deposits and have been the subject of a great deal of tectonic and geological study. Therefore,
the region is ideally suited for a study of the inter-relationship between arc tectonics and the
localization of intrusion-related copper and gold deposits.
1.1.3 The Need for District-scale Studies − Batu Hijau District as a Case-study
Numerous papers on porphyry deposits have been published in the past four decades. Such
studies document the geology, hydrothermal alteration and mineralization at the deposit-scale.
These include descriptions of Bingham, Utah (Lanier et. al., 1978), El Salvador, Chile
(Gustafson and Hunt, 1975), Grasberg, Indonesia (MacDonald and Arnold, 1994), Henderson,
Colorado (Carten et al., 1988), Panguna, Bougainville Island (Baldwin et al., 1978; Clark,
1990) and many others.
Many regional studies of porphyry and intrusion-related mineral deposits have also been
published. These include articles on porphyry copper-(gold) and epithermal gold deposits in the
following regions:
1) circum-Pacific (Sillitoe, 1990, 1995),

2) Canadian Cordillera (Sutherland-Brown, 1976; McMillan and Panteleyev, 1995; Shroeter, 1995),
3) southwestern USA (Titley, 1982a, 1982b, 1995),
4) Mexico (Barton et al., 1995),
5) Central America (Nelson, 1995),
6) western-Pacific (Sillitoe, 1989, 1992, 1995; White et al., 1995),
7) Southeast Asia (Garwin, 1996),
8) Philippines (Mitchell and Leach, 1991; Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984),
9) Indonesia (Carlile and Mitchell, 1994; van Leeuwen, 1994).
Despite the wealth of deposit and regional studies published, there are very few district-scale
studies in the literature. There is a clear need for studies that bridge the gap between the deposit-
and regional-scales. District-scale studies in Bingham, Utah (Babcock et al., 1992, 1995),
Portrerillos, Chile (Olson, 1984; Marsh et al., 1997) and Yerington, Nevada (Dilles, 1987;
Dilles and Einaudi, 1992; Dilles and Proffett, 1995) document the relationship of the geologic
framework to causative intrusion emplacement and the evolution of the hydrothermal systems
active in each area.
1.1.3.1 Batu Hijau District
The Batu Hijau district provides an excellent case study for the inter-relationship of host rock,
structure, intrusion emplacement, hydrothermal alteration and mineralization on the district-
scale in a relatively unstudied region.
The Batu Hijau porphyry copper-gold deposit is located in southwestern Sumbawa, Indonesia
(Figures 1.1 and 1.2). Newmont geologists discovered the deposit in 1990. Batu Hijau contains
914 million metric tonnes of ore at an average grade of 0.53% copper (4.8 million tonnes Cu)
and 0.40 g/t gold (366 tonnes Au), at a cut-off grade of 0.3% Cu (Clode et al., 1999). The
deposit formed during the emplacement of a Neogene tonalitic intrusive complex into older
quartz diorite and andesitic volcaniclastic rocks of the Banda volcanic island arc. Discussions of
the geology of the deposit and the surrounding district are included in Meldrum et al. (1994),
Irianto and Clark (1995), Ali (1997) and Clode et al. (1999).
Batu Hijau lies in the central portion of a district that displays varying styles of hydrothermal
alteration and mineral occurrences. Several porphyry copper-gold prospects lie along an
easterly-trending 12 km belt that forms the axis of the district (Figures 1.2 and 1.3). These
include, from west to east, Sekongkang−West Nangka, Arung Ara, Brang Belu−Air Merah and
Katala. Peripheral, low-sulfidation, quartz-base metal sulfide-gold vein systems occur at Bambu
and Teluk Puna, ~ 3 to 9 km outboard of Batu Hijau, along northwesterly- and northeasterly-
trending fault corridors which intersect in the vicinity of a late-stage diatreme and dyke
complex, located about 2 km to the northwest of the deposit. Disseminated gold-arsenic and
vein style gold-base metal sulfide mineralization occur in limestone that crops out ~10 km
north-northwest of Batu Hijau.
1.1.4 Timing and Duration of Hydrothermal Systems
Radiometric dating methods have become accurate and precise enough to determine the
absolute age of geologic events associated with hydrothermal and ore-forming systems. It has
been demonstrated by several papers included in a recent volume of Economic Geology, entitled
A special Issue on the Timing and Duration of Hydrothermal Systems (v. 92, nos. 7/8, 1997),
that individual intrusion-related mineralizing events span only tens to hundreds of thousands of
years. However, repeated pulses of intrusions within a district commonly cluster to form
episodes lasting as long as 12 to 15 million years, such as in the Potrerillos district, Chile
(Marsh et al., 1997) and the Park City−Bingham belt, Utah (Warnaars et al., 1978; John,
1989a). The use of both incremental-heating and in-situ laser probe 40 Ar/39 Ar methods for the
dating of magmatic and hydrothermal minerals have made such revelations possible
(McDougall and Harrison, 1988).
In the Potrerillos district, Chile, Marsh et al. (1997) document a duration of less than 230,000
years between late Eocene porphyritic intrusion emplacement and late-stage sericitic alteration
using the 40 Ar/39 Ar method. Henry et al. (1997) indicate a most likely duration of about 100,000
years for the duration of the late Oligocene paleohydrothermal system active in the Round
Mountain gold-silver deposit, Nevada (40 Ar/39 Ar method). At Lepanto–Far South East,
Philippines, Arribas et al. (1995) document a < 300,000 year span for the activity of the
Pliocene hydrothermal system responsible for the development of early porphyry and late
epithermal deposits (K/Ar method). Watanabe et al. (1999) indicate a ~400,000 year span for
the duration of mineralization at El Salvador, Chile (Re-Os method). At Yerington, Nevada,
Dilles and Wright (1988) use the U/Pb method to demonstrate that the time span between the
first and last of four Middle Jurassic quartz monzonite intrusions associated with mineralization
is less than one million years.
The application of the Sensitive High Resolution Ion Microprobe (SHRIMP II) to measure
multiple 206 Pb/238 U ages for single zircon grains allows the determination of the duration of
zircon crystallization in a magma chamber (Brown and Fletcher, 1999). Recent developments of
this method by Brown and Fletcher (1999) have led to the resolution of tens of thousands of
years for the age of zoned zircon crystals formed from 640,000 to 360,000 years ago in the
Whakamaru magma chamber, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. The development and
application of the (U-Th)/He thermochronometer to apatite enables the determination of the age
at which the apatite passed through a window of about 75o C, assuming a cooling rate of
10o C/m.y., or for intrusions that cool more rapidly than 100o C/m.y., ~90o C (Wolf et al., 1996).
This permits the dating of the final cooling of a hydrothermal system and/or the exhumation of
the mineralized region, as conducted by McInnes et al. (1999a) in Chiquicamata, Chile.
McInnes et al. (1999a) estimate a cooling rate of ~100o C/m.y. for the deposit, following
emplacement at depths of < 4 km, and the minimum vertical post-mineral displacement of the
ore body along the West Fault to be 600 + 100 m.
The utilization of the three techniques, 40 Ar/39 Ar, 206 Pb/238 U SHRIMP and the (U-Th)/He
thermochronometer, makes for a powerful tool to determine the duration of the magmatic -
hydrothermal system from early intrusion emplacement and zircon formation, through
hydrothermal mineral development, to the late-stage cooling and uplift of the area.
1.2 Objectives of Thesis
1.2.1 Primary Objectives
The primary objectives of this study are to:

1) establish tectonic controls on the localization of gold-copper mineralization in the magmatic
arcs of Indonesia,
2) determine the lithologic and structural framework of the Batu Hijau district,
3) define the timing of intrusion emplacement, mineralization and exhumation,
4) document the style, geometry and scale of the paleohydrothermal systems active in the area,
5) determine the duration of the hydrothermal system responsible for the development of the
Batu Hijau porphyry deposit.
1.2.2 Subsidiary Objectives
The secondary objectives of the research are to:

1) develop structural models for the localization of intrusions and mineral deposits on the
tectonic - and deposit vicinity-scales,
2) determine the petrogenesis of the intrusive suite in the study area,
3) propose exploration guides and develop a district-wide genetic model.
1.3 Work Accomplished
1.3.1 Field Work
A total of about 33 weeks of fieldwork was conducted in the vicinity of Batu Hijau during July
to December 1997, June to December 1998 and in May and October 1999. This work was based
out of exploration, mine site and helicopter-supported field camps. The work also included three
weeks compilation of previous Newmont geologic map data (1:1000 and 1:500) to a series of
fact maps (1:5000). The purpose of this compilation was to develop a district-wide
understanding of the existing geologic database and to prioritize areas for future study.
1.3.1.1 Geological Mapping, Drill Core Logging, and Data Recordation and Presentation
Approximately 80 km2 were mapped geologically (1:5000) through the inspection of stream
outcrops, coastal exposures and extensive road cuts. Outcrop is moderate to good
along stream courses, which commonly exhibit more than 60% outcrop and locally contain
100% exposure over hundreds of meters. The rock exposure along the mapped mine
development and access roads was nearly 100%, prior to reclamation and revegetation.
Mapping was accomplished by utilizing a method originally developed by Anaconda geologists

in Yerington, Nevada during 1968 to 1975. This mapping method was based on similar
techniques employed previously at El Salvador, Chile and Butte, Montana. In the current study,
minor modifications were made to the method to accommodate the scale of mapping (1:5000).
The mapping system utilizes symbols and color codes to describe various rock types, faults and
veins, hydrothermal alteration minerals and ore minerals. This reduces the need to take notes
and allows the mind to more effectively assimilate large amounts of field observations. The
collection of field data is facilitated by a series of outcrop fact maps, designated: 1) rock type
and structure, 2) hydrothermal alteration minerals and 3) sulfide and oxide minerals. Interpretive
overlays were created from these fact maps and the compilation of previous mapping results
(e.g. Batu Hijau deposit mapping at 1:500). These interpretive overlays were then compiled to
create a comprehensive series of A0 size interpretive maps (1:10,000) for the district (Maps 1 to
10 on CD-Rom in Volume Two).
The Anaconda method was also used to log (1:100) more than 5000 m of diamond drill core
from about 25 drill holes. These data were posted to a series of summary sections (1:5000) and
then interpreted with the map data to create district-wide cross-sections (1:10,000; Sections 1 to
3 on CD-Rom in Volume Two).
Structural measurements collected in the field were entered into an Excel spreadsheet and given
a map grid location (UTM north and east in meters) for each measurement. The grid locations
were determined by the digitization of data sites from compiled structural fact maps (1:5000)
using ARC/INFO software available at the Geographic Information Systems (GIS) laboratory in
the Centre for Global Metallogeny, University of Western Australia. Details concerning the
thickness of veins, dykes and fault zones, the abundance of fracture surfaces and host rock types
are also recorded in the spreadsheet. The data were then exported to a commercial software
package, Spheristat version 2.2 (licensed by Pangaea Scientific, Canada), which facilitates the
spatial and geometric analysis of the structural data.
Drafting of the geologic fact- and interpretive-maps was undertaken by Newmont Nusa
Tenggara Company personnel in Sumbawa, Indonesia and John Howe of CAD Presentations in
Perth, Australia. Carlo Seymour, a draftsman for Newmont Exploration in Perth, and Rosalie
Saxby of CAD Innovations, also in Perth, prepared the A3 and A4 figures included in Volume
Two.
1.3.1.2 Geochemical and Radiometric Age Date Sampling
Samples of outcrop and diamond drill core were collected for whole -rock and trace-element
chemical analysis and radiometric age date studies. The samples were fresh, with any traces of
oxidation removed by the use of a geologic hammer in the field or a by wet diamond saw on site
or in the sample preparation laboratory at the University of Western Australia (UWA). In some
cases, it was necessary to use a 2 kg sledgehammer to collect an adequate sample. Sample
weights range from 500 to 1500 g, with an average of about 1000 g for chemical samples and
from 500 to 5000 g for radiometric date samples.
1.3.1.3 X-ray Diffraction Clay-Mica Sampling
Samples of hydrothermal alteration clay and fine-grained mica were collected with a metal-
tipped scratcher or the pick end of a geologic hammer, by gouging clay or mica from outcrop or
drill core. The samples were of fresh and unoxidized material and commonly 50 to 200 grams.
1.3.2 Laboratory Work
1.3.2.1 Petrography and Electron Microprobe (EDS-SEM) Analysis
Petrography and mineragraphy were undertaken on polished thin sections using transmitted and
reflected light microscopes at UWA. The polished thin sections were prepared by Idaho
Pertographics in Grangeville, Idaho. The petrography of fluid inclusions within the quartz
crystals in vein samples was accomplished using polished plates 100 µm thick. The common
abbreviations and formulae of minerals observed in thin section are indicated in Appendix 1 and
the petrologic descriptions of selected rock samples are included in Appendix 2.
The chemical compositions of primary and hydrothermal alteration minerals identified optically
were determined quantitatively by using an Energy Dispersive Spectrometer attached to a JEOL
JSM-6400 Scanning Electron Microscope in the Center for Microscopy and Microanalysis at
UWA. Sample specimens (polished thin sections) were cleaned by an ultrasonic bath and coated
with 20 nm of evaporative carbon prior to microanalysis. Machine operating conditions
included an accelerating voltage of 15 Kv and a beam current of 3 nanoamps.
Calibration of the spectrometer was performed using a copper standard at the onset of each
analytical session. During the session, analyses were made of pyroxene, olivine and plagioclase
standards to check for accuracy, whereas repeat analyses of unknowns were performed to
measure precision. The standards used for the calibration of the elements analyzed in the silicate
and oxide minerals studied are indicated in Appendix 3. The chemical compositions of the
minerals analyzed by the electron microprobe are indicated in Appendix 4.
1.3.2.2 Paleontology
A paleontological study of larger and planktonic foraminifera from nine samples of limestone
was undertaken by David Haig, Associate Professor of Paleontology and Sedimentology in the
Department of Geology and Geophysics, UWA. The purpose of the study was to better
constrain the age and depositional environment for limestone intervals within the volcanic
sandstone sequence that forms much of the geological basement in the study area. About 20 thin
sections were prepared so that at least two orientations were obtained for each rock sample.
The P and N zones of Blow (1969), the letter stage names of Adams (1984) and the revised
biostratigraphic time-scale of Berggren et al. (1995) were adopted for this study. The
paleodepth of deposition was determined by using the foraminiferal stratigraphic guides of
Murray (1991) and Haig and Perembo (1992).
1.3.2.3 Whole Rock and Trace Element Analysis
Chemical analyses of major- and trace-elements were undertaken for 84 rock samples (500 to 1500 g)
by ACTLABS Pty. Ltd. Sample preparation was performed in Kalgoorlie, Western Australia
and chemical analysis was conducted in Vancouver, British Columbia. The analytical methods
utilized include inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), inductively coupled
plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), instrumental neutron activation analysis
(INAA) and Leco infra-red spectometry. The list of elements analyzed, the detection limits for
each technique and the chemical results are included in Appendix 5.
Laboratory procedures involved the preparation of a minus 75 µm sample (>90% at -200 mesh)
through use of a jaw crusher and a Lab Technic Essa LM5 mill, which uses steel bowls. The
sample was mixed with flux and fused at high temperature, and the resulting melt dissolved in
dilute mineral acid. This solution was then measured on ICP-OES for the major-elements and
ICP-MS for the trace-constituents. The detection limits were calculated by multiplying by three
the standard deviation of nine successive measurements of a method reagent blank. The
calibration of both the mass spectrometer and the optical emission spectrometer were carried out
using certified reference materials prepared by the United States Geological Survey and the
Canadian Certified Reference Materials Project. The samples were prepared in batches, each
batch consisting of 54 samples including one blank in position 1, one reference standard in
position 2 and up to three repeats in positions 18, 36 and 54.
The spectrometers used for the ICP techniques include a Thermo-Jarrell Ash Enviro II
Simultaneous/Polyscan 61E Sequential Combination Spectrometer (ICP-OES) and a Perkin-
Elmer Elan 6000 Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS). The nuclear reactor utilized for the INAA work
is a 5 MW cold-water reactor at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Other
analytical instruments used include a Phillips PW1450 Sequential XRF Analyzer and a Model -
ELTRA CS 800 for Leco carbon/sulfur analyses.
In addition to the standards and check analyses undertaken by ACTLABS, blind duplicate
analyses were conducted on four sample pulps, which equates to 5% of the total sample
population. The comparison of these check analyses with the results of the original analyses
generally indicate less than a 10% variance (equivalent to a precision of + 5%) for results that
exceed the detection limit by more than a factor of five. A few exceptions do occur, but overall,
the variances are considered to be acceptable.
1.3.2.4 Radiogenic Isotope Analysis
Radiogenic isotopes were determined for Sr, Nd and Pb in nine rock samples by the University
of Western Australia isotope laboratory. The excess sample pulps (< 75 µm) from the chemical
analytical work was used for the isotope determinations.
About 150 mg of each sample was weighed and digested by HF+HNO3 at 190o C in a steel-
jacketed teflon vessel. A second digest by HCl at 190o C was performed in the same vessel.
After conversion of the dissolved sample to bromide form, Pb was separated using Bio-Rad®
AG-1 anion exchange columns. The waste from the Pb columns was converted to nitrate, and
the Sr and REEs isolated using Eichrom® TRU•Spec resin (Pin et al., 1994). Samarium and Nd
were then separated using Eichrom® Ln•Spec resin in HCl, following procedures modified
from Richard et al. (1976). Lead was separated by anion-exchange ion chromatography and
analyzed by standard methods (Ho et al., 1995).
All isotopic analyses were performed on the Micromass® VG 354 mass spectrometer housed at
Curtin University. Procedures for Nd are based on those previously recorded (e.g. Fletcher et
al., 1991), with samples loaded on to the side filaments of Re triple filament arrays. Data are
normalized to 146 Nd/144 Nd = 0.7219, using the power-law model implicit in stepped
multicollector data acquisition. Concurrent blanks were <0.5 ng for Nd. The 143 Nd/144 Nd data
for the La Jolla Nd standard are higher than previously reported from this laboratory, and
~0.000020 higher than reference values. The ε Nd are therefore calculated relative to a present
CHUR 143 Nd/144 Nd of 0.512655, which is equivalent to renormalizing the data by ~0.4 ε.
Mass spectrometry procedures for Sr use established sample loading methods (phosphoric acid
solution on single Ta filaments) and stepped multicollector data acquisition. Data have been re-
normalised to 86 Sr/88 Sr = 0.1194 using an exponential-law fractionation model. The standard
used was NIST-987. Concurrent blanks were ~20 ng for Sr.
Lead was loaded in phosphoric acid-doped silica gel on single Re filaments. Data were collected
in static multicollector mode and have been fractionation corrected by 1.00190 for 206 Pb/204 Pb,
1.00321 for 207 Pb/204 Pb and 1.00476 for 208 Pb/204 Pb, based on concurrent analyses of NIST-981.
Concurrent blanks were 0.70 ng and 1.85 ng for Pb.
1.3.2.5 X-ray Diffraction Analysis
The X-ray diffraction (XRD) identification of hydrothermal clay and mica minerals was
undertaken by Kingston Morrison Mineral Services in Auckland, New Zealand, with check
analyses conducted by the X-ray Analytical & Research Laboratory in the Department of
Geology and Geophysics, UWA. The results of both laboratories indicate a good agreement in
the type and relative abundance of clay-mica species identified. A total of 160 clay-mica
samples were analyzed.
Sample preparation by Kingston Morrison includes hand crushing in a porcelain mortar until
most of the powder was of silt (53 to 625 µm) or clay (<53 µm) size. The powder was then
placed in a 50 ml beaker and mixed with water to form a suspension, and allowed to stand for
seconds to minutes to concentrate the clay fraction. A portion was removed with an eye
dropper, placed on a glass microscope slide, and left to dry overnight at ambient temperature to
produce an oriented clay separate.
The samples were then scanned using an XRD machine housed in the Geology Department of
Auckland University. The instrument consists of a PHILIPS 1130 high-voltage generator and a
PHILIPS 1050 goniometer utilizing a CuKα radiation source and running at 40 kV and 20 mA.
The XRD scan parameters used in this study were 2 to 38 degrees for a standard air dried trace,
and 2 to 18 degrees for heated and glycolated traces. The analysis was run at 4 degrees per
minute with a step size of 0.02 degrees.
The oriented clay separates were glycolated by placing the glass slides overnight on a rack in a
sealed container containing a bath of ethylene glycol. After XRD analysis of glycolated
samples, the slides were heated in an oven for 1½ hours at 550°C and re-scanned.
The XRD traces were acquired by using Diffraction Technology VisXRD and Traces V4
software packages. Data processing involves background subtraction, to filter out the usual
background effects (e.g. elevated background values at low angles), and smoothing the trace to
remove some of the electronic noise and sharpen the peaks. The major-, minor- and trace-
mineral phases identified and the XRD peak charts are included in Appendix 6.
1.3.2.6 Numerical Stress Modeling
Stress Mapping Technology (SMT) is a technique developed to target epigenetic mineralization

located in dilatant zones, which experience maximum strain and minimum stress during
deformation (Holyland, 1990; Holyland et al., 1993). It is a computer-based method, which
depends on principles of rock mechanics and stress-strain relationships. Two- or three-
dimensional models are constructed from the digitization of solid geology maps and/or cross-
sections. The main assumptions in the model include: 1) target mineralization occurs late in the
deformational history of the region, 2) stress orientations and relative magnitudes are known
and 3) rheological properties of rock types and faults can be approximated. Following the input
of these variables, the model is stressed incrementally to simulate a small amount of late brittle
deformation. The hypothesis is that zones of least minimum stress, or least mean stress, will act
as a sink for mineralizing fluids and localize the precipitation of metals.
In this study, Map3D version 1.39 geomechanical software (Mining Analysis Program in 3-
Dimensions, licensed by Mine Modelling Limited, Australia) was applied to the three-
dimensional analysis of rock response to an imposed external stress. This work was undertaken
with the assistance of Dr. Juhani Ojala, formerly a consulting geoscientist for Georeality Pty.
Ltd. in Bentley, Western Australia. The models simulate the stresses developed adjacent to a
pre-mineral, quartz diorite composite pluton in the vicinity of the Batu Hijau deposit during
nearly arc-normal plate convergence and subsequent relaxation.
1.3.2.7 206 Pb / 238 U SHRIMP Analysis
The sensitive high-mass resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP II) maintained by the consortium
of Curtain University, UWA and the Geological Survey of Western Australia, with the support
of the Australian Research Council, was used to determine the 206 Pb/238 U ages of zircons
separated from 12 rock samples. The zircons were separated from 300 to 800 g of rock by
conventional heavy-liquid and magnetic separation techniques by the author in the mineral
separation laboratory at UWA.
The SHRIMP analytical methodology and data reduction technique utilized in the analysis of
Neogene zircons from the Batu Hijau district is similar to that documented by Brown and
Fletcher (1999). Fletcher et al. (2000) describe the major aspects of the analysis and data
processing scheme undertaken for the Batu Hijau district samples. However, a more detailed
description is included in Appendix 7. Analytical precision (2σ) ranges from 80 to 220 k.y. for
the Neogene samples analyzed.
1.3.2.8 (U-Th)/He Thermochronometry
Apatite separates were obtained from six rock samples and analyzed by (U-Th)/He
thermochronometry. The separates were obtained by conventional heavy-liquid and magnetic
separation techniques undertaken by the author in the mineral separation laboratory at UWA.
The thermochronometry was performed by Dr. Brent McInnes of the Commonwealth Scientific
and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) of Australia in North Ryde, NSW Australia.
The advantage of the (U-Th)/He technique is that the closure temperature is lower than for
traditional fission-track dating of apatite (~75o C vs. ~125o C for cooling rates of ~10o C/m.y.;
McDowell and Kiezer, 1977; McInnes et al., 1999a). Analytical precision (2σ) ranges from 60
to 360 k.y. for the Plio-Pleistocene cooling ages determined.
The CSIRO helium extraction and analysis facility comprises two identical single vacuum
resistance furnaces connected to a dedicated on-line Balzers 200 quadrupole mass spectrometer
via an all-metal gas handling line. The line is evacuated to ~10-8 Mbar via turbo and backing
pumps. Active gases, particularly hydrogen, are removed using SAES getters.
Apatite grains are hand-picked in order to avoid U- and Th-rich mineral inclusions that may
produce excess helium (cf. McInnes et al., 1999a). Images of selected grains are obtained by a
video camera, and measured using image analysis techniques for the calculation of an alpha
correction factor. This correction factor is mathematically calculated (Farley et al., 1996),
based on the estimated geometric dimensions of each of the grains. The procedures of apatite
analysis are described in Appendix 8, which includes details of U- and Th-isotopic abundances
and decay constants used in the determination of the (U-Th)/He ages.
Apatite from Durango, Mexico is the current international standard for (U-Th)/He
thermochronology. After 25 replicate analyses determined over a six month period, the CSIRO
(U-Th)/He facility has determined an age of 28.3 ± 0.8 Ma for Durango apatite. As expected,
this age is younger than the Durango apatite fission-track age of 31.4 ± 0.6 Ma determined by
Naeser and Fleischer (1975), and sanidine K-Ar ages of 30.6 ± 0.4 Ma (McDowell and Keizer,
1977), because both these methods have higher closure temperatures (about 125°C vs. 75°C).
1.3.2.9 Radiometric 40 Ar/39 Ar Analysis
Radiometric dating using the 40 Ar/39 Ar method was performed on hydrothermal biotite and
sericite, using the incremental heating technique (McDougall and Harrison, 1988). Eight
separates of biotite and sericite were analyzed at Stanford University, California. The Stanford
40
Ar/39 Ar laboratory consists of an argon-ion laser probe and resistance furnace, a very low
blank argon extraction and getter line, and a low-background high-sensitivity MAP 216 noble
gas mass spectrometer. Analytical precision (2σ) ranges from 20 to 120 k.y. for the early to
middle Pliocene samples analyzed. The details and specifications of the Stanford facility and the
general analytical procedures followed are documented by Marsh et al. (1997), which are
summarized in this section.
Approximately 5 to 15 mg were obtained for each of the mineral separates by conventional

heavy-liquid and magnetic separation techniques undertaken by the author in the mineral
separation laboratory at UWA. Duplicate samples were prepared as a precautionary measure.
The samples were packed individually in copper foil packets, placed into a quartz tube for
irradiation and irradiated for one hour at one megawatt in the TRIGA reactor at Oregon State
University. Neutron fluence monitors were packed in a similar manner and interspersed
amongst the unknowns at intervals along the tube, prior to irradiation. The monitors consisted of
several milligrams of sanidine from the Taylor Creek Rhyolite, New Mexico (sample 85G003).
The age of this standard is 27.92 Ma (Duffield and Dalrymple, 1990). The uncertainty in the
irradiation parameter, J, ranged from 0.3 to 0.5 percent (1σ) for the samples analyzed. The
packing of the samples and measurement of the J-values were performed by Joshua Ring,
formerly a M.Sc. student at Stanford.
The author collected much of the 40 Ar/39 Ar data at Stanford, with the assistance of Professor
Michael McWilliams, the laboratory director, and Joshua Ring. The samples were baked for 12
hours at 250o C and pumped down to ~10-9 torr in a vacuum in the argon extraction line, prior to
analysis by the mass spectrometer. Each sample was dropped into a tantalum crucible, heated
incrementally and the generated gas purified by SAES and Zr-V-Fe getters for 5 to 8 minutes.
The gas was then transferred to the mass spectrometer for measurement of the relative
abundance of 40 Ar, 39 Ar, 38 Ar, 37 Ar and 36 Ar. The sensitivity of the MAP 216 spectrometer and
the typical background and laser extraction line blank values are indicated in Marsh et al.
(1997). The tantalum crucible was baked at ~1600o C for 30 minutes, and a resistance furnace
blank measured subsequent to the final step-heat analysis of each sample and the
commencement of the analysis of a new unknown.
The measured argon isotope ratios were corrected for reactor-induced 40 Ar, blanks, decay and
interference, as described by Marsh et al. (1997). The laboratory software utilizes the decay
constants and isotope abundance suggested by Steiger and Jager (1977) to calculate an age for
each step-heating experiment undertaken. Additional processing of this data was undertaken to
produce an age-spectrum, isochron and K/Ca plot, by utilizing the Macintosh-based program
EyeSoreCon, which was written by Bradley Hacker, a graduate of Stanford. In addition, this
program determines the uncertainty (1σ) of the weighted mean plateau and isochron ages and
the mean square of weighted deviates (MSWD) statistic (for further details, refer to Marsh et al.,
1997).
In addition to the samples analyzed at Stanford, two separates of sericite-illite were sent to Dr.
Lawrence Snee at the United States Geological Survey (USGS) 40 Ar/39 Ar facility in Denver,
Colorado USA. The samples were irradiated in an aluminum canister rotated at 1 rpm for 20
hours in the central thimble of the one megawatt TRIGA reactor in Denver. The samples were
loaded in aluminum foil packages and stacked in quartz glass vials, which were sealed under a
vacuum. Each vial contained fluence monitors at the top and bottom and after every second
sample over the entire height of the vial. The fluence monitor used was Fish Canyon Tuff
sanidine with an accepted age of 27.84 Ma as measured against MMhb1 hornblende, with a
published accepted age of 520.4 Ma (Samson and Alexander, 1987). The uncertainty in the
irradiation parameter, J, was 0.1 and 0.3 percent (1σ) for the two samples. The sericite-illite
samples were analyzed following the methodology indicated by Snee et al. (1988). The results
of all 40 Ar/39 Ar step-heating experiments are included in Appendix 9.
1.4 Location
The study area encompasses 12 km (east-west) by about 6 km (north-south), and is located in

the southwestern portion of the island of Sumbawa, Nusa Tenggara Barat Province (NTB),
eastern Indonesia (Figures 1.1 and 1.2). The Batu Hijau deposit, in the central portion of the
area, is located at latitude 08o57’55” and longitude 116o52’21”. The nearest major towns are
Taliwang, 23 km to the north and Jereweh, 12 km to the north-northwest. Access to the area is
by a 30 minute drive by vehicle from the port site, Benete. Benete is best accessed by a one hour
boat trip from the port of Tenggalong in eastern Lombok, which is a 1 ½ hour drive by car from
Mataram, the capital of NTB. Mataram may be reached by a 20 minute airplane ride from
Denpasar, Bali, which is a popular international gateway to Indonesia.
The climate is relatively dry from May to November, with the monsoon contributing
approximately 200 cm of rainfall from December to April. The topography of the area is
moderate to steep (Figures 1.3 and 1.4), with hills that rise to nearly 1000 m approximately 10
km from the southern coastline. The valleys are moderately to steeply dissected with exposure
of rock outcrop common along stream courses. The vegetation consists of primary rain forest
and secondary growth (Figure 1.5 A), which develops in response to the small-scale logging
activities of local villagers. During the course of this study, the Batu Hijau area was in the
process of being developed for a large-scale, open-pit mining operation. This improved access
greatly through the development of a widespread road network and created large exposures of
bedrock (Figure 1.5 B). The remote portions of the study area can be accessed by foot or by
helicopter, where landing sites exist.
The region is seismically active and located 90 km southeast of Mount Rinjani and 150 km
southwest of Mount Tambora, which are active stratovolcanoes.
1.5 Previous Work
The Dutch conducted most of the early geologic studies of Sumbawa. This work reported details
of Tambora and neighboring alkaline stratovolcanoes (Zollinger, 1855; Verbeek, 1908; Sapper,
1917; Brouwer, 1943), but also included descriptions of the geology of the pre-Quaternary
formations. Van Bemmelen (1949) equated the older volcanic sequence of the Sumbawa with
the “Old Andesites” (Oligo-Miocene intermediate volcanic rocks) of the Sunda volcanic arc in
Sumatra and Java. He also reported two major sedimentary successions, the “old Neogene
series”, characterized by volcaniclastic marine sedimentary rocks in the southern portion of
Sumbawa, and the “young Neogene series”, characterized by recently uplifted coral reefs along
the northern coast of the island.
More recent studies by the Geological Survey of Indonesia and the Volcanological Survey of
Indonesia have produced geologic maps (1:250,000) of the island (Sudradjat, 1975; Suratno
1994, 1995; Sudradjat et al., 1998). These maps include generalized chrono-stratigraphic
sequences for the major sedimentary and volcanic successions of Sumbawa, which are
developed on the basis of field relationships and limited fossil assemblages reported from
sedimentary sequences. Foden and Varne (1980) documented the petrology and tectonic setting
of the shoshonitic Quaternary volcanoes of Sumbawa, and compared their chemistry to the
active calc -alkaline Rinjani volcano on Lombok. The National Research Council of Italy
reported that Sumbawa marks a major structural discontinuity in the Banda arc, and supported
this argument with convincing seismic and gravity data (Barberi et al., 1987). In this same
publication, major-oxide compositions and radiometric (K-Ar) age dates are provided for
Neogene volcanic rocks, and fossil assemblages are reported from Early to Middle Miocene
limestone horizons.
In the vicinity of Batu Hijau, Newmont geologists began systematic exploration for gold and
copper in 1987. The exploration methodology used to discover the deposit is documented in
Maula and Levet (1996). Descriptions of the geology and mineralization of Batu Hijau are
included in Meldrum et al. (1994) and Irianto and Clark (1995). Ali (1997) documents the
methods and results of deposit evaluation. The recent evaluation of drill core from holes that lie
along a central cross-section line through the deposit further constrained the relative timing
relationships between intrusion emplacement, wall-rock alteration and copper-gold
mineralization (Mitchell et al., 1998; Clode et al., 1999). Gerteisen (1998) better defined the
volcanic stratigraphy of Batu Hijau through the summary logging of 15 drill holes in the
western part of the deposit. Sjoekri (1997) and Turner and Sjoekri (1999) document a GIS
analysis of the regional stream-sediment chemical database and ranked anomalous catchments
on the basis of the chemical response of known prospect areas. Ferneyhough and Qarana (1996)
report the geophysical characteristics of Batu Hijau and vicinity. Newmont developed
reconnaissance- and prospect-scale databases for geological, geochemical and geophysical
results. The majority of these databases were reviewed and compiled during the course of this
study (Table 1.3).
Table 1.3 Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company databases reviewed during this study
Database Type Coverage Original Compilation Comments and Use
Area Map Scale Map Scale
Prospect geology AOI 1:500; 1:1000 1:5000 useful to prioritize

research and provide
Regional geology Jereweh & 1:5000 1:50,000 data in areas not
Teluk Puna mapped in this study
Stream geochemistry SW Sumbawa 1:25,000 --------- indicates geometry

& scale of geochem-
Soil geochemistry AOI 1:5000 1:10,000 ical zonation in area
SPOT imagery SW Sumbawa 1:50,000 1:50,000 aids structural inter-

pretation
Airborne magnetics SW Sumbawa 1:25,000 1:10,000 aids interpretation of

& radiometrics geology & K-silicate
alteration
Ground magnetics AOI 1:10,000 1:10,000 aids interpretation of

& IP-resistivity alteration & sulfide
distribution
Abbreviations: AOI-area of interest around Batu Hijau mine (refer to Section 1.7).
1.6 Exploration and Development History at Batu Hijau
Exploration of western Sumbawa by Newmont geologists commenced in 1987. Auriferous

quartz vein systems were discovered at Bambu and Teluk Puna (Figure 1.2) and evaluated
during 1988 to 1989. In May 1990, geologist Bob Burke discovered copper-sulfide-bearing
quartz vein stockworks in an outcrop exposed in the headwaters of a small creek, which
subsequently was named Brang Tembaga (Copper Creek). The discovery was called Batu Hijau,
Indonesian for ‘green rock’. The discovery was evaluated by surface trenching in mid- to late-
1990 and diamond drilling from 1991 to 1996. The project feasibility study was approved by the
Indonesian government in 1997 and construction commenced in April of that year. Additional
drilling programs further defined the deposit from 1996 to 1998. A mineable reserve of 914
million tonnes at 0.53 % copper and 0.40 g/t gold at a 0.3% copper cut-off has been delineated
by more than 76,000 m of diamond drilling in 163 drill holes. The deposit remains open at
depth. Open pit mining started in 1998 and production of copper and gold in concentrate
commenced in October 1999.
Exploration in the district surrounding Batu Hijau includes stream sediment and soil sampling,
prospect- and regional-scale mapping, airborne magnetic and radiometric surveys, and ground
IP-resistivity and magnetic work. Several peripheral porphyry-copper occurrences and
auriferous quartz-vein systems have been discovered and drill tested. However, none have been
proven to be economic to date.
1.7 Terminology
The abbreviations used in this thesis are defined as follows:
Geography
AOI Batu Hijau Area of Interest, region of past soil and geophysical surveys and present focus of
infrastructure development; encompasses about 35 km2 (12 km east-west by 3km north-south).
Br. Brang, word for stream in the local dialect of Sumbawa.
D. Doro, word for crater in the local dialect of Sumbawa.
Gn. Gunung, word for mountain in Indonesian.
P. Pulau, word for island in Indonesian.
Institutions
CCOP Committee for Co-ordination of Joint Prospecting for Mineral Resources in Asian
Offshore Areas
CRSI Center for Remote Sensing and Imaging, The National University of Singapore
CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Australia
GSI Geological Survey of Indonesia
ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
Living Earth Living Earth Inc., Santa Monica, California
NOAA National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration
USGS United States Geological Survey
Other Abbreviations
AVHRR advanced very high resolution radiometer
EDS energy dispersive spectrometer.

HFSE high-field-strength elements (e.g. Ti, Y, Zr, Nb, Hf, Ta)
HREE heavy rare-earth elements (e.g. Ho, Yb, Lu)
LILE large-ion lithophile elements (e.g. K, Rb, Sr, Cs, Ba)
LOI loss on ignition; the proportion of mass lost, as volatiles, when rock powder is heated
above 1100 oC in a furnace for an hour or more
LREE light rare-earth elements (e.g. La, Ce, Nd)
pfu per stoichiometric formula unit of a particular mineral phase.
SEATAR-IDOE Studies in East Asian Tectonics and Resoucres – International Decade of Ocean
Exploration
SEM scanning electron microscope
SHRIMP sensitive high-mass resolution ion microprobe
Igneous rock names follow the classification scheme of the IUGS Subcommission on the
Systematics of Igneous Rocks (Aramaki, 1973; IUGS, 1973) and Le Maitre et al. (1989); the
alkalinity classification scheme follows that of Gill (1981). Volcanic rock descriptive
terminology incorporates the recommendations of McPhie et al. (1993). Quartz- and sulfide-
vein terminology is after that of Gustafson and Hunt (1975) for “Α” and “B” quartz veins and
veinlets and “D” pyrite veinlets and quartz-pyrite veins. Other terms and nomenclature used are
defined in the text. The most common terms are indicated below:
District - a region, which is commonly 10 to 100 km2, that contains a cluster of mineral deposits
and / or occurrences.
Exhumation vs.- definitions follow that of England and Molnar (1990): exhumation refers to the
uplift (of rocks) displacement of rocks with respect to the Earth’s surface and the rate of exhumation is
the rate of erosion or rate of removal of overburden by tectonic processes; uplift refers
to the displacement of rocks with respect to the geoid or mean sea-level.
Porphyritic - less than 40% phenocrysts set in an aphanitic or very fine-grained groundmass.
Porphyry - more than 40% phenocrysts set in a very fine-grained hollocrystalline groundmass.
Quartz vein vs. - a vein is designated to be greater or equal to 1 cm; a veinlet is less than 1 cm.
quartz veinlet
Sericite - fine-grained muscovite
The classification of mineral deposit and prospect styles follow the definitions indicated below:
Carbonate-base metal-gold - a recently recognized class of intrusion-related, low-sulfidation deposits that

contain moderate to large gold resources. The name of this deposit style refers to the common
mineral assemblage present, which consists predominantly of calcite, dolomite, rhodocrosite and
other carbonate minerals, galena, sphalerite, pyrite and gold, typically as electrum. This style of
deposit develops at intermediate depths and temperatures in an inferred transitional environment
between porphyry systems at lower levels and low-sulfidation epithermal quartz-carbonate vein
systems at higher levels (Leach and Corbett, 1995). At Kelian, Kalimantan, one of the best
documented deposits of this type, homogenization temperatures for primary fluid inclusions in
quartz, carbonate and sphalerite commonly range from 260o to 340o C (van Leeuwen et al.,
1990).
Disseminated sedimentary rock-hosted gold - a deposit that includes the following salient characteristics:
1) micron-size gold in arsenical pyrite, 2) Au-As-Sb-Hg-Tl geochemical association and 3)
alteration of silty carbonate rock characterised by decalcification, dolomitization, silicification,
argillization and the introduction of fine sulfides. This style of deposit is well documented in the
western USA (Percival et al., 1990; Berger and Bagby, 1991) and more recently in the Mesel
area of North Sulawesi, Indonesia (Turner et al., 1994; Garwin et al., 1995).
Epithermal - a hydrothermal system formed at relatively shallow depths (from the surface to 1 to 2 km
depth) and low temperatures (commonly 150o to 300o C), and exhibit variable but characteristic
hydrothermal alteration and mineralization styles (Berger and Eimon, 1983; White and
Hedenquist, 1995).
High-sulfidation or acid-sulfate - an epithermal system related to hypogene acid fluids generated from the
interaction of magmatic and meteoric processes in active volcanic environments (White and
Hedenquist, 1995). Characteristic ore minerals include pyrite and enargite-luzonite, whereas
gangue mineralogy is dominated by variable amounts of quartz, kaolinite, alunite or
pyrophyllite.
Low-sulfidation, or adularia-sericite - an epithermal system related to hypogene fluids that are near-
neutral in pH (Henley and Ellis, 1983; White and Hedenquist, 1995). Classic, banded and
brecciated textures and characteristic gangue mineralogy (quartz, illite/sericite, carbonate and
adularia) typically characterize bonanza quartz vein systems, exemplified by Hishikari in Japan
(Izawa et al., 1990).
Porphyry - a mineral deposit or occurrence characterized by disseminated and veinlet-controlled copper-

iron sulfide mineralization distributed throughout a large volume of rock in association with
potassium silicate, sericitic, intermediate argillic, propylitic and less commonly advanced argillic
alteration in porphyritic plutons and in the immediate wall rocks (Meyer and Hemley, 1967;
Lowell and Guilbert, 1970; Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; Titley and Beane, 1981; Einaudi, 1982;
Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984).
Quartz lode - a mineral occurrence that is characterized by structurally-controlled auriferous quartz vein
systems, which are commonly hosted in variably metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic
wall-rock. Some similarites may exist to mesothermal lodes or orogenic gold deposits emplaced
in low- to medium-grade metamorphic terrains (Hodgson, 1993; Groves et al., 1998). However,
the quartz lode deposits of Indonesia locally indicate textures and mineralogy ascribed to
epithermal veins. Therefore, a genetic classification of these quartz lode systems would be
inaccurate and misleading. Hence, this deposit classification is based on descriptive elements,
rather than inferred environment of formation.
Skarn - a coarse-grained rock formed from a variety of calc-silicate and iron-oxide minerals through
metamorphic recrystallization (regional or contact), bimetasomatic reaction, or infiltration
metasomatism of calcareous sedimentary rocks (exoskarn) and the causative intrusion
(endoskarn) (Einaudi et al., 1981). The majority of large skarn deposits are directly related to
intrusions, both spatially and temporally (Meinert, 1993).
Volcanogenic, or volcanic-associated, massive sulfide - a deposit that occurs in submarine volcanic rocks
and may have a close association with at least minor amounts of sedimentary rock. These
deposits form during the discharge of hydrothermal fluids through the sea floor and consist of
two parts: (1) stratabound massive sulfide and exhalite bodies formed on or immediately beneath
the sea floor and (2) underlying, discordant vein, stringer and disseminated ore hosted in a
hydrothermal alteration pipe (Ohmoto and Skinner, 1983; Franklin, 1993). Massive sulfide
deposits may contain significant gold resources.
1.8 Thesis Organization
1.8.1 Chapters
The chapters in this thesis document and discuss the relationships between geologic setting and
copper-gold mineralization on several scales. These include the tectonic setting of the
Indonesian archipelago (Chapter 2), the regional geological framework of Sumbawa Island
(Chapter 3), and the geology and mineralization of the Batu Hjijau district (Chapters 4 to 6).
Chapter 4 documents the style, composition, age and evolution of the volcano-sedimentary
succession and intrusive complexes in the district. Chapter 5 describes the fracture, fault and
vein patterns, and presents models for the structural development of the district. Chapter 6
discusses the style, geometry and scale of the early-stage and late-stage hydrothermal systems,
and the timing of the hydrothermal events, associated with the copper and gold prospects.
Chapter 7 is a synthesis of the data of previous chapters, which includes a district-wide genetic
model, and presents comparisons to intrusion-related mineral districts elsewhere in the world.
Chapter 8 provides general conclusions, implications for intrusion-related deposit exploration
and recommendations for future research.
1.8.2 Organization of Figures, Tables, Plans, Sections and Appendices
The tables are included in the body of the text (Volume One), whereas figures are included in a
separate volume (Volume Two). Mineral abbreviations and formulae, selected petrologic
descriptions, whole -rock and mineral chemical data, X-ray diffraction results and radiometric
dating methods and analyses are included in the appendices in Volume Two. Study area maps
and schematic sections, which are compiled to 1:10,000 scale, are included as AutoCAD, DXF,
Postscript and plot files in the CD-ROM inside the jacket cover of Volume Two (Maps 1 to 10;
Sections 1 to 3).
CHAPTER 2 SETTINGS AND STYLES OF GOLD AND COPPER MINERALIZATION 23
CHAPTER 2 SETTINGS AND STYLES OF GOLD AND COPPER

MINERALIZATION IN THE INDONESIAN REGION
2.1 Introduction
The major aims of this chapter are to develop a revised tectonic - and geologic-framework for
Indonesia, and relate the localization of copper and gold deposits to the composition of crustal
basement, the distribution of major faults and the topology of the subducting slab beneath
Neogene to Recent magmatic arcs. This is achieved through the integration of multiple
databases, including digital elevation models, satellite gravity and radar images, seismic data,
heat flow, volcano distribution and composition, and the style and distribution of copper and
gold deposits in the region.
In Indonesia, five major magmatic arcs and several subsidiary arcs of Cenozoic age form a
complex border to the Sundaland Craton, which lies along the southern edge of the Eurasian
Plate, and the northern margin of the Australian Pla tform. The arc complex is situated between
the Indian Plate to the south and the Philippine Sea and Caroline-Pacific Plates to the northeast.
This volcano-plutonic chain extends from the Sangihe Islands, north of Sulawesi, through Irian
Jaya and eastern Indonesia, to Kalimantan, Java and Sumatra (Figure 1.1). The Sunda-Banda arc
is the longest of the Indonesian arcs. It extends nearly 4000 km from northern Sumatra through
Sumbawa (Sunda arc) and onwards through Flores to its terminus in the Banda Islands (Banda
arc). Other major arcs include the North Sulawesi-Sangihe, Halmahera, Central Kalimantan and
the magmatic axis that coincides with the Central Irian Jaya-Papuan Fold Belt of New Guinea.
The arcs are constructed on geologic basement formed from oceanic , continental and
transitional crust. The geometries of individual arc segments are complex, and are the product of
subduction, locally involving polarity reversals, obduction, arc-arc and arc-continent collisions,
rifting and transcurrent faulting. Hamilton (1979) and Hutchison (1989) provide comprehensive
reviews of the tectonic elements and processes that characterize the region. Hall (1996) presents
plate tectonic reconstructions for the Tertiary. Previous descriptions of various magmatic arcs in
the context of gold mineralization are included in Carlile and Mitchell (1994).
The ages of the magmatic arcs span from the late Mesozoic through to Cenozoic time
(Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison, 1989). However, gold and copper deposits occur almost
exclusively in those arc sectors developed during the middle to late Cenozoic (Carlile and
Mitchell, 1994).
2.2 Rationale and Methodology
The tectonic framework of the Indonesian archipelago is complex. This has led to many
different interpretations of the geometry of the tectonic elements that comprise the region, the
most comprehensive of which is Hamilton’s 1979 landmark study, The Tectonics of the
Indonesian Region. These interpretations include the tectonic and geologic frameworks
developed by Katili (1975, 1984), Hutchison (1989) and Carlile and Mitchell (1994), and the
Tertiary tectonic reconstruction of Hall (1996). Simandjuntuk and Barber (1996) document the
24 CHAPTER 2 SETTINGS AND STYLES OF GOLD AND COPPER MINERALIZATION
contrasting tectonic styles of the various Neogene orogenic belts, whereas the active tectonics of
the region are discussed by McCaffrey (1988, 1996). The present-day plate motions for the area
are indicated by Minster and Jordon (1978), DeMets et al. (1990, 1994) and McCaffrey (1996).
The geometries of the subduction slabs beneath the Sunda and Banda arcs are demonstrated
through the interpretations of seismic events and fault plane solutions (Cardwell and Isacks,
1978; Hamilton, 1979) and tomographic imaging (Puspito et al., 1993; Widiyantoro and van der
Hilst, 1996, 1997).
The recent availability of geophysical data for the Indonesian region from easily accessible
sources, such as the World Wide Web, allows the integration of multiple databases to better
understand the geometry of the tectonic elements in the area. The primary databases reviewed in
this study include AVHRR (weather satellite) imagery, digital elevation models (DEM), ocean
bathymetry, satellite gravity and synthetic aperature radar (SAR), seismic event catalogues,
heat-flow measurements, published geologic maps and the distribution of volcanoes and
geothermal areas (Table 2.1). Several of these databases have been compiled and interpreted to
generate a series of maps (1:5,000,000) that comprise a revised tectonic framework, which
includes various aspects of the interpretations of previous workers. The contents of these maps
are summarized in Figures 2.1 to 2.5. The primary purpose of this revised interpretation is to
provide an accurate tectonic framework for the distribution and localization of gold and copper
deposits in Indonesia.
This revised interpretation is achieved through the compilation of a series of regional maps that
indicate the relationships between major tectonic elements and the distribution and
characteristics of magmatic arcs of Indonesia. These tectonic elements include plate boundaries
and direction of convergence, crustal-scale faults and lineaments, and the composition of the
geologic basement to the arcs. The distribution and style of seismic events and the topology of
the subducting slab, as inferred by depth contours for local Benioff zones, and the distribution
and chemical composition of Quaternary volcanoes, are placed in context of regional and local
tectonic settings. The results of this compilation are included in Section 2.3. The geologic
setting and styles of mineral deposits in each of the major Neogene magmatic arcs of Indonesia
are also described (Section 2.4). The relationship between mineralization and tectonic setting,
including controls related to the topology of the subducting slab, crustal-scale fault activity and
geologic basement types, are discussed in Section 2.5.
Table 2.1 Summary of databases compiled for the Indonesian region
Database Source Coverage Resolution Comments and Use
DEM USGS (Interna- all land masses 250m geomorphology &

tional Earthscan) topographic lineaments
Satellite gravity, NOAA- ocean only 1000m seafloor structure

seafloor topo- Sandwell1
graphy
Seafloor topo. Living Earth2 ocean (bathymetry) 1000m seafloor-land structure,

AVHRR image land (AVHRR) resolution limits interp.
Radarsat (ERS) CRSI Sumatra, Java, coarse mode topographic and tonal
Kalimantan & NTB (100m) lineaments & structure
Seismic events USGS Nat. entire region ~15,000 events, Benioff zones
Earthquake M>5, 1973-1999 and cross-arc faults
Info. Center3
Heat-flow NOAA1 -Pollack off/onshore bores, adequate detail anomalies in back-arc

et al. (1993) Sumatra, Java, in Sumatra & of Sumatra and Banda
ESCAP (1981) E. Kalimantan W. Java only
Volcanoes & Smithsonian entire region -------- relation of volcanism

geothermal areas Institute4 , GSI to structure & Benioff
Geology multiple sources entire region variable compilation framework

& tectonics (refer to figures) for interpretation of data
Note: the web site addresses for the sources indicated are as follows: 1- http://ngdc.gov/ngdc.html,
2- http://livingearth.com, 3- http://earthquake.usgs.gov, 4- http://volcano.si.edu/gyp/vocano/index.htm
2.3 Tectonic Setting of the Indonesian Archipelago
2.3.1 Major Tectonic Elements
2.3.1.1 Characteristics of Crustal Basement and Microplates
Continental crust
The western portion of Indonesia is formed on a geologic basement of Sundaland continental

crust (Figure 2.2). Exposures of this basement in Sumatra and western Kalimantan indicate late
Paleozoic to Mesozoic platform sedimentary rock and pelitic schist, which are intruded by two
mica granites of Triassic, Carboniferous and Cretaceous age (Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison,
1989).
The southeastern margin of Sundaland is characterized by a continental shelf, which includes

platform carbonate and clastic rocks of late Cretaceous to early Miocene age. The present-day
edge of the Sunda Shelf, the Paternoster Platform, lies immediately north of Sumbawa. Sumba
Island, to the south of Sumbawa, is considered by many workers to represent an emergent
fragment of the Sunda Shelf, rifted from Sundaland and transported to its present position
during the late Oligocene (Hamilton, 1979; Chamalaun et al., 1981). Other workers have
ascribed an Australian source to the Sumba microcontinent (Hutchison, 1989; Carlile and
Mitchell, 1994). However, recent paleomagnetic and isotopic studies confirm Sumba’s South
East Asian affinity (Wensink and van Bergen, 1995; Vroon et al., 1996).
The northern margin of the Australian continental shelf collided with the Banda arc in the
vicinity of East Timor at about 4 to 2.5 Ma (Audley-Charles, 1986; Richardson and Blundell,
1996; Hall, 1996). This collision correlates well with the termination of volcanic activity at
about 3 Ma in the Alor and Wetar Islands, north of Timor (Abbot and Chamalaun, 1981). Prior
to the arrival of the Australian continental margin, the collision of a micro-continent with the
subduction zone is inferred by Richardson and Blundell (1996) and Snyder and Barber (1997),
to coincide with the ~ 8 Ma metamorphism of the Alieu Formation, presently exposed on Timor
and Kisar. The crust separating this micro-continent from the Australian Craton was probably
oceanic, but could have been attenuated continental crust (Richardson and Blundell, 1996).
Hence, Timor has been a focus for the collision of continental crust and micro-plates with the
Banda arc, from the Late Miocene through the mid-Pliocene.
The Australian shelf, south of Timor, contains the Ashmore and Sahul Platforms and the
Bonaparte Basin. The Bonaprate Basin, and the Canning Basin to the southwest, are Late
Devonian to Early Carboniferous intra-cratonic rift basins with northwesterly trending axes
(Snyder et al., 1996). The basin axes are parallel to northwesterly trending crustal lineaments
and faults that form the margins of the Archaean Kimberley and Sturt blocks on the Australian
mainland. Estimates of the crustal thickness of Australian continental shelf range from 30 to 40
km, on the basis of the interpretation of seismic reflection profiles (Snyder et al., 1996). The
Scott Plateau marks the transition from the Australian continent to oceanic crust of the Indian
Plate. This transitional zone is probably formed of thinned continental crust.
Several microplates or microcontinents were tectonically separated from Australian−New

Guinea continental crust and transported westwards to collide as individual fragments with the
eastern margin of Sundaland (Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison, 1989). Hamilton (1979) places the
majority of these collisions in the Middle to Late Miocene and invokes the tectonic processes of
strike-slip fault movement and obduction. The microplates compiled in this study include the
Banggai−Sula Spur in eastern Sulawesi, Obi in southwestern Halmahera, Buton in southeast
Sulawesi and the Buru−Ambon−Seram Spur in the northern Banda Sea. The Australian−New
Guinea affinity of these microplates is demonstrated on the basis of the comparison of Pb and
Nd isotopic signatures of sedimentary and volcanic rocks from the microplates and potential
source regions (Vroon et al., 1996).
Oceanic crust
The oceanic part of the Indian Plate, Philippine Sea Plate, Caroline−Pacific Plate and the young
island arc portions of the leading edge of the Eurasian Plate are all composed of oceanic crust.
Middle to late Tertiary and Quaternary magmatic arcs cross the boundary between basements
comprising oceanic crust and Sundaland continental crust in the northern arm of Sulawesi and in
eastern Java. The arcs in these areas are probably built on crust of a transitional character.
The age of the subducting oceanic crust of the Indian Plate ranges from 50 to 90 Ma along
Sumatra, through 100 to 135 Ma near Java, to 140 to 160 Ma in the Sumbawa−Flores vicinity.
The Roo Rise, an oceanic plateau built on Early Cretaceous oceanic crust, and the Argo Basin, a
paleorift basin developed at about 161 Ma (Hutchison, 1989), form the leading edge of the
Indian Plate in the vicinity of the Java Trench. The estimates of the thickness of the oceanic
crust in this portion of the Indian Plate and in the Banda Sea part of the Eurasian Plate range
from 10 to 14 km (figure 4 in van Bergen et al., 1993; Snyder et al., 1996). In comparison, the
thickness of the overlying plate that supports the Sunda arc in the vicinity of Sumbawa is
estimated to be 14 to 23 km (Barberi et al., 1987). The thickness of oceanic crust tapers to the
east, with a thickness of about 10 km estimated for the Banda arc east of Wetar (figure 4 in van
Bergen et al., 1993).
2.3.1.2 Crustal-scale Lineaments, Faults and Relative Plate Movement Velocities
Tectonic elements
Major subduction zone complexes flank Indonesia to the south, west and east. These include the
Java Trench−Timor Trough system along the southern margin of the Eurasian Plate. This trench
has been the site of subduction of the Indian Plate from pre-Eocene to the present (Hall, 1996).
The present collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate is directed towards the
north-northeast at a rate of about 7 cm/yr (Minster and Jordan, 1978; DeMets et al., 1994;
McCaffrey, 1996). Subsidiary trench systems occur in northern Sulawesi, Sangihe Islands and
western Halmahera. Subduction beneath the Sangihe Trench was initiated in the mid-Miocene,
and subduction commenced along the Halmahera Trench in the Late Oligocene to Early
Miocene (Hamilton, 1979). Both trenches are presently sites of obduction, subduction having
ceased in recent times (Silver and Moore, 1978; Hamilton, 1979). Subduction along the North
Sulawesi Trench began in the Middle to Late Miocene, in response to the docking of exotic
microcontinents in eastern Sulawesi and sinistral movement along the Palu fault system
(Hamilton, 1979; Hall, 1996). As a result of this strike-slip fault movement, the northern arm of
Sulawesi was rotated about 90o in a clockwise sense with respect to the western arm of Sulawesi
(Hamilton, 1979; Hall, 1996).
Significant back-arc thrust faults occur north of Flores and Wetar. The Flores and Wetar thrusts
indicate Recent north-directed reverse movements that range from 5 cm/yr in the Flores region
to 7 cm/yr in the Wetar vicinty (McCaffrey, 1996). The increased amount of reverse movement
in the back arc from west to east likely reflects the transference of movement from the Java
Trench−Timor Trough, where subduction has ceased, due to the collision of the Australian
continent with the Banda arc in the Pliocene (Hutchison, 1989).
The Central Iran Jaya−Papuan Fold Belt is a Plio-Pleistocene foreland fold and thrust belt which
only ceased movement in the late Pleistocene (prior to 0.2 Ma; Hamilton, 1979). Compressional
tectonics led to localized deformation and crustal thickening, which caused the physiographic
uplift of the Central Ranges, which lie above 3000 m (Hamilton, 1979). In the southern portion
of this belt, Mesozoic, Paleogene and Miocene platform and shelf strata are thrust southwards
over upper Paleozoic crystalline basement. The development of the fold and thrust belt is
attributed to the Pliocene collision of the Australian craton with an island arc located along the
southern margin of the Caroline−Pacific Plate in the vicinity of the present-day New Guinea
Trench (Hamilton, 1979; Pilgram and Davies, 1987). The current relative convergence between
Australia –New Guinea and the Caroline−Pacific Plate is directed east-northeast at a rate of 12
cm/yr (De Mets et al., 1994; McCaffrey, 1996).
Major strike-slip fault systems extend for hundreds to two thousand kilometers across the
Indonesian archipelago. Transcurrent movement along the Sumatra fault since the Miocene has
localized volcanism and sedimentation within, and adjacent to, a series of extensional basins
formed in dilational jogs. The present rate of movement along the fault ranges from <1.0 cm/yr.
in southern Sumatra to 2.8 cm/yr in northern Sumatra (McCaffrey, 1996). Neogene movements
along the Palu fault and Sorong fault systems have contributed to the complexity of the
Indonesian arcs by facilitating the westward transport and collision of several exotic
microplates, which separated from Australia −New Guinea. The east-trending Sorong fault
system forms the southern boundary of the Caroline−Pacific Plate and indicates more than 370
km of sinistral movement since the late Miocene (Dow and Sukamto, 1984).
Arc-transverse strike-slip faults extend on the order of 100 to 400 km across the Indonesian
arcs, and where studied (e.g. Timor vicinity), indicate arc-parallel extension on the order of
about 3 mm/yr (McCaffrey, 1988). Crustal-scale lineaments, inferred from satellite gravity,
bathymetry, AVHRR and DEM data, cross the arcs at angles of about 45o to 70o. Northeasterly
striking oblique strike-slip faults influence the morphology of the islands forming the
Sunda−Banda arc from Bali to Wetar, whereas northwesterly striking faults control variations in
the coastline and geometry of the northern arm of Sulawesi. Throughout Indonesia, the
distribution of Neogene to Recent magmatic activity and the structure of middle to late Tertiary
sedimentary basins indicate that arc-transverse oblique strike-slip faults play a large role in arc
tectonics. The transform faults that link the relict spreading centers responsible for the Eocene
rifting of the Sundaland Craton beneath the Makassar Strait form part of a major northwesterly
trending zone of strike-slip faults and lineaments. This zone extends more than 2000 km from
Borneo to the southern Banda Sea. This deformation zone represents the southeastern extremity
of the northwesterly trending fault and fracture corridor, presented by Wood (1985), to extend
from northern Thailand and Indochina through the South China Sea and Borneo to southeastern
Sulawesi. The trend of these structural elements coincides with that defined by the
northwesterly oriented faults and topographic lineaments in the Archaean Kimberley and Sturt
blocks of northern Australia.
The north-south trending bathymetric ridges on the Indian Plate, in the vicinity of Java and
Sumatra, represent ‘leaky transform’ faults of Late Cretaceous to early Paleogene age
(Hamilton, 1979). These ridges parallel the Ninetyeast Ridge to the west and rise more than 2
km above the flanking seafloor basins. The Investigator Ridge and an unnamed ridge, whic h lies
~300 km to the west, are in the process of being subducted beneath northern Sumatra. The trace
of these paleotransform faults beneath the Sundaland Craton coincides with the location of the
Toba tectono-depression, margins of back-arc sedimentary basins and major dextral strike-slip
faults in Peninsular Malaysia −Thailand.
The bathymetric ridges that extend north-northwest of the Banda arc in the Wetar−Damar Island
region include several volcanic seamounts and the active Gunung Api stratovolcano. Snyder et
al. (1996) infer a ‘leaky transform’ fault in this area, on the basis of their interpretation of
discontinuities in two deep seismic -reflection profiles and marine gravity data for the region.
The southeastern extension of this inferred fracture zone coincides with the northeastern margin
of the Bonaparte Basin and the southwestern edge of the Sturt block, located on the Australian
continental shelf and mainland, respectively.
Rheological considerations
Given the different composition, age and thickness of the crustal types and the style of the
tectonic evolution of the Indonesian region, it is probable that deformation is localized along
zones of weakness created at sites of rheological contrast. Potential sites of inter-plate weakness
include the margins of oceanic plateaux, seafloor basins, continental shelves and cratons.
Transitional crust and major crustal-scale fault movement likely characterize the boundaries
between continental crust and oceanic crust within a given plate. Specifically, the lineaments
defined by the edge of the Australian Craton, Scott Plateau, Argo Basin and Roo Rise are
inferred to coincide with zones of potential weakness. The margins of the Sundaland Craton in
eastern Java, eastern Borneo and the western and northern arms of Sulawesi are regions of
rheological contrast and represent loci for deformation. Movement along crustal-scale strike-slip
faults and arc-transverse oblique-slip faults allow for the transference of tectonic stresses from
plate boundaries to proximal inter-plate deformation zones. The paleotransform faults in the
Indian Ocean also represent sites of potential weakness along the subducting slab beneath
Sumatra.
Zones of rheological contrast and enhanced deformation act as a loci for seismic and magmatic
activity. Once developed, these zones are potentially reactivated throughout time to form
geologically anomalous regions that localize the migration of hydrothermal fluids and ore
deposition.
2.3.2 Earthquake Hypocenters and Topology of the Subducting Slab
2.3.2.1 Earthquake Hypocenters
Distribution
Plate boundaries are broadly defined by zones of seismicity (Isacks et al., 1968). In Indonesia,
discrete seismic regions coincide with Benioff zones and strike-slip faults, whereas broader
seismic areas occur in the fore-arc setting above subducting plates and within inter-plate
deformation zones (Hamilton, 1979).
The distribution of earthquake hypocenters in Figure 2.3 defines Benioff zones that correlate
with deformation of the subducting plates beneath the trench systems of Indonesia. The extent
and dip of these Benioff seismic zones vary along the length of the subduction trenches. For
example, earthquakes with hypocenters more than 300 km deep do not exist beneath Sumatra,
where the Benioff zone dips about 30o to 40o NE, whereas earthquake depths reach 670 km
beneath eastern Java, where the Benioff zone dips ~60o N. Clusters of shallow hypocenters
(commonly < 50 km depth) occur along major strike-slip faults and in back-arc thrust regions,
and outline many of the arc-transverse lineaments interpreted from the remote sensing databases
(cf. Figures 2.2 and 2.3). The distribution of hypocenters defines segments of the Benioff zones
that are characterized by greater and lesser earthquake activity. Abrupt changes in the depth to
the Benioff zone also occur across arc-transverse lineaments. Geological mapping of the
overlying arc shows that many of these lineaments coincide with oblique-slip faults, which
commonly control the distribution of igneous and sedimentary rock types. It is on the basis of
these relationships that many of the lineaments indicated in Figures 2.2 and 2.3 are interpreted
as faults.
The most conspicuous of these arc-transverse faults include the series of northeasterly trending
faults in the Sumbawa to Wetar sector of the Sunda−Banda arc, the northwesterly striking
structures in the Banda Sea, and the northwesterly trending faults that extend across northern
Sulawesi, the Sangihe Islands and Halmahera. In Irian Jaya−New Guinea, the northeasterly
oriented arc-transverse structures inferred on the basis of mapped geology and geophysical data
are only moderately well expressed by the distribution of earthquake hypocenters. The
northwesterly trending tectonic lineaments and faults outlined for Kalimantan are not recorded
in the seismic event database, as the region is no longer seismically active (for events of
magnitude > 5.0, on the Richter scale).
Several of the arc-transverse faults that control the coastline of the islands from Sumbawa to
Wetar coincide with the surface projection of the boundaries between the Roo Rise, Argo Basin,
Scott Plateau and Australian Craton on the subducting slab. A northerly oriented seismic zone
extends beneath the Toba tectono-depression and coincides with the surface projection of the
paleotransform fault on the subducting slab beneath north Sumatra. The coincidence of surface
features and faults with structural features of the subducting slab indicates that the rheology and
topology of the down-going slab exerts a control on the style of deformation in the overlying
plate. This inter-relationship is further discussed in Section 2.3.3.
The general absence of earthquake hypocenters in the vicinity of Timor−Wetar coincides with
the collision zone between Australia and the arc. Subduction beneath the fore-arc region is
inferred to have locked up, with the transference of tectonic stress accommodated by faulting
within the overlying plate elsewhere in the arc (e.g. back-arc thrusts in the vicinity of Wetar).
Fault plane solutions
The centroid moment tensor solutions of McCaffrey (1988) indicate that segments of the Banda
arc partition the tectonic stresses induced by the collision of the Australian continent (Figure
2.6). This convergence is accommodated by north-south shortening in the fore-arc, arc and
back-arc regions of the over-riding plate. Northerly directed thrust faults, with hypocenters
commonly less than 30 km deep, occur in the back-arc north of Bali, Flores and Wetar.
However, in the fore-arc and arc regions, strike-slip and normal faulting predominate. In this
region, the fore-arc expands in the east-west direction. This arc-parallel extension is
accommodated by a series of northeasterly striking normal, sinistral oblique-slip faults that
allow the fore-arc and arc to escape towards the west in response to the collision of the
Australian continent. In the Sumbawa−Sumba region, McCaffrey (1988) infers the existence of
an additional set of northwesterly trending dextral strike-slip faults. By doing so, he adequately
explains the northerly slip vectors for earthquakes on the back-arc Flores thrust and the limited
counterclockwise rotation (2o to 4o ) of the Sumba microplate.
Fault plane solutions, determined by Barberi et al. (1987) for the Bali to western Timor portion
of the Sunda−Banda arc, generally support the findings of McCaffrey (1988). These solutions
were based on a compilation of events documented in the literature and data from the major
earthquakes that occurred in the region from 1969 to 1979. The results indicate that the type of
fault mechanisms and the local directions of compression and extension vary from one segment
to another along the arc. The Bali−Lombok portion of the arc undergoes thrust faulting
controlled by a north-northeasterly directed compression and nearly vertical extension,
consistent with the tectonic convergence direction. The solution for the southern coastal area of
Sumbawa indicates a strike-slip regime with two possible solutions, northeasterly trending
sinistral faults and northwesterly trending dextral faults. In Sumba and western Flores, the
solutions indicate northerly to northeasterly directed compression and thrust faults. A strike-slip
regime is determined for western Timor and the Alor Islands, where the axes of compression
and tension are oblique to the tectonic trend. Here the local seismic stresses include west-
northwesterly compression and north-northeasterly extension. This local rotation of seismic
stress directions probably reflects the collision of the Australian continent to the east. However,
the fault plane solutions of Barberi et al. (1987) for the west Timor area are inconsistent with
the findings of McCaffrey (1988), which indicate northeasterly trending, sinistral strike-slip
faults and normal faults consistent with arc-parallel extension.
Despite the local inconsistency between the two interpretations, both studies indicate the
predominance of strike-slip faulting along northeasterly trending zones that extend across the
arc in the vicinities of Sumbawa (and western Flores, according to McCaffrey, 1988) and
western Timor. The axes of these zones are nearly coincident with the projections of the eastern
edge of the Roo Rise Plateau through Sumbawa and the western margin of the Australian
Craton along the northern coastline of western Timor.
2.3.2.2 Topology of the Subducting Slab
The general topology of the subducting lithospheric slabs in Indonesia are modeled by Katili
(1975), Cardwell and Isacks (1978), Hamilton (1979) and others, on the basis of volcanism,
marine geophysical data and the geometry of the Benioff zones inferred from the distribution of
earthquake hypocenters. The Benioff zone contours determined in this study (Figure 2.3)
suggest similar slab geometries to those proposed previously. However, the present research
places a greater emphasis on arc-transverse discontinuities in the subducting slab, and links the
topology of the slab to active tectonics in the overlying plate. The recent application of
tomographic imaging to the modeling of the subduction zone indicates details of the slab down
to depths of 1500 km (Widiyantoro and van der Hilst, 1996, 1997).
Slab geometry as determined from seismic events and tectonic elements
The subducting slab beneath the Sunda−Banda arc indicates a pronounced curve from Sumatra,
where it dips ~30o to 45o NE, through Java and Nusa Tenggara, where it dips ~50o to 70o N, to
the Banda Islands, where it forms a concave, spoon-shaped structure with an axis that plunges
~40o towards the west. In northern Sumatra, where the Investigator Ridge is being subducted, a
northerly oriented linear zone of hypocenters (<200 km deep), which coincide with the trace of
the ridge beneath the arc, are inferred to indicate the seismic reactivation of this once active
‘leaky transform’ fault. The dip of the Benioff zone changes from ~30o west of this structure to
~40o to the east. Such a disruption in the slab beneath northern Sumatra is confirmed by the
tomographic mapping results of Puspito et al. (1993).
In the arc east of Sumatra, a series of northeasterly trending fault zones within the down-going
slab are inferred to lie beneath many of arc-transverse faults outlined in Figures 2.2 and 2.3.
This interpretation is based on the depths of the hypocenters that lie beneath the surface
projection of these faults. Earthquakes generated at depths exceeding 100 km are clearly from
the subducting slab and the surrounding asthenosphere, rather than from the overlying
lithospheric plate. The distribution of hypocenters beneath the Sunda−Banda arc is further
inferred to indicate variations in the dip of the subducting slab and the segmentation of the slab
into seismic and aseismic regions. Inferred fault zones within the slab define the boundaries to
these segments.
Cardwell and Isacks (1978) document a similar relationship in the easternmost part of the Banda
arc, where a sinistral strike-slip fault penetrates the descending slab to a depth of more than 50
km. This fault coincides with the axis of maximum curvature in the arc. On the basis of the
preceding data, it would appear that subduction in the Sunda−Banda arc is not a uniform event.
Different segments of the down-going slab move at slightly different velocities, or vary in
convergence-direction, which necessitates the existence of strike-slip faults to accommodate this
differential movement. If the slab were to behave in a semi-brittle to dutile manner, rather than
as a brittle plate, then kinks should develop within the slab to accommodate the strain. The most
plausable orientation of such kinks would approximate the dip-direction of the slab. However,
changes in the composition and age of the subducting slab would also act to localize kink axes
along zones of transitional rheologic properties.
Several arc-transverse fault traces and hypocenter lineaments coincide with the boundaries
between the Roo Rise Plateau, Argo Basin, Scott Plateau and the Australian Craton. As
discussed above, these boundaries are characterized by signific ant changes in crustal thickness,
density, age and rheology. Such differences in the characteristics of the down-going slab
probably have localized deformation and led to the formation of fault zones along kinks within
the slab that are oriented subparalle l to the direction of plate convergence. Movements along
these faults localize deformation to depths exceeding 600 km, as indicated by hypocenter
lineaments. The northerly dip of the subducting slab increases from ~55o to 65o from west to
east across the Roo Rise−Argo Basin margin, in the vicinity of Sumbawa, and dips even more
steeply (>70o ) further to the east, where the slab is attached to the leading edge of the collided
Australian continent. A series of cross-arc seismic profiles constructed by Barberi et al. (1987)
from 1963 to 1979 earthquake data for the Java to Timor region confirm the general increase in
the dip of the slab from west to east (figures 27 and 28 in Barberi et al., 1987).
The Molucca Sea Plate has been subducted beneath the oceanic portion of the Eurasian Plate to
the west and the Philippine Sea Plate to the east. The westerly dipping portion of the subducting
slab dips ~60o beneath the Sangihe arc and the easterly dipping segment dips ~40 o beneath the
Halmahera arc (Silver and Moore, 1978). The depth of the slab extends to more than 600 km in
the west, but only to a little more than 200 km in the east. A series of northwesterly trending
cross-faults are inferred to cut the subducting slabs beneath the Sulawesi−Sangihe and
Halmahera arcs, on a similar basis to that discussed for the Sunda−Banda arc region. The
coincidence of several of the hypocenter lineaments, that extend from the Sangihe arc across the
Molucca Sea to the Halmahera arc, is inferred to indicate the continuous nature of active faults
in the subducted Molucca Sea Plate. Several slab segments are indicated by variations in dip and
seismic versus aseismic regions. One of the more conspicuous cross-arc structures coincides
with the axis of maximum curvature for the Sulawesi−Sangihe arc, in a similar setting to that
indicated for the eastern Banda arc.
Tomographic imaging
Widiyantoro and van der Hilst (1996, 1997) model the geometry of down-going lithospheric
slabs up to 1500 km beneath the Indonesian arcs through high-resolution tomographic imaging.
This tomographic imaging involves the inversion of traveltime residuals of seismic P-wave data,
which includes direct P phases and surface-reflected depth phases, to determine the speed of P-
waves through the mantle. The lithospheric slab is characterized by a greater P-wave velocity
than that of the surrounding non-slab mantle. The hypocenter and phase data used in the
inversions are generated through the processing of data from more than 50,000 global
earthquakes, which were collected by nearly 3000 seismic stations worldwide, including those
of the Australian SKIPPY project. Details of the model parametrization and the inversion
process are summarized in Widiyantoro and van der Hilst (1997). The results of the
tomographic images are consistent with the slab geometries predicted by previous studies.
However, the images provide additional detail as to the structure of the deeper portions of the
down-going slab in the lower mantle.
The tomographic images clearly show that, in Sumatra, an aseismic slab has detached from the
seismically active slab at a depth of about 300 km, which explains the lack of hypocenters at
depths more than 300 km in this region. The tear in the slab beneath Sumatra is subhorizontal,
with the surface projection of its crack tip about 100 km north of the Krakatoa volcano in the
Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra. The southeastern tip of the Sumatra fault lies about 50
km south of Krakatoa. The heat flow in the back-arc region of Sumatra is the highest of any
region in Indonesia, with values of more than 100 mW/m2 (Pollack et al., 1993). The anomalous
high heat flow in this region, which lies directly above the inferred tear in the slab, is probably
the expression of a ‘slab-free window’ to the upper mantle created by slab detachment.
Widiyantoro and van der Hilst (1996, 1997) show that the deep portions of the slab beneath the
Sunda−Banda arc east of Sumatra are deflected to a gentle dip orientation (<20o N) just below
the boundary between the upper and lower mantle at the 670 km discontinuity. Below this
region, the slab dip increases rapidly to ~90o and maintains this vertical aspect through the 1500
km limit of the image. In the model, a thinning of the slab is inferred to occur above the
deflection zone, at depths between 350 and 500 km. This correlates well with the seismic gap
that characterizes the slab in this region.
2.3.3 Distribution of Volcanoes and Controls on Volcanism
2.3.3.1 Distribution of Volcanoes
There are more than 500 young volcanoes in Indonesia, 80 of which have erupted in recent
times (Hutchison, 1989). The most significant of the active and recently active volcanoes,
calderas and geothermal areas in the country are indicated in Figure 2.4.
Most of these volc anic features lie along magmatic arcs that lie 100 to 200 km above the
Benioff zone. However, a few notable exceptions do exist, where high-K calc -alkaline and
shoshonitic volcanoes occur in a back-arc setting, which lies more than 250 km above the
Benioff zone. These exceptions include the active volcanoes of Gunung Api, ~430 km above the
Benioff zone north of Wetar, and Batu Tara, ~250 km above the Benioff zone northeast of
Flores. Several young volcanic seamounts occur in the Flores−Wetar back-arc region, at
distances of ~250 to 600 km above the Benioff zone (Hamilton, 1979). The Late Quaternary
Muriah volcano lies about 390 km above the Benioff zone in northern Java. A submarine
volcano lies northeast of Sangihe Island in the Sulawesi Sea at more than 400 km above the
Benioff zone, and an extinct volcano north of eastern Java is about 600 km above the Benioff
zone. The majority of these anomalous volcanoes lie along the major arc-transverse strike-slip
faults, tectonic and bathymetric lineaments, or earthquake hypocenter lineaments, discussed
above and indicated in Figures 2.2 and 2.3.
The Lake Toba volcano-tectonic depression is the largest resurgent cauldron in the world. The
volume of the Late Quaternary Toba rhyodacitic ignimbrites exceeds 3000 km3 (Hutchison,
1989). The ignimbrites were erupted in three major events that occurred from 840 to 75 Ka
(Knight et al., 1986). Lake Toba lies along a northerly trending arc-transverse fault proximal to
its intersection with the Sumatra fault. This arc-transverse fault coincides with the axis of
disruption, or kink, in the subducting slab beneath the Toba caldera. Nearly all of the volcanoes
in Sumatra lie within 10 km of the Sumatra fault, which indicates that this dextral strike-slip
fault marks a major crustal weakness and conduit for magmatism. Most of the volcanoes in
Sumatra occur proximal to the intersection of easterly trending arc-transverse faults and
topographic lineaments with the Sumatra fault (Hutchison, 1989; this study).
The shoshonitic Tambora strato-volcano of northern Sumbawa lies at the intersection between
northeasterly- and northwesterly-trending arc-transverse faults and topographic and earthquake
hypocenter lineaments along the eastern Sunda arc. The alkaline character of the volcano is
anomalous with respect to its height above the Benioff zone, about 180 km. Estimates of the
volume of ash and rock ejected during the 1815 plinian eruption range from 100 to 318 km3 .
The details of this eruption and the geology of Tambora are discussed in Section 3.2.2.
There is a greater abundance of Quaternary volcanoes in areas characterized by more steeply

dipping subduction slabs than in regions underlain by more gently dipping slabs. For example,
northern Sumatra, which overlies a slab that dips at about 30o , contains fewer young volcanic
centers per linear kilometer of arc than does the Sunda−Banda arc towards the southeast, which
overlies a slab that dips from 40o to more than 70o . In addition, Quaternary volcanic products
cover less than 5% of northern Sumatra, in contrast to the region south of Lake Toba, where
young volcanic sequences cover more than 50% of the land mass along the magmatic arc. A
similar, albeit more pronounced, relationship between volcanism and slab dip exists in the
Andes of South America. There, dormant volcanic sectors lie above gently dipping slabs (<15o ),
whereas active arc sectors are characterized by moderately- to steeply-dipping slabs (>30o ). This
likely reflects the enhanced partial melting of steeply dipping slabs with respect to gently
dipping slabs in the subarc mantle, and the increased upwelling of asthenosphere in regions
characterized by slab rollback (cf. Gvirtzman and Nur, 1999).
In the Java to Sumbawa portion of the Sunda arc, the axis of Quaternary volcanism lies to the
north of the axis of Neogene and older volcanic centers. This is particularly apparent in Lombok
and Sumbawa, where the Quaternary volcanoes are confined to the north coasts of these islands.
However, this spatial relationship is reversed in the vicinity of Flores, where active volcanoes
lie along the south coast of the island chain. This flip in polarity occurs in a region characterized
by the intersection of northeasterly- and northwesterly-oriented arc-transverse tectonic
lineaments proximal to the Sumba microplate. The strait that lies between Sumbawa and Flores
coincides with a change in the character of the fore-arc, from the well-defined Java Trench to
the west to a series of shallow troughs (Timor Trough) and an emergent outer-arc ridge (Roti
and Timor Islands) in the east. This contrast in the style of the fore-arc led Audley-Charles
(1975) to interpret a major break in the Sunda−Banda arc in the vicinity of eastern Sumbawa.
In the Alor−Romang sector of the Banda arc, volcanism ceased at about 3 Ma (Abbot and
Chamalaun, 1981), as discussed in Section 2.3.1. The lack of Quaternary volcanism in this area
is related to the Pliocene collision of the Australian continent with the arc in the vicinity of
Timor. No active volcanoes occur in Kalimantan, western Sulawesi, Buru, Ambon, Seram and
Irian Jaya. However, these regions contain Neogene magmatic arcs that are described in Section
2.4.
2.3.3.2 Composition and Geochemistry
The composition of the Quaternary volcanoes reflects the character of the local geologic
basement. Intermediate to silicic eruptive products are common in Sumatra and western Java,
which is underlain by Sundaland continental crust. Mafic to intermediate volcanism
characterizes the remainder of Java, constructed on transitional crust, and the Bali to Flores
sector of the Banda arc, built on oceanic crust. The Damar to Banda sector of the east Banda
arc, which is underlain by oceanic crust, consists predominantly of mafic volcanic products,
with local bimodal basalt-dacite sequences in the Banda Island group. The volcanoes of
northern Sulawesi, the Sangihe Islands and the Halmahera Islands are mafic to intermediate in
composition, but locally include dacitic eruptives in the Halmaheras. All three of these regions
are underlain by oceanic crust. The extinct Alor−Romang sector of the Banda arc is
characterized by corderite-bearing rhyolite in addition to more typical calc -alkaline volcanic and
plutonic rocks. This area overlies the leading edge of the subducted Australian continent.
Variations in the chemical contents and Sr, Pb and Nd isotopic ratios of the volcanic rocks
indicate different basement-crust types and the increased role of subducted seafloor sediments in
magma genesis with proximity to the collision site of the Australian continent in the Timor
vicinity. Varne and Foden (1986) show that, from Bali to Wetar, there is a threefold increase in
the K, Rb, Sr, Ba, Ca and Nb contents of the volcanic rocks. Van Bergen et al. (1993) graph the
progressive increase in 87 Sr/86 Sr, 206 Pb/204 Pb and 208 Pb/204 Pb and decrease in 143 Nd/144 Nd as the
collision zone is approached from the west (Bali to Alor) and the northeast (Banda to Romang).
The oceanic crust that underlies the Bali−Sumbawa and Banda Island portions of the arc is
primitive (initial Sr isotope ratios of 0.704 to 0.706), whereas the crust that underlies the
Alor−Romang region is highly contaminated by continental material (initial Sr isotope ratios of
up to 0.722). Isotopic mixing models (Nd and Pb) indicate that the Bali−Sumbawa and Banda
Island sectors contain about 0.5% sediment in the magma source, in contrast to an average of
5% calculated for the Alor−Romang region (van Bergen et al., 1993).
In Indonesia, arc volcanism indicates a progressive increase in alkalinity with increasing silica
content and depth to the underlying Benioff zone (Hatherton and Dickenson, 1969; Hamilton,
1979; Hutchison, 1989). This progression in increasing alkalinity correlates positively with Rb
and Sr contents. This correlation between rock chemistry and Benioff zone depth applies to
tholeiitic, calc-alkaline and high-K calc -alkaline rocks, and suggests that the development of
these magmas is subduction-related. Possible magma sources include the partial melting of the
slab, or more likely the mantle wedge between the slab and the overlying arc crust (Nicholls and
Ringwood, 1973; Ringwood, 1990). However, the shoshonitic volcanoes in the back-arc region
of the Sunda−Banda arc do not show this same relationship between alkalinity and silica
content. The correlation between alkalinity and Benioff zone depth breaks down in the vicinity
of Lombok−Sumbawa, where volcanoes of calc -alkaline to shoshonitic affinity lie at about the
same distance (150 to 190 km) above the Benioff zone (Foden and Varne, 1980). Sumbawa
contains several shoshonitic volcanoes, Tambora, Sangeang Api, Sangenges and Lambuwu,
whereas the Lombok volcano, Rinjani, is calc -alkaline. Therefore, it appears that the tectonic
process responsible for the development of shoshonitic magmas is not solely subduction-related.
Foden and Varne (1980) note that the shoshonitic, Quaternary volcanic rocks of Sumbawa
contain elevated K, Rb, Sr contents and Sr isotopic ratios, which are similar to magmas formed
in the back-arc setting at distances more than 250 km above the Benioff zone. Foden and Varne
(1980) conclude that one plausible mechanism for alkaline magma genesis in Sumbawa is an
arc-transverse fault, which may have created a conduit for the rapid ascent of magma from
depth to higher levels in the mantle, without the magma undergoing major changes in chemical
or isotopic composition. A kink in the subducting slab could also achieve the same result.
Other portions of the Sunda−Banda arc that indicate an arc-parallel increase in alkalinity similar
to Lombok−Sumbawa, include western Java and Flores. In both these areas, the alkalinity of the
volcanoes increases towards the east, with the culmination of the trend marked by a back-arc
shoshonitic volcano, Muriah, in central Java and Batu Tara, northeast of Flores.
2.3.4 Relationship of Arc Tectonics and Volcanism to Topology of the Subducting Slab
The preceding sections document the spatial coincidence of major faults and volcanoes in the
overlying plate with disruptions and heterogeneities within the subducting slab. The most
common disruptions to the down-going slab include paleo-transform faults, active strike-slip
faults and kinks of the slab. These tectonic elements act to localize deformation in the slab and
are inferred to focus tectonism in the overlying plate. The different age, thickness and type of
crust being subducted along the margin of the Indian Plate creates zones of rheologic contrast
that also localize deformation. Arc-transverse faults or kinks in the down-going slab follow the
eastern margin of the Roo Rise oceanic plateau and the western edge of the Australian
continent, as inferred on the basis of disruptions of the Benioff zone and cross-arc earthquake
hypocenter lineaments. The spatial coincidence of arc-transverse strike-slip to oblique-normal
dip-slip faults in the overlying arc with the surface projection of these disruptions in the
subducting slab supports this hypothesis. The inferred relationship between the topology of the
subducting slab and cross-arc tectonism and magmatism is illustrated schematically in Figure
2.7 (cf. Kirkham, 1998; Rak, 1999).
The distribution and variation in composition of Quaternary volcanoes in the arcs of Indonesia
indicate the control of arc-transverse faults and a link to the topology of the down-going slab.
As discussed in the preceding section, kinks or faults in the subducting slab could act as
preferential channelways for the ascent of magma from deeper in the mantle to higher crustal-
levels. Steeply dipping slabs are more likely to promote volcanism than gently dipping slabs, as
indicated in northern Sumatra and in the Andes of South America. This is probably due to the
increased upwelling of astenosphere in regions of steep slab dip, particularly where slab
rollback has taken place (Gvirtzman and Nur, 1999). The detachment or tearing of the slab at
depth, such as inferred beneath the Sumatran back arc, leads to a slab-free window to the mantle
and elevated heat flow.
2.4 Geologic Settings and Styles of Mineralization in the Tertiary Magmatic Arcs of
Indonesia
This section describes the geologic setting and styles of gold and copper mineral deposits in the
major Tertiary magmatic arcs of Indonesia. The primary aim of this description is to form a
basis from which to determine the relationship between these parameters and the tectonic
elements discussed in Section 2.3, and to better constrain the controls on mineralization in the
region. The major mineralized magmatic arcs of Indonesia include the Sunda−Banda, North
Sulawesi−Sangihe, Halmahera, Medial Irian Jaya (Central Range−Papuan fold and thrust belt)
and Central Kalimantan. Secondary arcs also host gold and copper deposits, but to a lesser
extent than the primary arcs.
The ages of the magmatic arcs span from the late Mesozoic through to the Cenozoic. However,
gold and copper are most abundant in those arc sectors developed during the middle to late
Cenozoic (Carlile and Mitchell, 1994). Deposits cluster along short sectors of Neogene arcs,
particularly where arc-transverse faults have localized seismic and magmatic activity. The
primary reason for the great abundance of gold deposits in the late Tertiary arcs is related to
erosion. In the Quaternary arcs, uplift and erosion have not exposed mineralization. In contrast,
in the Cretaceous and early Paleogene arcs, erosion has largely removed potentially economic
deposits. However, major Pliocene tectonic events, such as the collision of the Australian
Craton with the Banda volcanic arc, in the vicinity of Timor, and the collision of the Philippine
Sea Plate with the Eurasian continent in Taiwan, may have controlled mineralization on a
regional-scale (cf. Sillitoe, 1998; Rak, 1999). Such large-scale tectonic events are inferred to
have caused deviations in the regional stress field, which led to the enhanced permeability of
crustal-scale fault- and fracture-systems, more focussed heat flow and related mineralization.
The following descriptions summarize the geologic setting of the most significantly mineralized
magmatic arcs and the distribution of major gold and copper districts and deposits. The
locations of these districts and deposits are indicated in Figure 2.5. Porphyry and epithermal
mineralization styles predominate, whereas skarn, carbonate-base metal-gold, disseminated
sedimentary rock-hosted, volcanogenic massive sulfide and quartz lode deposits are less
abundant. The definition of the above deposit types are included in Section 1.7.
For all major and some minor deposits, the contained gold or copper contents (metric tonnes)
and grades (g/t Au and % Cu) are reported in Table 2.2 and in the text, where emphasis is
considered necessary. These contents include conservative resource figures for the deposits and
combined reserves/resources and past production for the mines, except where indicated
otherwise. The sources for the resource/reserve and production figures are indicated in Table
2.2. The references cited in the text commonly refer to the geologic descriptions, rather than to
the grade-tonnage estimates. The interested reader is referred to Carlile and Mitchell (1994) and
van Leeuwen (1994) for additional grade-tonnage relationships of various Indonesian mineral
deposits.
2.4.1 Sunda-Banda
2.4.1.1 Geologic Setting
This Oligocene to Neogene arc extends nearly 4000 km from northwestern Sumatra through
Java and terminates in the Banda Island group of eastern Indonesia. The basement to the arc
varies from Mesozoic to late Paleozoic platform sedimentary rocks which are intruded by two
mica granites in Sumatra, through Cretaceous to Tertiary melange and ophiolite in western and
central Java, to oceanic crust in the Banda arc (Hamilton, 1979).
A Late Oligocene to Early Miocene calc-alkaline arc, the "Old Andesites" of van Bemmelen
(1949), extends through Sumatra and Java and continues eastwards into the Banda arc. The
composition of the arc changes from andesitic in Sumatra to basaltic -andesitic in the
Java−Flores and east Banda sectors. The arc includes a dacitic component in the vicinity of
Alor, Wetar and Romang Islands. The dextral Sumatra fault follows the arc, and is inferred by
Hamilton (1979) to have been active since the late Oligocene.
A Middle Miocene to Pliocene magmatic arc overprints most of the arc and in Java, lies to the
north of the axis of the older arc. Clastic and carbonate sedimentary rocks are intercalated with
the volcanic sequences of both generations of arc. The Neogene arc is charaterized by calc -
alkaline andesitic to dacitic volcanic rocks and their intrusive equivalents in Sumatra, and
basaltic to andesitic volcanic rocks and intrusions of calc -alkaline and tholeiitic affinities in the
Java−Flores and east Banda sectors (Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison, 1989; Soerja -Atmadja et al.,
1991). Dacitic to rhyolitic suites do occur locally, and are particularly abundant in the Alor,
Wetar and Romang sectors. Quaternary basaltic to dacitic, and locally rhyolitic, volcanic rocks
cover older vocanic rocks throughout much of the arc.
Table 2.2 Sigificant gold and gold-copper deposits of Indonesia, listed in order of mineralization style and decreasing deposit size.
Deposit (1) Style (2) Magmatic Arc Region/District Metric Tonnes Cu Au Contained Reference for Grade-Tonnage Data
(million mT) (%) (g/t) Au (mT)
Grasberg* PO CGD Medial Irian Jaya Carstenz 1877 1.04 1.04 1952 Widodo et al. (1999), includes open pit & underground
Batu Hijau * PO CGD East Sunda West Sumbawa 914 0.53 0.4 366 Clode et al.(1999)
Elang PO CGD East Sunda West Sumbawa 600 0.35 0.4 240 Maula and Levet (1996)
Cabang Kiri East PO CGD North Sulawesi Gorontalo 136 0.43 0.58 79 van Leeuwen (1994)
Sungai Mak PO CGD North Sulawesi Gorontalo 84 0.76 0.39 33 van Leeuwen (1994)
Kayubulan Ridge PO CGD North Sulawesi Gorontalo 75 0.76 0.33 25 van Leeuwen (1994)
Kaputusan PO CGD Halmahera Bacan 70 0.3 0.21 15 van Leeuwen (1994)
Bulagidun PO CGD North Sulawesi Marissa 14.4 0.61 0.68 10 van Leeuwen (1994)
Kucing Liar SK Medial Irian Jaya Carstenz 320 1.41 1.41 451 Widodo et al. (1999)
Wabu SK Medial Irian Jaya Carstenz 117 2.16 253 O'Connor et al. (1999)
Ertsberg East (IOZ/DOZ)* SK Medial Irian Jaya Carstenz 210 1.14 0.90 189 Coutts et al. (1999)
Big Gossan SK Medial Irian Jaya Carstenz 37 2.69 1.02 38 Widodo et al. (1999)
Ertsberg * SK Medial Irian Jaya Carstenz 32.6 2.30 0.8 26 Mertig et al. (1994)
DOM SK Medial Irian Jaya Carstenz 31 1.67 0.42 13 Widodo et al. (1999)
Awak Mas QL/EP LS Arc unrelated Central Sulawesi 14.9 1.75 26 van Leeuwen (1994)
Kelian * CB Central Kalimantan Central Kalimantan 97 1.85 179 van Leeuwen (1994)
Bawone (Binebase) EP HS Sangihe Sangihe 4.5 1.37 6 van Leeuwen (1994)
Gn. Pongkor * EP LS Sunda West Java 6.0 17.1 103 van Leeuwen (1994)
Mount Muro * EP LS Central Kalimantan Central Kalimantan 16.5 3.1 51 Register of Indonesian Gold (1997)
Lebong Tandai * EP LS Sunda Bengkulu 2.8 15.5 43 van Leeuwen (1994)
Lebong Donok * EP LS Sunda Bengkulu 2.9 14.3 41 van Leeuwen (1994)
Gn. Pani EP LS North Sulawesi Marissa 30 1.35 41 van Leeuwen (1994); Carlile and Mitchell (1994)
Toka Tindung EP LS North Sulawesi Kotamobagu 12.3 2.85 35 Gold Gazette Asian Edition, April 1999
Gosowong * EP LS Halmahera Gosowong 0.99 27 27 Olberg et al. (1999)
Lanut * EP LS North Sulawesi Kotamobagu 19 1.41 27 van Leeuwen (1994)
Rawas * EP LS Sunda Bengkulu 7.8 3.10 24 Register of Indonesian Gold (1997)
Doup EP LS North Sulawesi Kotamobagu 12 1.6 19 van Leeuwen (1994)
Bolangitang EP LS North Sulawesi Gorontalo -- 11 Carlile and Mitchell (1994), estimate only
Mirah EP LS Central Kalimantan Central Kalimantan 3.2 2.59 8 Register of Indonesian Gold (1997)
Sungai Keruh EP LS Meratus-Sumatra Meratus 4.3 1.8 8 van Leeuwen (1994)
Cikondang EP LS Sunda West Java 0.7 10.9 8 van Leeuwen (1994)
Mangani * EP LS Sunda Mangani 0.9 6.5 6 van Leeuwen (1994)
Way Linggo EP LS Sunda Lampung 0.48 9.2 4 Register of Indonesian Gold (1997)
Mesel Deposits * DS North Sulawesi Kotamobagu 9.7 6.45 63 Newmont Mining (1994)
Bau Deposits (Sarawak) * DS Central Kalimantan Bau 7.3 4.3 31 Cox (1992), estimate inlcudes Tai Parit & Jugan
Wetar Deposits * MS/EP HS Banda Wetar 5.4 4.2 23 van Leeuwen (1994)
Notes: Grade-tonnage data includes combined resources and past production, except for Grasberg, IOZ/DOZ, DOM, Big Gossan, Kucing Liar and Batu Hijau deposits, which include reserves as of December 1998 only
(1) Present or historic mines are indicated by *; (2) Explanation indicated below
Explanation for mineralization styles: EP HS = high-sulfidation epithermal PO CGD = porphyry copper-gold
CB = carbonate-base metal-gold EP LS = low-sulfidation epithermal QL = quartz lode
DS = disseminated sedimentary rock-hosted MS = massive sulfide or exhalative SK = skarn
2.4.1.2 Mineral Deposit Styles
The arc is well-mineralized and characterized by low-sulfidation epithermal vein systems at

Mangani, Salida, Lebong Tandai/Donok and Lampung in Sumatra and also in West Java. The
geologic basement to Sumatra and western Java consists of Sundaland continental crust. No
direct link between deposits and coeval intrusions is apparent. Nearly 80 tonnes of gold was
produced from high grade lodes in Lebong Tandai (43 t gold at 15.5 g/t Au) and Lebong Donok
(41 t gold at 14.3 g/t Au) in the Bengkulu district by the Dutch prior to 1941 (Kavalieris, 1988;
van Leeuwen, 1994). Lebong Tandai is hosted by Miocene andesitic volcanic rocks and Lebong
Donok occurs in Miocene carbonaceous shale associated with the brecciated margins of a
competent dacite intrusion (Kavalieris, 1988). The Tandai lode is localized along a steeply
dipping east-west fault system, which is offset by northeasterly- and northwesterly-oriented
faults. Tandai, Donok, and Rawas, to the east, occur within 20 to 30 km of the Sumatra fault in
the vicinity of major easterly- and northeasterly-trending arc-transverse faults. The north-
trending Way Linggo epithermal lode is hosted by a dacite intrusion in an inferred dilational
setting, localized along a north-northwesterly trending corridor of topographic lineaments,
approximately 8 km northwest of the dextral Sumatra fault (Lewis and Garwin, 1996).
Gunung Pongkor (103 t Au at 17.1 g/t Au) in western Java, Indonesia is a classic low-sulfide
bonanza vein system hosted by Miocene andesitic tuffs and breccias, and a subvolcanic andesite
intrusion (Basuki et al., 1994). The Pongkor vein system consists of four main northwesterly
trending veins that define a northeasterly corridor. This corridor extends through the Bayah
dome to the southwest, where it controls the distribution of several vein systems in the historic
Cikotok mining district. The host rocks in the Bayah dome consist of Pliocene volcanic and
clastic sequences, which locally are intruded by pre-mineral porphyritic dacite stocks.
Individual lodes are hosted by steeply dipping north-northeasterly and north-northwesterly
trending faults. The northerly orientation and dilational character of these lodes are consistent
with their development as a response to northerly directed subduction in this sector of the arc.
The age of low-sulfidation vein mineralization obtained from adularia (2.1 to 1.5 Ma) post dates
the Pliocene igneous host rocks (5.7 to 2.0 Ma, K/Ar; Marcoux and Milesi, 1994).
The style of mineralization changes to the east. The recently discovered Bukit Hijau porphyry
and epithermal prospect area in eastern Java (Golden Valley, 1998) lies along the southeastern
margin of the Sunda continental shelf about 50 km west of a major northeasterly trending arc-
transverse fault. On the district-scale, individual prospects lie along a north-northwesterly
corridor. In the Lombok−Sumbawa portion of the arc, intrusive-related, high-sulfidation
epithermal and porphyry copper-gold deposits and prospects are present. This part of the arc is
underlain by oceanic crust. Enargite-gold veins at Elang occur in close proximity to porphyry
copper-gold mineralization. The age of emplacement of a syn-mineral tonalite porphyry
intrusion in Elang is ~2.7 Ma (U-Pb SHRIMP; unpublished Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company
data). The Batu Hijau copper-gold deposit in southwest Sumbawa contains more than 366
tonnes of gold and 4.8 million tonnes of copper (Clode et al., 1999). Mineralization is
genetically related to three stages of Neogene tonalite porphyry intrusions emplaced in quartz
diorite and andesitic volcaniclastic wall rocks. The tonalite porphyry complex was emplaced
over a span of ~ 100,000 years at ~3.7 Ma (U-Pb SHRIMP; Fletcher et al., 2000; this study). A
late-mineral diatreme occurs about 2 km northwest of Batu Hijau. The deposit occurs in the
central portion of a district characterized by several porphyry centers, peripheral low-sulfidation
vein systems and distal, sedimentary rock-hosted replacement-style mineralization (Meldrum et
al., 1994; Irianto and Clark, 1995; this study).
Batu Hijau and Elang occur within 20 to 30 km of a major left-lateral oblique-slip fault zone
that controls the distribution of Miocene volcano-sedimentary units and the present coastline of
the island (Figure 2.5; refer to Section 2.3.1.2). Local controls include the intersections of
northeasterly- and northwesterly trending fault zones with the margins of pre-mineral quartz
diorite plutons. The ages of syn-mineral intrusions in Batu Hijau (~3.7 Ma) and Elang (~2.7
Ma) correspond to the timing of the initial collision of the Australian continent with the Banda
Arc, in the vicinity of Timor (~4 to 2.5 Ma; Audley-Charles, 1986; Richardson and Blundell,
1996; Hall, 1996). This collision is inferred to have caused arc-parallel extension, as the arc
expanded westwards away from the site of collision. This is consistent with the 3 mm/yr east-
west extension determined for arc-transverse strike-slip faults in the Sumbawa-Timor vicinity
by the fault plane solutions of McCaffrey (1988).
Base metal-rich, low-sulfidation epithermal barite and quartz vein prospects are hosted in
andesitic to dacitic volcanic rocks and intercalated sedimentary rocks in the West Flores, East
Lomblen−Pantar, Wetar and Romang regions of the Banda arc. In Romang, vein style
mineralization is localized in a dilational zone along a west-northwesterly trending dextral
strike-slip fault corridor (Garwin and Herryansjah, 1993). The sense of movement along this
fault zone is consistent with arc-parallel extension during the Neogene. Local jasperoid after
reefal limestone characterizes several prospects in the Flores−Romang sector of the arc (e.g.
localities in Rinca Island, west Flores and south Romang). Submarine exhalative gold-silver-
barite deposits (23 t gold) on Wetar represent a submarine exhalative system in a sea-floor caldera setting
similar to the Kuroko deposits in Japan (Sewell and Wheatley, 1994). Gold-silver mineralization
occurs in stratiform barite sand units (exhalite), which are underlain by copper-rich massive
pyrite-marcasite zones and quartz-pyrite stockworks hosted in argillic -altered felsic volcanic
breccias of Miocene age. Most of the copper is contained in enargite, which is atypical of
volcanogenic massive sulfide systems. The age of mineralization is constrained to lie between
12 Ma, the age of the footwall host rocks, and 4 Ma, the age of the hangingwall post-mineral
limestone. The Wetar deposits were formed in northerly-elongate basins developed by the
interaction of steeply dipping, north-northwesterly and north-northeasterly conjugate strike-slip
faults, which formed as a response to northerly-directed subduction, as inferred from the
description of the geologic setting of the deposits in Sewell and Wheatley (1994).
2.4.2 North Sulawesi−Sangihe
The Miocene to Recent North Sulawesi−Sangihe magmatic arc extends approximately 1200 km
from the northern portion of the Sangihe arc through the northern arm of Sulawesi and into the
"neck" of Sulawesi, where it ends in the sinistral Palu fault (Hamilton, 1979). The arc system
continues to the south as the West Sulawesi arc, through the western arm of Sulawesi.
Summaries of the geology and mineral deposits in the North Sulawesi−Sangihe arc system are
included in Carlile et al. (1990) and Kavalieris et al. (1992).
The western portion of the arc overlies Sundaland continental crust and Cretaceous to Eocene
metamorphic rocks, which are intruded by Late Miocene to Pliocene granitoids (e.g. Dondo
intrusive suite; Kavalieris et al., 1992). These rocks pass upward into Eocene to Oligocene
marine basalt to andesite and sedimentary rocks, which overlie oceanic crust in the Marisa
region towards the east (Carlile et al., 1990; Kavalieris et al., 1992). The Early to Middle
Miocene portion of the arc consists of andesitic (to dacitic) volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks
and sedimentary rocks intruded by diorite, quartz diorite, granodiorite and their subvolcanic
porphyritic equivalents in the Gorontalo, Kotamobagu and south Sangihe areas (Carlile et al.,
1990; Kavalieris et al., 1992). A Neogene rhyodacitic pyroclastic sequence and flow dome
complex characterizes the Gunung Pani area in Marisa (Kavalieris et al., 1990). Pearson and
Caira (1999) cite a 3.3 to 2.8 Ma (Ar-Ar) age for the Pani rhyodacite domes and interpret a
major caldera complex, ~30 km in mean diameter, in this area. Plio-Pleistocene dacitic
ignimbrites were sourced from the Moat Caldera in the Kotamobagu area and andesitic
ignimbrites were erupted from the Tondano Caldera in Minahasa, to the northeast (Kavalieris et
al., 1992). Pliocene to Pleistocene andesite, dacite and local rhyolite define the southern portion
of the North Sulawesi arc in the Gorontalo−Kotamobagu area. Quaternary andesitic
stratovolcanoes define the arc from north of the Kotamobagu area through Sangihe Island.
Major northwesterly trending faults influence the distribution of volcanic and sedimentary rock
successions in the northern arm of Sulawesi. The movement along these faults is oblique-slip,
with arc-parallel extension indicated by the progressive down-to-the north movement of the
fault blocks located north of Kotamabagu (Carlile et al., 1990).
The North Sulawesi−Sangihe arc is well-endowed in gold and copper deposits and is one of the most
prospective arcs in Indonesia. The deposits commonly lie <10 to 20 km from major northwesterly
trending arc-transverse faults. Many of these deposits are hosted by Early to Middle Miocene
andesitic volcanic rocks intruded by hypabyssal intrusions. West of Marisa , the western sector
of the arc has a continental affinity, and is characterized by alluvial gold derived from small
orogenic lodes hosted by metamorphic basement (metamorphogenic alluvial gold of Kavalieris
et al., 1992). The Marisa area contains the Bulagidun porphyry copper-gold prospect, which is
associated with Miocene andesitic volcanic rocks and underlying oceanic crust that are intruded
by dioritic stocks (Carlile et al., 1990; Lubis et al., 1994). The Gunung Pani low-sulfidation,
disseminated and stockwork gold deposit is controlled by north-northeasterly- and
northeasterly-oriented faults in a rhyodacitic dome complex built upon continental basement
(Kavalieris et al., 1990). The style of mineralization at Gunung Pani (41 t Au at ~1.4 g/t)
consists of siliceous limonitic and quartz-adularia lined fractures and mosaic quartz breccias
hosted by a pervasively albite-chlorite altered, rhyodacitic dome complex (Carlile et al., 1990;
Kavalieris et al., 1990). The age of the deposit is nearly identical to the Pliocene age of the host
rocks, on the basis of hydrothermal adularia dated by the Ar-Ar method (3.3 to 3.1 Ma; Pearson
and Caira, 1999). Gunung Pani lies within 10 km of a northwesterly trending arc-transverse
fault zone that coincides with the edge of the Sundaland Craton.
The Gorontalo region hosts porphyry copper-gold deposits at Cabang Kiri East, Kayubulan and
Sungai Mak in the Tombulilato district, the Bolangitang low-sulfidation epithermal prospect,
and the Motombato high-sulfidation epithermal system. The porphyry systems are distributed
along a north-northeasterly corridor and contain in excess of 140 tonnes of gold and substantial
copper resources. These systems are hosted by Miocene volcanic rocks and overlying dacite to
rhyolite, which are intruded by quartz diorite stocks (Lowder and Dow, 1978; Perello, 1994).
Radiometric dating of potassium silicate alteration associated with mineralization indicates a
Pliocene age (2.9 to 2.4 Ma, K/Ar; Perello, 1994). The Tombulilato district and the Tapadaa
district, situated 20 km to the northwest, lie ~10 to 20 km from a major northwesterly oriented,
arc-transverse dextral-fault zone that coincides with a >20 km offset of the coastline of the
northern arm of Sulawesi (Pearson and Caira, 1999).
In the Kotamobagu region, low-sulfidation epithermal stockwork veins in andesitic volcanic and
volcaniclastic rocks at Lanut, Mintu and Doup, and silicified Middle Miocene limestone at
Lobongan in the Ratatotok district, support small-scale mining activities. The northerly to
northeasterly trending vein systems at Lanut lie within a northwesterly corridor of mineral
prospects that extends more than 30 km across the hinge portion of the northern arm of
Sulawesi. The low-sulfidation epithermal Toka Tindung vein system in northeastern Sulawesi is
overlain by a Quaternary ash cover. Host rocks consist of Neogene andesitic volcanic and
volcaniclastic rocks that overlie siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. The main Toka Tindung and
satellite deposits (35 t Au) form a series of en-echelon, northerly trending lodes that lie in a
northwesterly structural corridor (Wake et al., 1996). Radiometric dating of adularia in an
auriferous quartz vein indicates an age of 2.4 Ma (K/Ar; Moyle et al., 1997).
The sedimentary rock-hosted Mesel gold deposit, also in the Ratatotok district, has many
similarities to Carlin-type gold deposits in Nevada, USA (Turner et al., 1994; Garwin et al.,
1995). The Mesel deposits in the Ratatotok district of northern Sulawesi, Indonesia include
Mesel and the Leon’s and Nibong Hill satellite deposits. These deposits contain a combined
mineable resource of 62 tonnes of gold at an average grade of 6.5 g/t Au. In Mesel, most of the
ore is controlled by steeply dipping faults and is hosted in a decalcified, dolomitized and
silicified Middle Miocene carbonate sequence adjacent to, and beneath, a pre-mineral,
porphyritic andesite laccolithic intrusion. The andesite has undergone illite/smectite-pyrite
alteration adjacent to mineralized carbonate and is ore grade locally. In the Lobongan area, to
the north of Mesel, quartz-calcite lodes transect variably silicified limestone and karst breccias.
Residual quartz-clay eluvial deposits occur throughout the Ratatotok district, marking the
erosion of mineralized limestone.
The Taware porphyry copper-gold prospect and the Bawone-Binebase high-sulfidation system
on south Sangihe Isla nd are inferred to be of Miocene age (Carlile et al., 1990).
2.4.3 Halmahera
This Oligocene to Neogene arc sweeps across the western arm of the Halmahera Islands and
includes Bacan Island. The arc extends 400 km from near the Philippine trench to the western
extension of the Sorong fault. Geologic basement consists of Mesozoic gneiss and schist
exposed on Bacan Island and ophiolite on Obi Island (Hamilton, 1979; Sukamto et al., 1981).
Hamilton (1979) suggests that Bacan and perhaps Obi represent fragments of the Australian
continent rafted into their present position prior to the Miocene collision of the Banggai−Sula
terrane with the Sulawesi arc system.
The presence of Oligocene to Miocene volcanic rocks on Obi Island, 50 km south of Bacan,
indicates that early arc activity occurred in this region (Sukamto et al., 1979). In the western
arm of the island, Oligocene to Miocene basaltic to andesitic breccias and lavas and minor
dacitic pyroclastic rocks are intercalated with silicic lastic and carbonate rock sequences. Late
Miocene to Pliocene siliciclastic and carbonate rocks occur throughout the arc, and indicate a
quiescence in arc volcanism, with the exception of the Bacan−Obi area, where basaltic and
andesitic volcanic rocks are intercalated with the marine sedimentary sequence. Neogene diorite
to granodiorite bodies intrude the volcanic sequences, and are associated with copper-gold-
(molybdenum) porphyry prospects on Bacan Island and gold prospects in the northern part of
the western arm of Halmahera Island. An active Quaternary volcanic arc coincides with the
western margin of the Neogene arc.
A porphyry copper-gold prospect occurs at Kaputusan on Bacan Island, where it is associated

with anomalous molybdenum and bismuth (van Leeuwen, 1994). This small resource is
centered on a Neogene quartz diorite intrusion in Oligocene to Miocene volcanic host rocks
(Carlile and Mitchell, 1994).
The Gosowong low-sulfidation epithermal bonanza lode in the northwestern arm of Halmahera
Island contains nearly 27 tonnes of gold at an average grade of 27 g/t (Olberg et al., 1999). The
steeply east-dipping vein lies adjacent to a northwesterly trending fault (Register of Indonesian
Gold, 1997) that forms part of a major northwesterly oriented topographic lineament that
extends through the western arm of Halmahera. The deposit is hosted by a Neogene sequence of
andesitic to dacitic volcanic rocks and subordinate volcaniclastic rocks. The age of
mineralization is constrained to lie between 2.9 to 2.4 Ma, as determined by the analysis of
adularia from auriferous veins by the Ar-Ar method (Olberg et al., 1999). Other mineralization
in the area includes low-sulfidation epithermal and porphyry styles (Olberg et al., 1999).
2.4.4 Central Irian Jaya−Papuan Fold Belt
The Neogene Medial Irian Jaya magmatic arc of Carlile and Mitchell (1994) coincides with the
western extension of the Papuan fold and thrust belt from Papua New Guinea into the Central
Ranges of Irian Jaya. This orogenic belt extends more than 1000 km along the island of New
Guinea. The belt lies along the northern margin of the Australian continent (Fly platform)
adjacent to southerly directed overthrusts of Paleogene melange, ophiolite and oceanic island
arc rocks (Hamilton, 1979). The geologic basement is inferred to consist of Paleozoic
metamorphic rocks (Dow and Sukamto, 1984). Compressional tectonics led to localized
deformation, crustal thickening and block uplift immediately prior to, or during, the
emplacement of K-alkaline and calc -alkaline intrusions at high crustal-levels during the Plio-
Pliostocene (Hamilton, 1979).
The Plio-Pleistocene K-alkaline intrusions (e.g. Grasberg and Ok Tedi) in the Central Ranges of
Irian Jaya-New Guinea do not overlie a well-defined Benioff zone and lack coeval subaerial
volcanic rocks. However, this paucity of volcanic rocks may in part reflect the extensive uplift
and erosion of the region. The source of the K-alkaline magmas is ambiguous. Favored
possibilities include delayed partial melting of the mantle modified by previous (?Cretaceous)
subduction beneath the continental margin, prior to the accretion of allochthonous arc terranes
(Johnson et al., 1978), and asthenospheric upwelling due to the docking of arc terranes
transported from the east (McDowell et al., 1996).
Folded and thrusted Mesozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are overlain by massive to sandy
Eocene to Miocene limestone (Dow and Sukamto, 1984). In the Grasberg−Ertsberg area, the
Cretaceous Kembelangan Formation includes about 800 m of siltstone, sandstone and pelagic
limestone. It is overlain unconformably by the Faumi Limestone and Ainod Limestone of the
New Guinea Limestone Group Tertiary (MacDonald and Arnold, 1994). Southerly directed
folds and thrust faults characterize the belt, with westerly- to northwesterly-trending lobate
anticlines flanked by cuspate, faulted synclines. Pliocene diorite to monzonite stocks localize
copper-gold mineralization at Grasberg−Ertsberg. These intrusions occur about the intersection
of northeasterly trending, sinistral strike-slip fault systems with steeply northeast-dipping
reverse faults (MacDonald and Arnold, 1994).
This belt contains the Carstenz district, which includes the giant Grasberg copper-gold porphyry
deposit, the Ertsberg copper-gold skarn complex and a gold-rich skarn at Wabu. Grasberg
contains a resource of 4,000 Mt at 0.64 g/t Au (2560 t) and 0.6% Cu (24 Mt) (van Leeuwen,
1994). As of 1998, The proven and probable reserve of the combined open pit and underground
deposits totaled 1950 tonnes of gold (Widodo et al., 1999), the largest of any active gold mine
in the world. The deposit is hosted by Pliocene diorite to monzonite stocks (3.3 to 2.7 Ma,
K/Ar) and an andesite-diorite diatreme complex (MacDonald and Arnold, 1994). The vertical
ore distribution exceeds 1500 m. It is noteworthy that Grasberg is the only documented gold-
rich porphyry deposit of Cenozoic age that overlies pre-Mesozoic continental basement in
Southeast Asia.
The Ertsberg skarn complex, 2 km southeast of the Grasberg porphyry deposit, includes the
Ertsberg, Ertsberg East, Intermediate (IOZ) and Deep Ore Zones (DOZ), DOM and Big Gossan
copper-gold skarn deposits. Combined past production and present reserves in the Ertsberg
skarn deposits exceed 140 tonnes of gold and 3.8 million tonnes of copper (Mertig et al., 1994;
van Leeuwen, 1994). The majority of the gold and copper resources are hosted in the Erstberg
East (IOZ/DOZ) ore body, which contains 210 Mt at 1.14% Cu (2.4 Mt) and 0.90 g/t Au (189 t)
in one of the largest copper-bearing magnesian skarns in the world (Mertig et al., 1994; Coutts
et al., 1999). The skarns are hosted within or adjacent to the Pliocene Ertsberg intrusion (3.1 to
2.6 Ma, K/Ar; Mertig et al., 1994). The reader is referred to Mertig et al. (1994) for a
description of the geology and mineralization styles in the Ertsberg, IOZ, DOZ and DOM skarn
depoits and Meinert et al. (1997) for the geology and zonation of the Big Gossan skarn. The
recent discovery and delineation of the subsurface, Kucing Liar magnetite-copper-gold skarn,
about 500 m southwest of the Grasberg intrusive complex, has added more than 450 tonnes of
gold to the reserve-base of the district (Widodo et al., 1999). The protolith lithologies for the
Ertsberg skarns consist of a basal dolomitic unit and an upper limestone sequence of early
Tertiary age (New Guinea Group Limestone; Mertig et al, 1994).
The Wabu Ridge gold skarn in the Hitalipa district, 35 km north of Grasberg−Erstberg, contains
a geologic resource of more than 250 tonnes of gold and occurs along the margin of a late
Miocene to early Pliocene K-alkaline intrusive-extrusive complex (6.6 to 5.2 Ma, K/Ar;
O’Connor et al., 1999). The deposit is hosted by an Oligocene sequence of limestone and
calcareous siltstone (New Guinea Limestone Group) within a south-vergent anticline-thrust fault
complex, proximal to the intersection of a northeasterly oriented sinistral strike-slip fault
(O’Connor et al., 1999).
The Yuliana district in the southeastern portion of Irian Jaya is characterized by several alluvial
gold showings and abundant dioritic intrusions (Brooks, 1974).
2.4.5 Central Kalimantan
The Oligocene to Miocene, Central Kalimantan arc of Carlile and Mitchell (1994) extends
approximately 1200 km from western Sarawak, through northwest and central Kalimantan into
northeastern Kalimantan. The trace of the arc disappears to the northeast, beneath the western
onshore extension of the Neogene Sulu−Zamboanga arc in the Semporna Peninsula of Sabah.
The crustal basement to the arc is continental in western Kalimantan, where the Sundaland
Craton consists of late Paleozoic mica schists intruded by Triassic to Carboniferous and
Cretaceous (Schwaner Massif) granites (Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison, 1989). In contrast, Late
Cretaceous to Paleogene flysch and melange comprise the transitional crust basement to the arc
in eastern Kalimantan.
In the Bau area of west Sarawak, Triassic andesitic arc volcanic rocks are overlain by the
Jurassic Bau Limestone and Cretaceous Pedawan Shale Formations. These formations are
interpreted to have been deposited along the marginal shelf of the Sundaland continent
(Hutchison, 1989). Cretaceous to Paleogene melange sequences, which include flysch
sedimentary rocks, schist, basalt, gabbro and serpentinite, are overlain by arc volcanic rocks in
northwestern, southeastern and northeastern Kalimantan (Hamilton, 1979).
The arc is defined by the discontinuous distribution of erosional remnants of calc -alkaline
andesitic, trachyandesitic and local dacitic volcanic -plutonic centers, inferred to be associated
with tonalite, granodiorite and granite intrusions in western (Sintang intrusive suite) and
northeastern (Long Lai intrusive suite) Kalimantan (Carlile and Mitchell, 1994). Arc
construction is related to southerly directed subduction beneath the Rajang accretionary
complex of northwest Borneo in the Oligocene to Miocene by Carlile and Mitchell (1994). The
distribution of igneous rocks and middle to late Tertiary sedimentary basins indicates that
northwesterly trending arc-transverse faults played a role in arc tectonics. The most conspicuous
of these cross-arc elements include the Trans Borneo Shear and Sabah Shear (Hutchison, 1989).
The sedimentary rocks of the mid-Tertiary to Neogene Kutei basin are locally intercalated with
arc-related pyroclastic rocks and a dacitic diatreme complex in the vicinity of Busang, eastern
Kalimantan. Hamilton (1979) infers that the development of the Kutei basin is related to the
rifting of the eastern margin of Sundaland and the drifting of Sulawesi away from Kalimantan in
the middle Tertiary. Chambers and Daley (1995) indicate initial rift-basin formation in the
Eocene and subsequent basin development by load subsidence to Recent time. Plio-Pleistocene
tholeiitic plateau flood-basalts form platforms in northwestern, north-central and northeastern
Kalimantan.
A well-defined northeasterly trending belt of gold deposits and prospects extends approximately
500 km along the southeastern margin of the Oligocene to Miocene arc. This central Kalimantan
gold belt coincides with the margins of the Kutei and Barito basins along the eastern flanks
of the Schwanner Massif and the rifted margin of Sundaland. Andesitic volcanic rock-hosted,
low-sulfidation epithermal vein and stockwork mineral deposits occur along this belt. The styles
of mineralization in these systems are discussed by Simmons and Browne (1990) for Mt. Muro,
by Wake (1991) for Muyup, by Thompson et al. (1994) for Masupa Ria, and by van Leeuwen
(1994) for Mirah and the others. The Mt. Muro vein complex is the largest of these deposits (51
t Au at 3.1 g/t; Register of Indonesian Gold, 1997). The complex lies proximal to the Trans
Borneo Shear of Hutchison (1989), and consists of more than 15 vein systems, the majority of
which strike northwesterly and dip steeply. At Masupa Ria, low-sulfidation veins are
superimposed on an early-stage high-sulfidation alteration system (Thompson et al., 1994).
During historic Dutch mining at Gunung Mas in the southwestern portion of the belt, gold was
recovered from quartz veins hosted along the margin of a Cretaceous granitoid emplaced into
basement phyllites (van Leeuwen, 1994).
The large gold resource of the Kelian mine (179 t Au, van Leeuwen et al., 1990; van Leeuwen,
1994) is classified as a carbonate-base metal-gold deposit after Leach and Corbett (1995).
Another occurrence of this deposit type is represented by disseminated mineralization at Porgera
in Papua New Guinea (Types A, B and E of Richards and Kerrich, 1993). Kelian is localized
within a maar-diatreme complex, which contains multiple diatreme breccia pipes and late-stage
endogenous quartz-porphyry domes (Davies et al., 1999). The roots of the diatreme complex
cross-cut subvolcanic andesite intrusions and a north-northeasterly trending Eocene to
Oligocene, rhyolitic volcano-sedimentary sequence. The ore is hosted by a variety of breccia
styles, which have undergone extensive hydrothermal alteration. Styles of mineralization
include network veins, and breccia - and fracture-filling by complex carbonate-quartz-pyrite-
sphalerite-galena-gold/electrum. Disseminated sulfide minerals are also common. Limited K/Ar
radiometric dating at Kelian indicates an Early Miocene age for andesite intrusion (23 Ma) and
sericite alteration (20 Ma) (van Leeuwen et al., 1990). The deposit lies within the northeastern
portion of the Kalimantan gold belt, adjacent to the Kutei sedimentary basin and along the rifted
margin of the Sundaland Craton. Kelian lies along a major arc-transverse lineament defined by
satellite radar imagery.
Disseminated sedimentary rock-hosted gold deposits occur in the Bau district of western
Sarawak (~40 t Au in past production, Wilford, 1955; Wolfenden, 1965). Gold is associated
with carbonate and siliciclastic members of the Jurassic Bau Limestone in fault contact with the
overlying Cretaceous Pedawan Shale. Pervasive silicification and extensive collapse breccias
have developed proximal to the shale/limestone contact along the Tai Parit Fault and adjacent to
argillic-altered dacite porphyry dikes. Tai Parit marks the general intersection between a north-
northeasterly trend of Middle Miocene (13 to 10 Ma; MMAJ, 1985) dacite to granodiorite
intrusions with the northeasterly trending Bau anticline. Disseminated gold mineralization is
associated with arsenopyrite in silicified shale at Jugan, approximately 10 km along trend, to the
northeast. These sediment-hosted deposits form part of a >300 km2 district, which also includes
weak porphyry copper-style mineralization and previously mined copper-gold skarns, auriferous
mesothermal and epithermal polymetallic sulfide-veins, and disseminated mercury deposits
(Schuh, 1993).
Historic and recent alluvial gold mines are common in western and central Kalimantan. The
placer gold is likely sourced from ?mesothermal quartz lodes in crystalline basement and
epithermal low-sulfidation vein systems that have undergone supergene enrichment during
weathering. A colloidal origin for the gold mined from Ampalit in Central Kalimantan has been
inferred by Seeley and Senden (1994), on the basis of gold grain morphology and its fineness of
998. The delicate nature of the grain boundaries and the high fineness preclude the mechanical
transport from nearby epithermal veins, which commonly contain electrum (purity of <900
fine).
2.4.6 Other Magmatic Arcs
Several other late Cenozoic magmatic arcs are described by Carlile and Mitchell (1994),
including the Neogene West Sulawesi, Miocene Northwest Borneo, and Miocene Moon−Utawa
arcs. Carlile and Mitchell (1994) postulate the existence of the Neogene Aceh arc in
northernmost Sumatra, on the basis of the distribution of volcanic rocks of similar age and the
citation of an offshore trench in Stephenson et al. (1982). However, this arc, if it exists at all,
lacks a Benioff zone and a pronounced bathymetric trench, as indicated by satellite gravity data.
It is more likely that the Aceh arc represents a young portion of the Sunda arc with magmatic
activity localized along an easterly trending arc-transverse fault zone. Hence, the Aceh arc of
Carlile and Mitchell (1994) is not shown in Figures 2.4 and 2.5.
Miocene to Pliocene calc -alkaline and alkaline volcanic rocks and granodiorite to monzonite
intrusions (Dondo Suite) in the western arm and neck of Sulawesi do not host significant gold
mineralization. However, significant gold deposits do occur at Awak Mas (26 t gold) and Palu
(G. Hartshorn, personal communication, 1999). Both deposits are located proximal to dextral
strike-slip faults of the Palu fault system. In Awak Mas, epi- to meso-thermal quartz veins and
stockworks are localized along shear zones in Cretaceous metasedimentary basement and near
fault contacts with basalt (van Leeuwen, 1994). Gold occurs within pyritic, quartz-albite-
carbonate breccias, veins and stockworks. The Ag/Au ratio of the deposit is less than one. The
genetic relationship between mineralization and the Neogene magmatic arc, if any, is not clear.
Details of the Palu deposit have not been published. However, the deposit is thought to be of the
epithermal low-sulfidation type.
No significant gold prospects are known in the Northwest Borneo arc of Hutchison (1989).
However, gold occurs in placers and minor quartz veins in the vicinity of dacitic pyroclastic
rocks and flows of the Hose Mountains and the Usun Apau Plateau (Kirk, 1968; GSM, 1976 ).
The Miocene andesitic volcanic rocks and dioritic intrusions in the Bird 's Head portion of
the Moon arc in Irian Jaya are characterized by gold and base-metal mineralization associated
with quartz veins and stockworks (Carlile and Mitchell, 1994). However, a significant gold
deposit has yet to be discovered. No significant gold or copper prospects are documented for the
Neogene arcs of Yapen Island in northern Irian Jaya and Ambon Island in the northern Banda
Sea.
At Miwah in Aceh, northern Sumatra, a high-sulfidation epithermal system is hosted by

andesitic to dacitic volcanic rocks, intruded by a Pliocene rhyodacite (Williamson and Fleming,
1995). The Tangse porphyry copper-(molybdenum) prospect occurs 40 km to the northwest of
Miwah (van Leeuwen et al., 1987). These intrusion-related prospects occur in continental crust
that overlies a Benioff zone that flattens to a dip of ~30o , compared to the 40o to 45o dip that
typifies the subducting Indian Ocean slab beneath the remainder of Sumatra (Figure 2.3).
The Cretaceous Sumatra−Meratus arc of Carlile and Mitchell (1994) is not shown in Figures 2.4
and 2.5. This magmatic arc hosts minor gold-copper skarn mineralization at Muara Sipongi in
Sumatra and low-sulfidation epithermal vein stockworks associated with a monzonite porphyry
intrusion at Sungai Keruh in the Meratus ophiolite belt of southeastern Kalimantan (van
Leeuwen, 1994).
2.5 Synthesis and Discussion
2.5.1 Relationship Between Mineralization and Tectonic Setting
Gold mineralization in Indonesia is spatially and temporally related to Neogene intrusions and
volcanic centers. The localized distribution of several of the deposit styles reflects differences in
tectonic setting and the composition of crustal basement. Regional arc-transverse faults localize
mineral deposits in both oblique- and orthogonal-convergent tectonic settings. The low-
sulfidation epithermal lodes of Sumatra lie proximal to the dextral Sumatra fault, which moves
in response to the oblique convergence of the Indian Plate with the Sundaland Craton. In
contrast, the intrusion-related porphyry and high-sulfidation systems of the Lombok−Sumbawa
and North Sulawesi regions occur in a nearly orthogonal convergent setting.
Porphyry, skarn and high-sulfidation epithermal deposits are closely related to intrusions
emplaced at high crustal-levels. Low-sulfidation epithermal deposits, including vein, stockwork
and minor disseminated styles, typically are located within, or adjacent to, volcanic centers. The
Kelian carbonate-base metal-gold deposit occupies a diatreme setting in the deeper portions of a
low-sulfidation epithermal system. Disseminated sedimentary rock-hosted deposits occur in
calcareous rock sequences in both proximal and distal settings to coeval intrusions.
Volcanogenic massive sulfide and exhalative deposits are developed in a sea floor extensional
setting on Wetar Island. Quartz lodes are typically structurally-controlled and hosted by pre-
Cenozoic meta-sedimentary rocks in western Sulawesi and Kalimantan.
Major Pliocene tectonic events, such as the collision of the Australian Craton with the Banda
arc, may have caused a deviation in the regional stress field of arcs undergoing near-orthogonal
convergence (e.g. western Banda arc) and led to episodic dilation along arc-transverse strike-
slip fault arrays. This in turn, localized the rapid ascent of magma, which facilitated the efficient
release of mineralizing fluids at high crustal-levels (e.g. Burnham, 1967), as is further discussed
below. In a similar sense, the formation of intrusion-related Plio-Pleistocene deposits in the
Luzon Central Cordillera of the northern Philippines, and Chinkuashih in Taiwan, may also be
related to fault reactivation due to variations in regional stress fields. In this case, the variations
in stress fields were caused by the collision of the Philippine Sea Plate with the Eurasian
continent in Taiwan, which commenced at about 5 Ma (Hall, 1996; Rak, 1999).
2.5.1.1 Crustal Basement Control
The gold deposits that occur in arcs built on Sundaland continental crust are predominantly low-
sulfidation epithermal vein systems of low tonnage and moderate- to high-gold grade. These
deposits, located predominantly in the Sunda and Central Kalimantan arcs, lack a direct genetic
link to causative intrusions. The deposits are hosted in the lower portions of the volcanic pile
and locally within crystalline basement. The host rocks and proximal intrusions, where present,
are older than the age of mineralization. It would appear that the heat source responsible for the
paleohydrothermal systems is confined to deeper crustal-levels than are presently exposed.
Carlile and Mitchell (1994) invoke the presence of sills at depths of several kilometers in the
relatively thick continental crust to generate the hydrothermal systems responsible for gold
mineralization.
In contrast, most of the gold-copper porphyry deposits and other intrusion-related deposit styles
that occur in the North Sulawesi−Sangihe, Halmahera and portions of the Sunda−Banda arcs are
built on oceanic crust. These deposits form within and adjacent to high-level intrusions, which
are emplaced in Neogene volcanic or volcaniclastic sequences. The thin nature of the oceanic
crust facilitates the ascent of causative intrusions to higher levels than within the thicker
continental crust. The porphyry and skarn deposits in Irian Jaya−Papua New Guinea occur in a
foreland fold and thrust belt setting above continental crust. Crustal thickening and block uplift
of this region during the Plio-Pleistocene led to the development of one of the world’s largest
gold deposits, Grasberg, in a similar tectonic setting to that which characterizes the giant
Miocene porphyry and epithermal deposits of the Central Andes (Sillitoe, 1998; Kerrich et al.,
2000). These New Guinea deposits are similar to the intrusion-related deposits hosted by
oceanic crust in the Banda and North Sulawesi arcs, in that the mineralizing intrusions were able
to ascend to relatively high crustal-levels. In New Guinea, this is likely facilitated by the
preparation provided by the near-surface interaction of gently dipping thrust sheets and arc-
transverse strike-slip faults.
Magmatic arcs that overlie transitional zones between continental and oceanic crusts are sites of
weakness and a potential focus for mineralization. These settings occur in central and eastern
Java, eastern Kalimantan and the western part of the northern arm of Sulawesi. This type of
setting appears to favor large-tonnage and low-grade disseminated and vein stockwork, low-
sulfidation gold deposits, on the basis of the occurrence of Kelian in eastern Kalimantan and
Gunung Pani in northern Sulawesi. The Bukit Hijau porphyry and epithermal prospects are
recent discoveries in a similar tectonic setting in eastern Java.
2.5.1.2 Crustal-scale Fault Control and Topology of the Subducting Slab
The spatial coincidence of normal oblique-slip and strike-slip faults in the overlying arc with the
surface projection of major linear disruptions of the Benioff zones indicate that the topology of
the down-going slab exerts a control on the style and location of deformation in the overlying
plate. The kinks or faults inferred within the slab commonly coincide with paleotransform faults
and the margins of oceanic plateaus and continents, which are sites of rheologic contrast that
localize strain. The preferential distribution of gold and copper deposits, especially those that
are intrusion-related, along arc-transverse faults above such kinks or tears in the subducting slab
suggests that these zones form conduits for the rapid ascent and cooling of mineralizing
intrusions, and focus the hydrothermal systems responsible for mineralization (Figure 2.7). A
similar cross-arc distribution of intrusion-related mineral deposits exists in the Central Andes,
where the trace of the “Easter Hot Line” is inferred beneath the Maricunga belt and Farallon
district of Chile-Argentina (Bonatti et al., 1977; Sasso and Clark, 1998). The Easter Hot Line
marks a linear zone of upwelling asthenosphere localized by an easterly trending kink or tear in
the subducting Nazca Plate as the slab-dip flattens from north to south, across the northern
boundary of the Chilean flat-slab (Sasso and Clark, 1998).
Rapidly ascending magmas are characterized by high levels of crystallization, which favor the
development of the abundant volatile phases ascribed to the formation of many hydrothermal
ore deposits (Burnham, 1979; Burnham and Ohmoto, 1980; Candela, 1989; Hedenquist and
Lowenstern, 1994). Burnham and Ohmoto (1980) and Dilles (1987) demonstrate that vapor
saturation is achieved relatively early in the crystallization sequence of granitic melts emplaced
at shallow crustal-levels (e.g. 2 km depth; lithostatic pressure ~500 bars). The further cooling
and crystallization of these melts beyond saturation would lead to aqueous volatile phase
separation by the process of retrograde boiling (Burnham, 1979). The crystallization of volatile -
poor mineral phases from the magma enriches the residual melt in water and all other
constituents, including metals, not partitioned into these minerals. In contrast, melts that
crystallize slowly at deeper crustal levels (e.g. >8 km depth; lithostatic pressure >2 Kbars),
reach vapor saturation late in the crystallization sequence at near-solidus conditions and release
relatively minor volatile phases. Hence, the higher the level of emplacement of the intrusion, the
greater the potential for the early vapor saturation of the crystallizing magma and the release of
large volumes of ore-bearing volatile phases.
If this rapid release of metal-bearing volatile phases is focused through the interaction of
structure and host rock, and the geometry of the causative intrusion, then ore deposition may
occur. The presence of a steeply dipping fault network, which connects the upper levels of the
arc to the base of the crust and the mantle below, increases the rate of magma ascent. Kinks or
tears in the subducting slab could serve to channel upwelling asthenosphere to the base of the
lithosphere, where it meets the fault network. Perturbations in the asthenosphere may be
generated through slab rollback (Gvirtzman and Nur, 1999), or a slab-free window formed by a
detachment or tear in the slab along a region of high strain or weakness (Figure 2.7). Hence, the
composite channelway formed through the interaction of deformation zones in the down-going
slab and overlying arc focuses the high heat flow and hydrothermal fluids necessary to develop
ore bodies. The episodic reactivation of crustal-scale fault- and fracture-systems in
transpressional to transtensional settings further enhances crustal permeability in the arcs of the
Indonesian region, where changes in plate convergence direction, collisional events and the
subduction of buoyant oceanic plateaus serve to vary the orientation of predominantly arc-
orthogonal compressive stress fields. For example, the subduction of the Roo Rise Plateau, in
the vicinity of Sumbawa, and the mid-Pliocene collision of the Australian Craton with the
Banda arc, in the vicinity of Timor, towards the east, are inferred to have influenced the
development of the Batu Hijau porphyry deposit in southwestern Sumbawa.
In contrast, the largely extensional settings of the low-sulfidation epithermal lodes that occur
adjacent to the Sumatra fault developed in an oblique-convergence arc setting, which favors the
de-coupling of ore-bearing volatile phases from ascending magmas and cooling intrusions. The
distribution of these deposits in splay faults and dilational settings adjacent to the Sumatra fault
indicates that movement along this structure controls mineralization. The intersections between
arc-transverse faults and the Sumatra fault are inferred to act as channelways for fluid flow and
heat transfer from the lower crust and subarc mantle.
The majority of the gold and copper deposits in Indonesia occur in districts or regions
distributed within 10 to 30 km from the crustal-scale, arc-transverse faults or tectonic
lineaments indicated in Figure 2.5. The faults that control mineralization on the deposit-scale
represent second-, and more commonly, third-order elements, which lie within the splay zones
to the first-order structures or along subparallel fault strands.
The localization of first-order arc-transverse faults along the magmatic arcs of Indonesia is
controlled partially by the topology of the subducting slab, as discussed above. However, the
frequency of these cross-arc structures also varies according to plate convergence style and
crustal basement composition. The spacing of first-order arc cross-structures is somewhat
irregular in Sumatra, where plate convergence is oblique, whereas it is more regular elsewhere,
where convergence is closer to orthogonal with respect to the local plate boundary. The spacing
between first-order cross-arc structures ranges from about one per 60 to 100 km for arcs
underlain by oceanic crust (e.g. east Sunda, Banda and North Sulawesi) to 100 to 200 km for
arcs built on continental crust (e.g. west Sunda, Central Kalimantan and Iria n Jaya). This
variation in frequency of cross-arc structures is probably a function of crustal thickness and
rheology. The thick, felsic continental crust allows brittle deformation processes to extend to
greater depths than can be maintained in thin, basaltic oceanic crust and the underlying
lithosphere (Ranalli and Murphy, 1987; Ranalli, 1997). Therefore, fewer first-order faults are
required to release the tectonic stresses accumulated in continental arcs than in oceanic arcs.
Movement along second-, third- and higher-order faults will also release tectonic stress.
However, these subsidiary faults are too small to indicate on the maps and figures compiled for
this study.
The relationships between regional tectonic setting, geologic framework and mineral deposit
styles are discussed for the island of Sumbawa in the following chapter.
CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK OF SUMBAWA 55
CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK OF SUMBAWA
3.1 Introduction
The primary aim of this chapter is to place the geologic setting and intrusion-related
hydrothermal systems of the Batu Hijau district into the context of the geologic framework of
Sumbawa. This chapter contains descriptions of the crustal basement, Neogene to Recent
volcanic and sedimentary rock sequences, intrusions and fault zones that occur in Sumbawa. In
addition, the styles and distribution of copper and gold prospects are documented and discussed
in the context of relative levels of exposure, or erosion, and local geologic setting. The
relationships of mineral deposit style to tectonic setting and regional-scale faults are not
discussed in detail, as these aspects have been addressed in Chapter 2.
Sumbawa lies at a major structural discontinuity in the Sunda−Banda arc as indicated by

seismicity data and the variation in arc geology. The surface projection of the subducted
boundary between the Roo Rise Plateau and the Argo Basin coincides with a major north-
northeasterly trending fault zone that extends through the western part of the island (Figures 2.2
to 2.5). The morphology and geology of Sumbawa indic ate that the island consists of three
crustal blocks, which are defined by this north-northeasterly trending fault zone and a
northwesterly trending structural discontinuity, which is expressed by seismic and gravimetric
anomalies. In the subsequent text, these blocks are referred to as western, central and eastern
blocks of Sumbawa.
The strain release maps of Barberi et al. (1987) indicate the amount of energy released from the
seismic events (1960 to 1979) recorded in the Java-Sumbawa-Sumba-Timor region (Figure 3.1).
The northward progression of strain release contours with depth is consistent with the dip-direction
of the down-going slab. The strain release contours indicate arc sectors of varying seismic
activity, which are commonly separated by the north-northeasterly trending hypocenter
lineaments plotted in Figure 2.3. Subsidiary northwesterly trending lineaments occur in the eastern
part of the region. One of these lineaments, which passes through Sumba and eastern
Sumbawa, nearly coincides with the Sumba Fracture, said by Audley-Charles (1975) to mark a
tectonic break in the Banda arc, as discussed in Section 2.3.3.1. The intersection of both these sets
of cross-arc lineaments in the Sumbawa−Sumba area is characterized by large energy releases
for shallow earthquakes (depth, h < 100 km). The fault plane solutions of McCaffrey (1988)
indicate that most of this seismic activity occurs along steeply dipping, arc-transverse oblique
strike-slip faults (Figure 2.6).
3.2 Geologic Setting
The majority of the data presented in this section originate from geologic maps of Sumbawa
published by the Indonesian Geological Survey (Suratno, 1994, 1995; Sudradjat et al., 1998)
and geologic descriptions in Bulletin 106 of the Geological Society of Italy (Barberi et al.,
1987). Some of the descriptions incorporate data from internal reports of Newmont Mining
Corporation and the observations of the author. The data for the Quaternary volcanoes of
56 CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK OF SUMBAWA
Sumbawa and Lombok are compiled from Foden and Varne (1980), Varne and Foden (1986)
and van Bergen et al. (1993).
3.2.1 Crustal Basement
The geologic basement to the island consists of an Early to Middle Miocene volcanic arc and
related volcaniclastic sequences deposited on oceanic crust, which is adjacent to the margin of
the Sunda continental shelf (Figures 2.2 and 3.2). The primitive oceanic character of the crust
beneath Sumbawa is indicated by low 87 Sr/86 Sr (0.704 to 0.705) and high 143 Nd/144 Nd (0.5126 to
0.5128) isotopic ratios for the Quaternary volcanoes along the northern coast (Varne and Foden,
1986). These ratios are similar to those measured from young volcanoes in Bali and Lombok,
which are also characterized by low 206 Pb/204 Pb (18.6 to 19.1) and 208 Pb/204 Pb (38.60 to 39.35),
and high 3 He/4 He (6.6 to 9.0, measured value normalized to the ratio in air; figure 4 in van
Bergen et al., 1993).
The Bouguer anomaly map of Nasution (1979) for Sumbawa indicates a range in the
gravimetric field from +170 mGal in the southwestern portion of the island, proximal to Batu
Hijau, to +20 mGal beneath Tambora. The north-northeasterly- and northwesterly-trending fault
zones and topographic lineaments that confine the central block of Sumbawa are expressed by
gravimetric field gradients in the Bouguer anomaly map. The interpretation of the gravimetric
data by Barberi et al. (1987) indicates a variation in crustal thickness, from 14 to 16 km in the
vicinity of Batu Hijau in the western block to 20 to 23 km in the central block. The thickness of
the crust that forms the eastern block is intermediate between that of the other blocks. The
greater thickness of the central block is consistent with it being down-thrown with respect to the
western and eastern blocks.
There is a reversal in the direction of cross-arc crustal thickening from western to eastern
Sumbawa. The crust of the western block thickens to the north, whereas the crust of the eastern
block thickens to the south (Barberi et al., 1987). This variation between the two blocks may
indicate scissors-like movement along the fault zones that confine these blocks. In this scenario,
the southern portion of the western block is uplifted and tilted to the north, in the same manner
that the northern portion of the eastern block is uplifted and tilted to the south. This would place
the Batu Hijau region in an uplifted portion of the geologic basement of Sumbawa, which has
lost a greater vertical extent of the arc crust to erosion than elsewhere in the island. In contrast,
the down-dropped central and southerly tilted eastern blocks indicate higher levels of crustal
exposure. The distribution of rock types and the styles of hydrothermal alteration exposed in
Sumbawa support this hypothesis.
3.2.2 Neogene to Recent Sedimentary and Volcanic Successions
3.2.2.1 Volcano-Sedimentary Rocks and Limestone Horizons
Sedimentary rock units consist of volcanic mudstone, sandstone and conglomerate, and
coralline- and tuffaceous-limestone. The age of these units ranges from Early Miocene to
Holocene. Four major limestone sequences are recognized on the basis of fossil assemblages
and contact relationships to underlying volcano-sedimentary and volcanic rocks.
Volcano-sedimentary rocks
The oldest rocks exposed in Sumbawa consist of volcanic sandstone, siltstone and
conglomerate-breccia of basaltic to andesitic composition. The age of this sequence is Early to
Middle Miocene, constrained on the basis of foraminiferal assemblages in limestone horizons
within the sequence (Barberi et al., 1987; Suratno, 1994; Sudradjat et al., 1998). The mapped
distribution of this unit indicates a sedimentary axis through western Sumbawa that is
coincident with the north-northeasterly trending fault system that separates the western and
central blocks of the island. Bedding dips vary from gently- to moderately-dipping. The
volcano-sedimentary sequence exceeds ~1500 m in thickness, and in the Batu Hijau vicinity, is
inferred to represent a fore-arc, neritic to ?bathyal depositional environment, on the basis of the
data presented in Chapter 4. The conglomerate-breccia horizons that occur within the upper
portion of this section in the Taliwang area and in the Batu Hijau vicinity probably represent
subaerial debris flows, submarine mass flows and minor fluvialtile units, which were deposited
in a near-shore volcanic arc setting (Chapter 4). Published geologic maps (Suratno 1994, 1995;
Sudradjat et al., 1998) do not indicate the true distribution of this unit and locally misidentify it
as a sequence of pyroclastic rocks. Hence, the true extent of this unit is most likely larger than
indicated in Figure 3.2.
Plio-Pleistocene volcanic conglomerate-breccia and claystone occur in the coastal regions of

western and central Sumbawa and consist of re-sedimented material of contemporaneous and
older volcanic centers. The volcanic claystone is moderately bedded and intercalated with
sandstone and gravel layers locally (Sudradjat et al., 1998). These volcaniclastic sequences lie
unconformably upon pre-Pliocene sedimentary, volcanic and intrusive rocks (Suratno, 1994,
1995). The inferred depositonal settings for the Plio-Pleistocene units include subaerial debris
flow, fluvaltile and near-shore, neritic submarine environments, on the basis of the lithological
relationships discussed in Section 4.8.
Limestone horizons
The oldest limestone sequence exposed in Sumbawa consists of Early Miocene micrite to
grainstone, which forms units 20 to 100 m thick (commonly 30 m thick) throughout the
southwestern and southeastern parts of the island. These units include intercalations of
volcanic sandstone locally. Larger foraminiferal and planktonic foraminiferal assemblages
indicate deposition over a span of 5 to 6 m.y. from the Early Burdigalian to the Early
Serravallian (~20 to 14 Ma; Barberi et al., 1987; Chapter 4, this study). The depositional setting
is inferred to be a fore-reef, neritic environment that was established during local hiatuses in
volcanism (Barberi et al., 1987; Chapter 4). The Early Miocene reef is inferred to have extended
east-west and occupied the southern portion of Sumbawa. The fossil assemblages in limestone
of the same age on Ngali Island, which lies north of the main axis of Early Miocene limestone
outcrop, indicate a back-reef depositional environment (Barberi et al., 1987).
Late Miocene to Pliocene limestone occurs in the vicinity of Jereweh and Taliwang in western
Sumbawa and in the vicinity of Ralee, to the east. This unit is up to 100 m thick near Jereweh,
located about 10 km north of Batiu Hijau. The unit consists of tuffaceous limestone, sandy
limestone and tuffaceous marl, which is rich in planktonic foraminifera and shell fragments.
Coralline limestone is also present in the Jereweh area. This unit is gently dipping to
subhorizontal and lies unconformably upon Middle Miocene and older volcanic and
sedimentary rocks. The limestone is inferred by Meldrum et al. (1994) to have developed in a
back-arc setting. The fossil asssemblages in the wackestone to packstone limestone near
Jereweh contain abundant reworked reefal material, consistent with a shallow-water
depositional environment. These include coral, molluscs, Myogypsina sp., Lepidocyclina
Nephrolepidina sp., Sorites sp. and Globerginoides sp. (D. W. Haig, personal communication,
1999).
Pliocene coralline limestone occurs along the southern coastline of western and central
Sumbawa. Holocene coral reefs form portions of the northern coastline and several low-relief
islands (e.g. Moyo Island). The bedding in the older carbonate sequence dips up to 20o towards
the south. The young reefs are flat-lying and lie unconformably upon Pliocene and older
sedimentary and volcanic rocks (Suratno, 1994, 1995). The variation in limestone dip indicates
uplift of the southern coastline of western and central Sumbawa in the Pleistocene.
3.2.2.2 Volcanic Successions
Two major Miocene to early Pleistocene calc-alkaline volcanic sequences occur in the medial
and southern portions of the island (Figure 3.2). The majority of the southern part of Sumbawa
consists of an Early to Middle Miocene volcanic and volcano-sedimentary succession that
includes a large volcaniclastic component. The volcanic sequence as mapped by Suratno (1994,
1995) is predominantly andesitic (Figures 3.2 and 3.4). However, dacitic to rhyolitic
compositions do occur in the vicinity of Jereweh, Lopok and Cerah, as documented by Barberi
et al. (1987) and unpublished Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company reports. Common rock types
are ash tuff, lapilli tuff and tuff breccia; volcanic siltstone, sandstone, conglomerate and breccia;
and lesser amounts of lava and subvolcanic intrusions. In the vicinity of Batu Hijau, volcanic
breccia and conglomerate overlie Early Miocene volcanic sandstone and limestone age
and exhibit a gradational contact with the sandstone sequence (Chapter 4). Throughout much of
Sumbawa, the andesitic volcanic sequence is metamorphosed to lower greenschist facies and
commonly contains chloritic mica-calcite +epidote. Bedding dips vary from subhorizontal to moderate.
The thickness of the succession exceeds 1500 m.
In eastern Sumbawa, the andesitic volcanic sequence is overlain by a dacitic pyroclastic and
volcano-sedimentary rock sequence of Middle Miocene age (Suratno, 1995). Common rock
types include ash-lapilli tuff, calcareous tuff, volcanic sandstone and intercalations of limestone.
The unit includes dacitic lava and hypabyssal porphyritic dacite intrusions in the vicinity of
Bima−Cerah. Bedding commonly dips less than 20o , but locally dips up to 45o . The thickness of
the sequence is estimated to exceed 500 m, on the basis of the relationship between topography
and the structural contours drawn by the author on the geologic maps of Suratno (1994, 1995).
The distribution of Plio-Pleistocene volcanic products and centers, as illustrated in Figure 2.3, is
relatively limited with respect to that of the Miocene sequences. However, this probably reflects a
lack of radiometric dating and detailed geologic mapping, which is necessary to differentiate
between the two volcanic successions. Plio-Plesitocene basaltic andesite, andesite and minor
rhyolite form outcrops along the northern flanks of the Quaternary stratovolcanoes, Labumbu,
Matua and Lambuwu, in the northeastern part of Sumbawa. A radiometric K-Ar age of 3.84 +
0.07 Ma is indicated for a sample of rhyolite from this unit by Barberi et al. (1987) (Table 3.1).
Suratno (1994, 1995) indicates isolated pockets of undifferentiated Plio-Pleistocene volcanic
rocks in the southern parts of western and central Sumbawa, on the basis of the unconformable
relationship with the underlying Miocene volcanic and volcaniclastic units and local changes in
geomorphology. Pliocene andesitic to rhyodacitic eruptive vent breccias (diatremes) are
recognized in three localities in western and central Sumbawa, proximal to Batu Hijau,
Elang and Rinti (Figures 3.2 and 3.3). Other Pliocene eruptive vents could occur,
particularly in the dacitic volcanic sequences of eastern Sumbawa. However, such vents have
yet to be documented by the limited mapping undertaken to date. Andesitic breccia and lava
comprise the Plio-Pleistocene Tarowa stratovolcano in central Sumbawa (Suratno, 1995;
Sudradjat et al., 1998).
Table 3.1 K-Ar age data for igneous rocks of Sumbawa Island
Location Rock Type %K 40Ar*(10-7 ml/g) 40Ar*/40Artotal Age (Ma) 1σ (Ma)
1. D. Kempo basaltic 0.82 1.577 0.26 4.93 0.53

andesite dome
2. Cerah basaltic 1.20 2.059 0.26 4.41 0.21

andesite ?dome
3. D. Ramu rhyolite 4.06 6.063 0.48 3.84 0.07
4. T. Chempi andesite 1.83 2.306 0.26 3.24 0.13
5. D. Kessi trachyandesite 2.29 2.785 0.35 3.13 0.11

dome
6. G. Sangenges trachybasalt 2.49 1.654 0.37 1.71 0.05
7. D. Maria basaltic 2.14 1.346 0.14 1.62 0.14

trachyandsite
8. D. Matua basaltic 1.58 0.9255 0.06 1.51 0.17

andesite
9. D. Saka basaltic 1.94 1.036 0.20 1.37 0.10

andesite
10. D. Pokah trachyandesite 2.13 9.118 0.27 1.10 0.04
11. G. Tambora, trachyandesite 4.21 0.07656 0.032 0.043 0.02

caldera base
Analytical data after Barberi et al. (1987). K-Ar analyses undertaken on groundmass only.
Sample locations are indicated in Figure 3.2
Abbreviations: D. – Dora (hill), G. – Gunung (mountain), T. – Teluk (bay).
3.2.3 Quaternary Volcanoes
The Quaternary volcanoes in Sumbawa form the northern portion of the island. The alkalinity of
the volcanoes increases with time, with calc-alkaline compositions characterizing the
Pleistocene volcanoes of northeastern Sumbawa and shoshonitic affinities for the historically
active Tambora and Sangeang Api (Figure 3.4). Sangenges in northwestern Sumbawa is also
shoshonitic. The eruptive products of the extinct Quaternary volcanoes are characterized by
nepheline- and leucite-normative leucitite, trachy-basalt, trachy-andesites and andesite (Foden
and Varne, 1980; Barberi et al., 1987). The active volcanoes consist predominantly of
nepheline-normative trachy basalt to trachy andesite (Foden and Varne, 1980). The radiometric
K-Ar ages obtained from the Quaternary volcanoes range from 1.71 + 0.05 Ma for Sangenges to
0.043 + 0.02 Ma for the base of the Tambora caldera (Table 3.1).
The amount of material ejected from the 1815 eruption of Tambora exceeded that produced
during the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa in western Java. Estimates range from 100 km3
(Petroeschevsky, 1949) to 318 km3 (Junguhn, 1854 cited in Zollinger, 1855), with 175km3 being
the most recent estimate (Self et al., 1984). This corresponds to the displacement of about 50
km3 of magma for the estimate of Self et al. (1984). The height of the stratovolcano prior to this
eruption is estimated by Barberi et al. (1987) to have been about 4000 m, which is 1500 m
above the present-day caldera rim. Foden (1986) describes the petrology of the Tambora
volcano and a model for the 1815 eruption.
3.2.4 Intrusions and Volcanic Domes
Mafic to felsic intrusions occur throughout Sumbawa. The plutons, stocks and dykes in the
western part of Sumbawa define easterly- and northeasterly-trending belts. Within these belts,
individual intrusions are elongate in both easterly and northeasterly directions. There is a greater
abundance of mapped intrusions in the western block and the western part of the central block
than in the eastern block of Sumbawa. However, this probably reflects the greater amount of
data obtained for the western portion of the island than for the eastern part of Sumbawa. Very
few intrusions are documented in the eastern part of the central block, south of Saleh Bay. The
intrusions are calc-alkaline in affinity with compositions that range from diorite or basaltic
andesite through quartz diorite and tonalite to granodiorite. Hypabyssal dacite intrusions occur
within the andesitic and dacitic volcanic sequences of eastern Sumbawa. The intrusions are
inferred to be Middle Miocene to Pliocene in age, on the basis of cross-cutting field
relationships and the radiometric ages reported in Sections 4.3 and 4.6.
A series of medium- to high-K calc -alkaline volcanic domes are documented by Barberi et al.
(1987). These domes vary in composition from basaltic andesite through trachy andesite to
dacite-rhyolite locally. The domes define a northeasterly trending belt in western Sumbawa that
coincides with the axis of the Early to Middle Miocene volcano-sedimentary sequence. Clusters
of domes occur in the Lopok, Kempo, Kessi and Maria areas. Many of the dome fields occur
proximal to circular geomorphological structures, which are inferred to represent Pliocene
volcanic landforms. Radiometric K-Ar dates from the volcanic domes and proximal lavas in
eastern Sumbawa indicate ages of 4.93 + 0.53 Ma to 3.13 + 0.11 Ma (Table 3.1).
3.2.5 Faults
Major arc-parallel faults and topographic lineaments extend east-west through the southern
portion of Sumbawa (Figures 3.2 and 3.3). The major structural fabric in Sumbawa trends north-
northeasterly to northeasterly and correlates to a series of steeply dipping arc-transverse faults.
These faults indicate left-lateral, oblique slip movements, as indicated by the relative offset of
rock units and the fault plane solutions of Barberi et al. (1987) and McCaffrey (1988) for
earthquakes in the Sumbawa−Sumba region. The most pronounced of the Sumbawa fault
systems indicates at least 10 km of sinistral offset and extends through western Sumbawa, east
of Moyo island (Trans-Sumbawa Fault system, Figures 3.2 and 3.3). The thickness of the arc
crust increases abruptly from west to east across the fault zone (Barberi et al., 1987). Second-
order faults parallel the first-order structure and form a zone of brittle deformation about 50 km
wide. This fault zone controls the distribution of the Early to Middle Miocene volcano-
sedimentary sequence and has localized subsequent intrusion and volcanic dome emplacement.
An additional northeasterly trending zone of faults occurs in eastern Sumbawa, southwest of

Bima. However, the sense of offset along this fault zone is not well constrained. This region is
characterized by a Middle Miocene dacitic volcanic suite, Pliocene domes and circular
geomorphologic structures. The width of this tectonic zone is about 25 km. North-northeasterly
to northeasterly oriented fault corridors also control the distribution of intrusions and diatremes
in western Sumbawa.
A northwesterly trending fault zone is inferred to extend through the east shore of Saleh Bay
and into eastern Sumbawa, on the basis of the distribution of mapped faults and the Bouger
anomaly map of Nasution (1979) as modified by using a 60 km low-pass filter (Barberi et al.,
1987). The existence of such a fault zone is supported by the distribution of earthquake
hypocenters and the strain release maps (Figures 2.3 and 3.1). The Tambora stratovolcano lies at
the intersection between this northwesterly discontinuity and the Trans-Sumbawa Fault system.
3.3 Copper and Gold Deposits and Occurrences
Three major regions of gold and copper mineral occurrences exist in the Neogene volcano-
sedimentary belt that comprises the southern portion of the island (Figure 3.3). The occurrences
lie in the western, central and eastern crustal blocks of Sumbawa that are defined by the Trans-
Sumbawa Fault system and northwesterly trending arc-transverse discontinuities discussed in
the preceding sections. The general descriptions of the most significant prospects and deposits
are included in Table 3.2. The age of gold and copper mineralization is constrained to lie
between the Middle Miocene and the Pleistocene, on the basis of the ages of the pre-mineral
host rocks and the post-mineral cover sequences. The radiometric 40 Ar/39 Ar and 206 Pb/238 U
SHRIMP dates obtained for mineralization events in the Batu Hijau vicinity during the course of
this study indicate latest Miocene to middle Pliocene ages.
3.3.1 Western and Central Sumbawa
3.3.1.1 Porphyry Prospects
Two easterly trending belts of porphyry-style deposits and prospects occur in the vicinity of
Batu Hijau in western Sumbawa and Elang in central Sumbawa. Both belts are hosted by Early
to Middle Miocene andesitic volcanic and volcaniclastic sequences, which contain multiple
phases of Neogene intrusions and Pliocene diatreme complexes. Many of the prospects occur
proximal to the intersection of north-northeasterly- to northeasterly-trending arc-transverse
faults and topographic lineaments with easterly trending arc-parallel lineaments and the margins
of pre-mineral plutons. Northwesterly trending arc-transverse faults commonly occur in the
vicinity of the prospects and probably played a role in the localization of the occurrences.
Table 3.2 Descriptive summary of major gold and copper deposits and prospects in Sumbawa.
Name Style Host Rocks Intrusions Alteration Sulfide Minerals Geometry and Size
Batu Hijau1 Porphyry andesitic volcaniclastics pre-mineral qz diorite potassic core; sericitic, early bn-dg; middle cpy; cylindrical; 1km diameter
po andesite, late diatreme syn-mineral po tonalites adv & int argillic halos late py and bms 914MT@0.53%Cu, 0.4g/tAu
Teluk Puna LS qz-bms vn dacitic pyroclastics proximal to eg qz diorite narrow argillic halos sl-gn-py in laminated NNW vein array; 5km x 500m
andesitic volcaniclastics volcanic dome to veins qz veins individual veins to 5m wide
Jereweh 1) LS qz+bms andesitic / dacitic no proximal intrusions clay-silica (vn style) py-sl-gn in qz+ba veins NW & NE steeply dipping
stwk volcaniclastics & volcanics minor hydrothermal breccia veins and stwks; 600 x 200m
2) Sed-hosted limestone replacement qz (sed-hosted) fine-grained arsenical py stratibound, ~5m thick
Elang-Dodo2 1) Porphyry andesitic / rhyodacitic early qz diorite and diorite deep potassic core; 1) early cpy & minor near-cylindrical; 600 x 500m
pyroclastics, diatreme syn-mineral po tonalites sericitic, adv & int bn-cv; late py 590MT@0.35%Cu, 0.4g/tAu
2) HS qz-en stwk late po dacite argillic halos 2) py-en & rare cpy-cv NNW vein array; 400 x 400m
Sebu LS qz-py vn andesitic / dacitic pyro- proximal po dacite sericitic / argillic halos py & minor sl-ga N toNNW vein; 2km x 5-10m
and stwk clastics, volcaniclastics sub-volcanic dome to veins and stwk zone 300 x 300m stwk in dilat. jog
Rinti 1) Porphyry andesitic / dacitic pyro- andesite porphyry, diorite widespread silica-argillic 1) cpy in diatreme clasts diatreme complex; 2 x 1.3km
2) LS qz vn clastics, volcaniclastics syn-mineral po dacite NNE qz-silica ledges 2) sl-gn-py in qz veins NW to N vein array; 2km x
diatreme 700m; major NNE graben
Teluk Panas Porphyry andesitic volcanics,sedi- diorite and qz diorite NNE adv argillic ridges minor cpy in sericitic argillic zone ~2km diameter
(high level) mentary rock, limestone sericitic; hot springs diorite, abundant diss. py NNE ridges & NW qz veins
Lemunte LS qz vn andesitic volcanics, sed- diorite / andesite porphyry clay-silica halos to veins cpy-gn-sl-py several NE to N veins;
imentary rock, limestone largest: 1.5km x 5-20m
Hu’u3 Porphyry andesitic volcanics diorite porphyry widespread adv & int cc-ma at surface; major NE- and secondary
(high level) argillic; weak potassic cpy-py at depth NW-fault control; 2 prospects
Soripesa4 LS qz vn andesitic pyroclastics, no proximal intrusions clay-silica halos to veins sl-gn-py strike length ~500m;
volcicaniclastics, limestone 0.3MT at 3.7g/t Au, 54g/tAg
Notes: Prospect data compiled from unpublished Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company reports, except where indicated: 1-Meldrum et al. (1994); Irianto and Clark (1995), Clode et al. (1999);
2- Maula and Levet (1996); 3- Register of Indonesian Gold (1997); 4- Carlile and Mitchell (1994). Descriptions of Batu Hijau district prospect areas are included in Chapters 4-6.
M ineral abbreviations: bms- base metal sufide, ba-barite, bn- bornite, cc-chalcocite, cpy-chalcopyrite, cv-covellite, en- enargite, dg- digenite, gn-galena, qz- quartz, py- pyrite, sl- sphalerite
Others: HS- high-sulfidation epithermal, LS- low-sulfidation epithermal, adv- advanced, eg- equigranular, int- intermediate, po- porphyritic, stwk- vein stockwork, vn- vein.
In western Sumbawa, the Batu Hijau district contains four main porphyry centers that lie along a
12 km belt, which is localized along the margins of a series of pre-mineral quartz diorite
plutons. These porphyry centers include the Batu Hijau copper-gold deposit and the
Sekongkang−West Nangka, Arung Ara and Katala prospects. Detailed descriptions of the
setting, geometry and timing of emplacement of these porphyry systems are included in Chapters
4 through 6. In central Sumbawa, a 30 km belt of porphyry centers contains the large Elang
resource and the North Lunyok, Kuda Mati, Rinti and Teluk Panas prospects. The Dodo high-sulfidation
epithermal, quartz-enargite vein stockwork formed in the upper levels of the Elang porphyry
system. The styles of mineralization and hydrothermal alteration in the porphyry belts of
western and central Sumbawa indicate a change in the level of exposure of these systems from
deeper to higher levels. The porphyries in western Sumbawa are more deeply eroded, with
potassic altered cores exposed at surface, whereas the porphyries in central Sumbawa indicate
higher levels of exposure with alteration characterized by advanced argillic, intermediate argillic
and seric itic alteration types. This relationship supports the hypothesis that the central Sumbawa
block is downthrown with respect to the western Sumbawa block, which has been tilted to the
north to expose the deeper portions of porphyry systems in the vicinity of Batu Hijau.
In most of the porphyry prospect areas, syn-mineral stocks consist of dacite or tonalite, whereas
pre-mineral plutons include diorite and quartz diorite. Diatremes comprise late- to post-mineral
features at Batu Hijau in western Sumbawa, and Elang−Kuda Mati and Rinti in central
Sumbawa.
3.3.1.2 Peripheral Vein Systems
Varying types of auriferous base-metal sulfide-quartz vein systems occur from 2 to 9 km

outboard of the porphyry centers. These include low-sulfidation quartz lodes at Bambu, Teluk
Puna, Awar Singa and Jereweh in the vicinity of Batu Hijau, western Sumbawa. The low-
sulfidation vein systems peripheral to porphyries in central Sumbawa include Ledang, Sebu,
Alma, Air Panas and the Rinti vein system. The lengths of these vein systems range from about
600 m at Jereweh and up to 5000 m at Teluk Puna. Gold grades are erratic and no economic
zones have been discovered to date. Many of the veins contain minor pyrite, sphalerite, galena
and chalcopyrite. Combined base-metal contents commonly range from 0.2 to 2.0 wt. %. The
textures of these veins include comb quartz and local wall-rock breccia fragments. The
temperatures of the formation of these vein systems are not well constrained. However, limited
fluid inclusion studies of late-stage quartz from the Teluk Puna veins indicate typical mean
homogenization temperatures of 190o to 215o C, from a range of 170o to 260o C (Coote, 1989).
In contrast to the base-metal bearing vein systems, Lampui in central Sumbawa contains
anomalous arsenic and mercury contents and classic low-sulfidation epithermal quartz vein
textures, which include rhythmic colloform banding and cockade breccia. Gold-grades range up
to 12 g/t, but the vein is less than 200 m in length. Pyrite constitutes the only major sulfide
mineral, as base metal sulfides are absent. In Air Panas, an active hot-spring system in central
Sumbawa, quartz veins hosted in silicified and argillized volcaniclastic rock contain anomalous
gold, silver and mercury. At Jereweh in western Sumbawa, pervasive silica replacement of Late
Miocene limestone contains extremely fine-grained pyrite and anomalous gold and arsenic.
To the north of the Batu Hijau district, several gold prospects are associated with small dioritic
intrusions. These include the quartz vein systems of Lemunte, Lemonga, Posong and Kelawis,
and the iron skarn of Tebo. The veins contain minor amounts of pyrite, sphalerite, galena and
chalcopyrite and contain comb quartz textures. Gold-grades are erratic and locally high-grade
(>30 g/t Au). Lemunte and Lemonga support the small-scale mining activities of local villagers.
3.3.1.3 Relationship of Gold Mineralization to Lineaments and Faults in Southwestern

Sumbawa
In southwestern Sumbawa, the relationship of regional-scale faults and topographic lineaments,

as determined from the analysis of satellite radar imagery (Radarsat International, 10 m nominal
resolution - fine mode), to gold mineralization is inferred from anomalous stream sediment
(sub-200 µm) results. The gold stream sediment results are from Newmont Nusa Tenggara
Company data. These results are illustrated by stream catchment area and have been compiled
from work undertaken by Sjoekri (1997), as part of a GIS-based M.Sc. thesis at the Colorado
School of Mines (Figure 3.5). Gold was chosen as the best indicator of mineralization on the
regional-scale, due to the low background-levels of gold and the low-levels of analytical
detection for this element (5 ppb). Hence, any sediment result in excess of 10 ppb gold is
considered to be anomalous, as this threshold represents about the 60 percentile for the total
sample population (cf. ~ 90 percentile for 100 ppb Au). The results of other elements, such as
copper, display a similar pattern to gold, but lack the clarity of the gold results.
The distribution of stream sediment gold anomalies indicates an east-northeasterly trending

corridor, more than 20 km long by 3 to 5 km wide, which follows a similarly oriented fault-
lineament zone that extends through the central portion of the Batu Hijau district. This belt of
gold-in-sediment coincides with the distribution of the Batu Hijau and Katala porphyry centers,
and peripheral quartz vein systems in Bambu, southwest of Batu Hijau, and in Air Singa,
northwest of Batu Hijau. A major north-northwesterly trending belt of anomalous gold-in-
sediment, ~30 km by 4 km, follows a like-oriented zone of topographic lineaments, which
extends from the Teluk Puna vein system in the south, through Batu Hijau to Jereweh, in the
north. This north-northwesterly trending belt intersects the east-northeasterly trending belt in the
vicinity of the Batu Hijau deposit. A subsidiary, easterly trending, gold-in-sediment belt
coincides with the axis of quartz diorite plutons in the district. This belt contains the four major
porphyry centers in the region and a zone of peripheral base-metal-carbonate-quartz veins,
located in Nangka, to the northwest of the Batu Hijau deposit.
Hence, there is a strong correlation between gold-anomalous stream catchment basins and
structure, as indicated by the distribution and orientation of topographic lineaments and faults,
in the vicinity of the Batu Hijau district. The relationships between the major structural trends
identified above, and the development of intrusion-related hydrothermal systems in the district,
are described and discussed in Chapters 6 and 7.
3.3.2 Eastern Sumbawa
Mineral occurrences in eastern Sumbawa are small and sporadic. Most prospects occur in a
northeasterly trending zone that extends from Hu’u to Soripesa. This corridor coincides with a
northeasterly oriented fault- and fracture-zone. The prospects occur proximal to the intersection
of north-northwesterly- to northwesterly-trending structures with northeasterly oriented faults
and the margins of circular structures, which are inferred to represent Pliocene diatremes, on the
basis of local geomorphology and the dacitic composition of the surrounding pyroclastic
sequences. There is no clear spatial relationship between the distribution of Neogene intrusions
and the mineral occurrences, with the exception of the Hu’u, a high-level porphyry system.
However, this may reflect, in part, a lack of data. The level of exposure of the mineral prospects
in eastern Sumbawa is inferred on the basis of the styles of alteration and mineralization to be
higher than that in prospects of western and central Sumbawa. This is consistent with the
inferred tilting of the eastern Sumbawa block to the south during or after mineralization.
Porphyry-style mineralization at Hu’u is characterized by two areas of argillic alteration and

anomalous copper in stream sediments that are centered about porphyritic diorite intrusions. The
intrusions are localized along northeasterly- and subsidiary north-northwesterly-trending faults.
The total extent of hydrothermal alteration is about 40 km2 .
The largest gold resource occurs at Soripesa, a low-sulfidation epithermal, base-metal sulfide-
quartz vein system (0.3 million tonnes at 3.7 g/t Au, 54 g/t Ag and 2% combined Pb and Zn;
Carlile and Mitchell, 1994). The host rocks consist of andesitic volcanic rock, volcanic
sandstone and limestone. Elsewhere in the region, the gold prospects include ?high-sulfidation
quartz-base metal sulfide veins at Dompu and clay-silica altered volcanic rocks at Donggomasa.
Replacement-style silicification and anomalous gold contents characterize a limestone-hosted,
abandoned manganese mine at Pela. Several other gold occurrences are indicated on the
geologic map of Suratno (1995). However, the style of occurrence is not known.
3.4 Summary
Sumbawa lies at a major structural discontinuity in the Sunda−Banda arc, as indicated by

seismicity data and the variation in arc geology. The island of Sumbawa consists of an Early
Miocene to Holocene volcanic arc constructed on oceanic crust approximately 14 to 23 km thick
(Barberi et al., 1987). Neogene calc-alkaline volcanic and sedimentary sequences form the
geologic basement, which is presently exposed in the southern portion of the island.
Quaternary stratovolcanoes comprise the northern portion of Sumbawa and indicate a progressive
change from calc -alkaline to shoshonitic affinities with time.
Major arc-transverse faults and gravimetric lineaments segment the island into western, central
and eastern blocks. These blocks are inferred to have been tilted, uplifted and down-thrown to
produce different levels of exposure for Pliocene gold and copper systems and their Neogene
volcano-sedimentary host rocks. The deepest levels of exposure occur in the Batu Hijau
district, in southwestern Sumbawa, with middle levels indicated in central Sumbawa and
the highest levels exposed in southeastern Sumbawa. Gold and copper mineral deposit styles
include several porphyry centers flanked by low-sulfidation quartz vein systems in western and
central Sumbawa, as typified by the mineral prospects in the vicinity of Batu Hijau. In contrast,
eastern Sumbawa contains only one high-level porphyry prospect and a limited number of
small, high-level epithermal systems.
The district geologic setting and sequence of intrusive events that led to the development of the
Batu Hijau porphyry copper-gold deposit, satellite porphyry prospects and peripheral quartz
vein systems are described in the following chapter.
CHAPTER 4 VOLCANO-SEDIMENTARY AND INTRUSIVE EVOLUTION 69
CHAPTER 4 VOLCANO-SEDIMENTARY AND INTRUSIVE EVOLUTION

OF THE BATU HIJAU DISTRICT
4.1 Introduction
This chapter documents the field relationships, petrology, mineral composition and whole -rock
major-oxide element and trace-element compositions of the major rock types in the Batu Hijau
district. Radiogenic isotope results are discussed in the context of the potential source(s) of the
magmas that formed the igneous rock suite. The geochronology of volcano-sedimentary and
intrusive events is developed on the basis of contact age-relationships, fossil and radiometric
(U-Pb SHRIMP) age results. The paleogeographic depositional setting of the volcano-
sedimentary sequence in the district is discussed and compared to similar settings in ancient and
modern volcanic arc environments. The inferred crystallization paths, water contents and vapor
saturation of the differing intrusion types are discussed in the context of the depth and
temperature of intrusion emplacement, and the oxidation state of the causative melts. The depth
of intrusion and the timing of vapor saturation with respect to the crystallization sequence of a
melt, in part, control the ability of the intrusion to release large volumes of ore-bearing volatiles.
The map area covers more than 70 km2 , from Sekongkang in the west through Batu Hijau to
Katala in the east, and includes the Tongoloka Valley in the southeast. The majority of the area
consists of a gently dipping basaltic to andesitic volcaniciclastic succession, which contains a
lower unit of crystal-rich volcanic sandstone and an upper unit of crystal-rich volcanic lithic
breccia (Figures 4.1 and 4.2). Thin intercalations of Early to Middle Miocene limestone lie
within the upper portions of the lower volcanic sandstone unit in the vicinity of Bambu and East
Nangka. Several phases of early, phyric andesitic intrusions and later, phaneritic intermediate to
felsic plutons, stocks and dykes intrude the volcaniclastic succession. The composition of the
phaneritic intrusions commonly ranges from quartz diorite to tonalite, but also includes minor
diorite and granodiorite. The phaneritic intrusions are latest Miocene to early Pliocene, as
determined by radiometric U-Pb SHRIMP zircon analyses. The youngest dated intrusive events
are within the tonalite stock and dyke complex (~ 3.7 Ma) centered within the Batu Hijau
porphyry deposit. Biotite+pyroxene-grade hornfels commonly characterize volcaniclastic rock
and andesitic intrusions adjacent to quartz diorite plutons. An andesitic volcanic (diatreme)
breccia unit and porphyritic andesite to dacite dykes post-date the volcaniclastic succession and
felsic intrusions in the area, but this event has yet to be dated by radiometric methods.
In Teluk Puna, immediately south of the study area, a Late Miocene andesitic to dacitic
volcaniclastic sequence unconformably overlies the upper volcanic lithic breccia unit of the
volcaniclastic succession and a phyric andesitic intrusion (Figure 1.2). The Teluk Puna
volcaniclastic sequence dips gently to the south. In the coastal regions to the northwest, west
and south of the map area, a Plio-Pleistocene epiclastic sequence unconformably overlies older
volcaniclastic and intrusive rocks. The younger sequence dips gently away from the map area,
towards the northwest, west and south. A series of subvertical, phyric basaltic -andesite dykes
intrude the younger epiclastic sequence and are oriented in a pseudo-radial pattern. Quaternary
70 CHAPTER 4 VOLCANO-SEDIMENTARY AND INTRUSIVE EVOLUTION
coral reef and coralline limestone crop out at elevations up to ~75 m above sea-level along the
western coast of the island and dip subhorizontally.
In this chapter, the description of rock types and their geochemical characteristics refer to the
least-hydrothermally altered examples, except where indicated otherwise. The majority of these
rocks contain propylitic alteration assemblages, which are characterized by variable amounts of
chlorite (0-20 vol. %), epidote (0-15 vol. %), calcite (0-10 vol. %) and albite (0-?10 vol. %).
Summary descriptions of the major rock types are included in Tables 4.1 to 4.5.
4.2 Andesitic Volcaniclastic Rock Succession
Andesitic volcaniclastic rocks comprise a large portion of the district. The succession consists of
a more than 1500 m thick sequence of greenish gray to medium-gray, massive to bedded,
crystal- and lithic-rich, volcanic mudstone, sandstone, breccia and conglomerate (Figure 4.3).
This lithological terminology follows that of McPhie et al. (1993), and allows for the separation
of observations from genetic interpretations. The succession consists of two major units: a lower
sequence of volcanic sandstone and lesser amounts of mudstone, and an upper sequence of
volcanic lithic breccia and minor conglomerate.
Clinopyroxene-amphibole-plagioclase phyric andesite forms a thin, discontinuous and

conformable lens, less than 3 m thick, within the volcanic sandstone unit exposed in a tributary to the
Santong River, in the vicinity of Gold Ridge. This unit represents the only potential lava flow
identified in the volcaniclastic sequence to date and is of a distinctly different chemical
composition to the volcaniclastic rocks.
4.2.1 Crystal-rich Volcanic Sandstone
4.2.1.1 Field Relationships
Crystal-rich volcanic sandstone, and lesser amounts of mudstone, crop out in the lower
elevations of the Santong and Bambu regions. These rocks are the oldest exposed in the study
area. The thickness of the sequence exceeds 200 m, with the depositional base not exposed in
outcrop nor drill hole. The unit forms recessive to resistant outcrop in streams and local gorges.
The unit consists predominantly of massive sandstone, which exhibits lateral and vertical
variations in grain size and degree of stratification (Figure 4.3). Other significant variants
include: 1) thin- to medium-bedded, fining upward, sandstone and mudstone, which, where
present, occur in the upper 50 m of the unit (Figure 4.4), and 2) massive mudstone, which
occurs below the well-bedded upper horizon. Fluid-escape (flame) structures occur locally in
the bedded sandstone units. The intra-formational contacts between massive sandstone and these
two variants generally are gradational over a few to tens of meters. The degree of stratification
in the upper part of the volcanic sandstone unit generally increases from west to east across the
district, with rela tively massive sequences in the East Nangka and northern Bambu areas
passing into well-bedded successions in the vicinity of Batu Hijau and western Katala. Lenses
of subangular to subrounded pebble clasts, commonly 2 to 50 cm thick, occur throughout the

unit, but are more common in the upper 50 m of the sequence.
In the western part of the Batu Hijau deposit, the uppermost portion of the bedded sandstone
facies consists of a distinctive thin horizon of cross-laminated fine sandstone and mudstone,
commonly less than 1 m thick (Figures 4.3 and 4.4; Gerteisen, 1998). This horizon, where
present, serves as a marker between the fine volcanic sandstone unit and the overlying coarse
volcanic lithic breccia unit. In East Nangka, about 3 km to the northwest of Batu Hijau, and in
Brang Pede, about 1.5 km to the west, the upper contact of the sandstone unit is sharp to
gradational over 1-3 m and lacks the cross-laminated marker horizon. In all three areas, the
abundance of volcanic lithic breccia intercalations increases up-section, towards the top of the
sandstone unit.
4.2.1.2 Petrography
The sandstone unit consists of variable amounts of plagioclase and minor mafic silicate crystals
(amphibole >> clinopyroxene), to 1 mm in length, and minor volcanic lithic fragments in a
matrix of very fine to medium sand (125 to 500 µm) and secondary chlorite, calcite, smectitic
clay, and minor epidote and pyrite (Table 4.1 and Figure 4.4). Angular to rounded fragments of
quartz, less than 2 mm in mean diameter, occur rarely. The crystal shapes range from unbroken
and euhedral to broken and angular. Rounded crystals are not common. Crystal abundances
range from 50 to 60% commonly and exceed 80% locally. The mafic silicates are partially to
completely replaced by chlorite, calcite and smectitic clay, whereas plagioclase grains range
from fresh and unaltered to turbid and replaced by phyllosilicates. Both matrix-supported (open
framework) and crystal/clast-supported (closed framework) textures occur; however, the latter
style is more common. As mentioned in Section 4.2.1.1, the grain size of the matrix fines to
clay-silt (< 62 µm) locally. Equant grains of magnetite, less than 0.2 mm in diameter, are a
common constituent and locally define millimeter-scale bedding in the uppermost part of the
unit.
The clasts in the volcanic breccia intervals range from angular to subrounded and are up to 30
mm in mean diameter. The clasts are andesitic, similar in composition to the matrix, and consist
of plagioclase-phyric andesite and lesser amounts of volcaniclastic rock. Subrounded epidote-
rich clasts (>80% epidote after plagiocalse) characterize clastic intervals that occur proximal
(several to tens of meters) to the upper contact of the sandstone unit. These clast types are
similar to those that comprise the overlying volcanic lithic breccia unit as described in
Section 4.2.3.2
Table 4.1 Description of andesitic volcaniclastic rock units and andesitic intrusions in the Batu Hijau district.
Rock Type General Texture Phenocrysts, Crystals Groundmass or Plagioclase Accessory Magnetic Field Relationships and
or Clasts Matrix Composition Minerals Susceptibility Distribution
Crystal-rich massive to bedded; 10-80% plg to 1mm; fine- to medium- An 95 to 45 3-5% mt to 0.2mm 5000-7000 Santong Valley and
volcanic crystals and minor minor hbl+pyx; grained sand, silt for the larger x 10-5 SI ; northern tributaries to Batu
sandstone and lithic fragments in a subrounded-subangular and microcrystals, 0-200 x 10-5 SI Hijau, where it is overlain
mudstone sand - mud matrix volcanic clasts to 5mm; crystalline material normal- zoned where epidote by the volcanic lithic
(closed framework) pebble horizons locally altered breccia sequence
Crystal-rich massive and poorly 0-20% subrounded- 20-50% plg to An 95 to 40, 3-7% mt and ilm to 1500-8000 occurs throughout district at
volcanic lithic sorted; minor subangular andesitic 2mm; 2-5% hbl + normal-zoned 0.4mm x 10-5 SI ; elevations above 300m
breccia graded bedding clasts < 6cm; matrix pyx to 4mm; plg- locally 0-200, where
fines upward locally supported rich mud matrix epidote altered
Hornblende- massive; 15-40% plg, 0.5-2mm; plg microlaths, hbl An 80 to 45 3-5% mt and ilm in 4500-8000 hypabyssal intrusions and
plagioclase porphyritic and 3-7% hbl, 1-4mm, up to 0.2mm & micro- core to rim, groundmass and as x 10-5 SI dykes within volcaniclastic
phyric glomeroporphyritic; to 1cm, with oxidized to cryptocrystalline local cores to phenos to 0.6mm; rock units; the andesite
andesite holocrystalline rims to 0.3mm wide; material; holo- An 98 mt:ilm ratios range underlies much of the
locally (microdiorite local opx, cpx and ol; crystalline locally from 3:1 (phenos) district and forms a 4 by 4
to microgabbro) Phenos = 20-50% of to >7:1 (ground- km exposure in the western
rock mass) part of the area
Fine-grained massive; fine 3-10% plg, 0.2-1mm; plg microlaths An 70 to 40, 3-7% mt & minor 3000-6500, intrusions and dykes within
andesite and porphyritic and tr.-5% hbl to 0.2-1mm, <0.05mm and core to rim ilm as phenos 0.1- up to 12000 volcaniclastic sequence, in
micro-quartz glomeroporphyritic; up to 2mm; tr-0.5% cpx microcrystalline 0.5mm; mt in x 10-5 SI Katala and northeastern part
diorite holocrystalline to 1mm; Phenos <15% material, minor hbl groundmass of district
locally of rock and local cpx
Pyroxene- porphyritic and 25-35% plg, 0.5-4mm; 25-35% plg; 7- An 65 to 35, 2-3% mt as phenos 1500-3000 hypabyssal intrusion in
plagioclase glomeroporphyritic; 2-3% cpx, 0.3-3mm; 12% cpx, 3-5% mt core to rim to 0.3mm and in x 10-5 SI northern part of district,
phyric holocrystalline 1-3% ol to 1mm; and groundmass geometry poorly
andesite locally Phenos = 30-40% of microcrystalline constrained
rock material
Abbreviations: An- anorthite component determined by optical and microprobe analyses, cpx-diopside, hbl- amphibole, ilm- ilmenite, mt - magnetite, phenos-phenocrysts, plg-
plagioclase, ol-olivine, opx-enstatite. Microcrystalline= <0.02 mm; cryptocrystalline= <0.005 mm. The stated mineral abundances represent visual estimates and are
approximate.
4.2.1.3 Mineral Composition
The larger plagioclase crystals, up to 1 mm in length, range in composition from An90 to An45
and are normally zoned locally, as determined by optical and SEM-EDS analysis (Figures 4.21
and 4.22). The compositions of the mafic silicates were not determined, due to their very fine-
grain size (<0.5 mm). The magnetite grains analyzed (N=2) contain 10 and 14 mole %
ulvospinel component (titano-magnetite; 3.5 and 4.7 wt. % TiO2; Figure 4.26).
4.2.2 Limestone Intervals Within the Volcanic Sandstone Unit
Limestone interbeds, about 1 to 25 m thick, occur within volcanic sandstone outcrop in Bambu
and in drillcore from a depth of 60 m beneath the contact with overlying lithic breccia in East
Nangka (PND06 97-122 m). The true thickness of this mixed carbonate-clastic sequence is 35 m
in the central part of Bambu and exceeds 60 m to the south, near the map area boundary (J. Arif,
personal communication, 1999). The Bambu sequence could form a roof pendant to a
surrounding andesite intrusion, but this has yet to be confirmed by drilling. The strike extent of
this sequence exceeds 1 km and is open to the south. The discontinuous limestone lenses form
sharp contacts with massive sandstone and thinly bedded mudstone and create resistant ribs in
creeks and bouldery knobs along vegetated ridges, where local cliff heights exceed 20 m (e.g.
south Bambu).
The Bambu limestone sequence has undergone only slight recrystallization and still shows
primary sedimentary features, including abundant fossils, and is well exposed along creek beds
that trend nearly perpendicular to strike. The bedding in this region strikes northerly and dips
from 20 to 45o to the east (Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.5). Individual limestone units are 1 to 6 m thick
and are internally massive to bedded. The subsurface limestone unit in East Nangka is partially
to completely recrystallized, lacks recognizable fossils and is cut by faults in drill core. For
these reasons, the following descriptions of the limestone sequence are based on the Bambu
outcrops.
4.2.2.2 Petrography
The Bambu limestone interbeds are light- to medium-gray and pinkish gray, and typically pure
in composition. However, a limestone-dominant sedimentary breccia, with clasts consisting of
both volcanic sandstone and limestone, occurs near the top of the sequence (Figure 4.5). The
limestones are classified as biomicrites (Folk, 1959), characterized by a variable amount of
fossils contained within a matrix of predominantly microcrystalline calcite. However, sparry
calcite occurs locally. Most intervals consist of packstone and lesser wackestone (Dunham,
1962), with variable amounts of fossils contained within a mud matrix.
The interbedded volcaniclastic rocks consist of massive to poorly bedded, moderately sorted,
fine to coarse sandstone and mudstone. Subrounded to subangular phyric andesite clasts to 2 cm
in mean diameter are uncommon. In general, the crystal component of the sequence is low
(<10%). Interbeds of sandstone and mudstone occur on the scale of 5 to 100 cm. The matrix is
calcareous, commonly cemented together by very fine-grained calcite.
4.2.2.3 Paleontology
Paleontological examination of a suite of samples collected from the seven major limestone
interbeds indicate an abundance of larger benthonic and planktonic foramininifera, coralline
algae, coral fragments and echinoid plates and spines. Common benthic foraminifera include
Lepidocyclina (Eulepidina) sp., Lepidocyclina (Nephrolepidina) sp., Lepidocyclina
(Nephrolepidina) ferreroi, Cycloclypeus sp., Miogypsina sp., Miogypsinoides sp., Austrollina
striata and Sorites sp. (Table 4.2 and Figure 4.6; D.W. Haig, written communication, 1999). In
general, the benthic assemblages are consisitent with a lower Tf1 /upper Te 5 letter stage
assignation (Adams, 1984), or an N5/N6 designation (Blow, 1969). This would place the age of
deposition of the foraminifera near the Aquitanian-Burdigalian boundary, or between 21 and 19
Ma (Figure 4.8; Adams, 1984; Berggren et al., 1995).
The absence of Lepidocyclina (Eulepidina) sp. and Miogypsinoides sp. in the base of the
limestone breccia interval, near the top of the sequence (sample 47 m; Table 4.2 and Figure 4.5),
indicates that this interval is younger than the limestones below. This is consistent with an
assignation of mid-Tf1 or N7/N8 age (Adams, 1984; Berggren et al., 1995). Therefore, the upper
part of the sequence was deposited during the Burdigalian to the Langhian, or between 17 and
15 Ma (Figure 4.7; Adams, 1984). The presence of relatively advanced stages of equatorial
chamber arrangement with rays in the Lepidocyclina (Nephrolepidina) sp. in this unit, with
respect to the primative forms expressed by this genus in the lower limestone intervals, further
supports this assignation (D. W. Haig, written communication, 1999). The presence of
Lepidocyclina (Eulepidina) sp. and Miogypsinoides sp. in the uppermost limestone interbed
(sample 53 m) is problematic with respect to the younger assemblage in the limestone breccia
unit (sample 47 m) directly below. However, the foraminifera in this packstone bed may have
been reworked from older limestone intervals prior to deposition. Alternative interpretations
involve the presence of an exotic limestone block or a low-angle thrust fault between the two
interbeds. However, the narrow interval between the upper packstone bed and underlying
breccia unit is exposed and appears conformable.
On the basis of these data, it is inferred that the Bambu limestone interbeds were deposited over
a period as long as 5 to 6 m.y., from the Early Miocene to the lower part of the Middle Miocene,
using the time-scales of Adams (1984) and Berggren et al. (1995). This age span is consistent
with the 20 to 14 Ma range (upper Te 5 to lower Tf2 ) documented by Barberi et al. (1987) for
benthonic foraminifera collected from 13 localities throughout Sumbawa (refer to Section
3.2.2.1).
The present-day depth distributions of the benthonic foraminifera in the Papua New Guinea
region may be used to interpret the paleo-bathymetry of the depositional setting for the
limestone interbeds in the Bambu sequence (Haig and Perembo, 1992). Due to the common
downslope transport of shells prior to burial, the upper depth limits of the species bathymetric
range make for the most reliable indication of past water depths. The upper depth limit of
Cycloclypeus sp. is about 40 m beneath sea-level (Murray, 1991; Haig and Perembo, 1992) and
thus contrains the deposition of limestones that contain this species to a paleo-depth of 40 to 60
m, for those interbeds where little evidence of fossil-tranportation is recorded. (e.g. samples
14m, 19m, 47m and 53m; D.W. Haig, written communication, 1999). This depth range lies
within the mid-neritic setting. A deeper depth setting (>50 m) is indicated for those interbeds
that show transported fossil material (e.g. samples 11.5 m, 22 m, and 34 m; D.W. Haig written
communication, 1999).
The planktonic foraminifera in the packstone-wackestone sequence include Globigerinoides sp.,

Globorotalia (Turborotalia) sp., Globigerinoides immaturus and many species in the matrix of
the rocks that are too small to identify positively by optical methods (D.W. Haig, written
communication, 1999).
4.2.3 Crystal-rich Volcanic Lithic Breccia
Crystal-rich volcanic lithic breccia, sandstone and minor conglomerate comprise about 40% of
the surface of the study area. This unit forms most of the hills and ridges above 400 m in the
central part of the district and comprises much of the Tongoloka region, southeast of Batu
Hijau. The thickness of this sequence exceeds 1500 m, with the conformable top not exposed in
the area. The unit forms resistant outcrop and cliffs in streams and gorges. The contact with the
underlying volcanic sandstone unit is sharp to gradational over one to several meters.
The unit is grayish green to medium-gray, massive and poorly sorted, and most commonly
characterized by volcanic lithic breccia. The breccia consists of plagioclase and mafic silicate
(amphibole>pyroxene) crystals and monomicitic to polymictic, andesitic volcanic lithic clasts
contained in a plagioclase crystal-rich, very fine sand to mud matrix (Figure 4.8). The size of
the lithic clasts in the breccia sequence varies throughout the area. Coarser clastic sequences,
characterized by clasts commonly in excess of 1 cm in mean diameter, form a northwesterly-
trending belt that extends from Nangka through Batu Hijau and onwards into the Tongoloka
Valley (Figure 4.1). In contrast, the clasts in the breccia sequence to the west (e.g. Sekongkang
and Barakebo) and east (e.g. Gold Ridge and Katala) of this region are generally smaller in
mean diameter.
Table 4.2 Summary of foraminiferal assemblages and estimated ages and paleodepths for the
Bambu limestone sequence, Batu Hijau district.
Sample Large Foraminifera Planktonic Other Fossils Letter Paleo-

Foraminifera Stages 1 depth2
11.5m Cycloclypeus sp. --- --- Te5 /Tf1 >50m
L. (Eulepidina) sp. boundary (transported)
L. (Nephrolepidina) sp.
Miogypsinoides sp.
Miogypsina sp.
14m Cycloclypeus sp. --- coralline lower Tf1 40-60m

L. (Nephrolepidina) algae (mid-neritic)
ferreroi
L. (Nephrolepidina) sp.
Miogypsinoides sp.
Miogypsina sp
19.5m Cycloclypeus sp. --- coralline Te5 /Tf1 40-60m
L. (Eulepidina) sp. algae, boundary (mid-neritic)
L. (Nephrolepidina) echinoid
ferreroi plates &
L. (Nephrolepidina) sp. spines
Miogypsinoides sp.
Miogypsina sp.
22m Cycloclypeus sp. Globigerinoides coralline lower Tf1 >50m
L. (Nephrolepidina) sp. algae (transported)
ferreroi? Globorotalia
L. (Nephrolepidina) sp. (Turborotalia)
Miogypsinoides sp. sp.
34m Cycloclypeus sp. --- coral upper Te5 >50m

L. (Eulepidina) sp. fragments, (transported)
L. (Nephrolepidina) sp. coralline
Sorites sp. algae
Miogypsinoides sp.
Miogypsina sp.
47m Cycloclypeus sp. --- coral upper Tf1 40-60m
L. (Nephrolepidina) fragments, (near N7/N8 (mid-neritic)
ferreroi coralline boundary)
L. (Nephrolepidina) sp. algae
Miogypsina sp.
53m Cycloclypeus sp. Globigerinoides coral Te5 /Tf1 40-60m
L. (Eulepidina) sp. immaturus fragments, boundary (mid-neritic)
L. (Nephrolepidina) sp. coralline
Austrotrillina striata algae
Miogypsinoides sp.
Miogypsina sp.
Notes: Age and paleodepth estimates made by D.W. Haig (written communication, 1999).
1) Letter stages of Adams (1984) and N zones of Blow (1969).
2) Paleodepth estimates based on Haig and Perembo (1992).
The other significant rock types in the unit include, in order of decreasing abundance: 1)
volcanic sandstone of similar character to that described in Section 4.2.1, 2) crystal-rich and
lithic-poor, massive sandstone and mudstone, and 3) minor volcanic conglomerate with rounded
cobbles and boulders. These three variants form horizons, several to tens of meters thick, within
the volcanic lithic breccia unit. Intra-unit contacts are sharp to gradational over meters.
Gerteisen (1998) has identified conglomerate and sandstone intervals within the upper portion
of the breccia sequence exposed in Batu Hijau drill core, and has traced these rock types for
more than 1 km along the western flank of the deposit (Figure 4.3). The conglomerate is both
matrix and clast-supported. Flame structures occur within the sandstone intervals (Gerteisen,
1998). Intercalations of maroon to reddish-gray volcanic mudstone and light- to medium-gray
sandstone occur locally within the breccia sequence. These finer grained clastic rocks form
thinly bedded, fining-upward lenses, millimeters to centimeters thick.
Near Batu Hijau and elsewhere in the district (e.g. Brang Pede and Brang Nangka), internal
depositional units, several to tens of meters thick, consist of a basal lithic breccia that grades
poorly upwards to a thin sandstone interval (Gerteisen, 1998; this study). The matrices of both the
breccia and sandstone are similar in composition and grain size. The primary differences
between the two rock types include the increased abundance of lithic clasts in the breccia and
bedding in the sandstone. Where preserved, the sandstone unit is commonly 0.5 to 1 m thick.
However, this relatively thin interval is commonly absent. Gerteisen (1998) recognizes that a
planar fabric is locally present at the base and/or top of these poorly graded units and attributes
its development to soft-sediment deformation.
4.2.3.2 Petrography
The abundance of clasts within the breccia sequence is variable, but commonly ranges up to
20%. The clast assemblages range from monomictic to polymictic. Clast shapes vary from
rounded to angular, but are generally subrounded to subangular. Common clast diameters range
from 2 to 64 mm (granule to pebble) and exceed 100 mm locally. Rounded cobble and boulder
clasts in the conglomerate intervals are generally larger than the more angular clasts in the
breccia sequence. The common clast types, in order of decreasing abundance, consist of: 1)
poorly plagioclase-phyric, fine-grained andesite, 2) poorly to moderately hornblende- and
plagioclase-phyric, fine- to medium-grained andesite, 3) volcaniclastic rock types with a
variable abundance of fine-grained plagioclase crystals, and 4) epidote-rich (after plagioclase)
clasts similar to those in the upper portion of the volcanic sandstone unit. Rare subrounded to
rounded clasts of medium-grained leucocratic hornblende gabbro/diorite are inferred to be the
protolith to the epidote-rich clast type 4. Minor rounded granules of polycrystalline, anhedral
quartz form an uncommon constituent. The clasts commonly form an open framework,
supported by a crystal-rich matrix. However, conglomeratic horizons are locally clast-
supported.
Plagioclase crystals up to 1 to 2 mm in length commonly comprise 20 to 50% of the breccia

matrix, and locally exceed 70%. Fine- to medium-grained pleochroic, medium- to light-brown
amphibole and minor pyroxene crystals typically comprise less than 7% of the matrix. The
crystals are euhedral to subhedral, and are commonly broken, displaying angular and subangular
shapes. Magnetite and lesser amounts of ilmenite comprise 3 to 7% of the least-altered rock
types. The plagioclase and mafic silicate crystals in the least-altered rocks are fresh and less
commonly turbid. The remainder of the matrix consists of mud to very fine sand, which
includes plagioclase microlaths and smectitic clay. Variable amounts of secondary chlorite,
epidote, carbonate and minor pyrite are also present. The compositions of clasts and matrix are
very similar and probably derived from the same plagioclase-rich, andesitic volcanic source.
The compositions of the plagioclase crystals in the matrix of the breccia unit are similar to those
of the sandstone unit, An90 to An40 and normally zoned (Figures 4.21 and 4.22). The amphiboles
analyzed (N=12) consist predominantly of magnesio-tschermakitic hornblende, magnesio-
hastingsite and tschermakite, and show a local increase in alkali (Na+K) and iron contents from
core to rim (Figure 4.23). The pyroxene in the one sample analyzed consists of diopside (Figure
4.25). Both mafic silicates are Mg-rich (ΣFe/(ΣFe + Mg) = 0.2 to 0.3). The titano-magnetite
ranges from 20 to 30 mole% ulvospinel component (6.7-9.7 wt. % TiO2; Figure 4.26) and the
ilmenite contains manganese, in the one grain analyzed (18 mole% pyrophanite, or 8.7 wt. %
MnO).
4.2.4 Depositional Setting and Facies
The Batu Hijau district volcanicla stic succession probably reflects the preserved products of the
resedimentation of volcanic rocks synchronous to, or shortly after, Early to Middle Miocene
andesitic volcanism. The lack of pumice, thermal welding, cooling joints, gas segregation pipes
and vapor-phase alteration in the rock sequences argues against a hot state of emplacement.
There is little evidence for a primary pyroclastic mode of deposition for the volcaniclastic units.
The two major rock units recognized to date indicate two facies types: 1) a distal, submarine
depositional environment that shallowed with time (volcanic sandstone package) and 2) a more
proximal setting, characterized by coherent submarine mass flows and/or subaerial debris flows
(volcanic lithic breccia sequence). Gerteisen (1998) classified these two sequences as distal
facies and proximal facies, respectively. The rarity of intercalated lava flows within these
sequences suggests that the eruptive edifice developed far from the present site of the study
area.
Thick, massive crystal-rich volcaniclastic sequences have been documented in both ancient and
recent settings elsewhere in the world. These include the Lower Devonian Merrions Tuff,
southeastern Australia (Cas, 1979), the Cambrian Tyndall Group of the Mt Read Volcanics,
western Tasmania (White and McPhie, 1996) and recent deposits in the Lesser Antilles
(Sigurdsson et al., 1980; Fisher, 1984). The common interpretation of these sequences includes
deposition of volcaniclastic debris in a submarine environment as a result of: 1) the
transformation of subaerial gas-supported pyroclastic debris flows into water-supported mass
flows after explosive disintergration at the coast line, or 2) the activity of secondary mass flows
that transport redeposited pyroclastic materal (cf. Cas, 1983; Fisher, 1984; White and McPhie,
1996). Further discussions of the inferred paleogeographic depositional setting for the Batu
Hijau volcaniclastic sequence, and a Quaternary analogue model, are included in Section 4.10.
4.2.4.1 Distal Facies
The masssive sandstone and mudstone in the lower exposed portions of the volcanic sandstone
sequence were deposited in a distal and relatively deep-water setting, as the structure and
texture of both rock types suggest a suspension transport mechanism. The depositional setting is
inferred to have shallowed and entered a higher-energy flow regime with time, as indicated by
the increasing amount of fining-upward, thin- to medium-bedded sandstone up-section, within
50 m of the top contact. The abundance of generally planar beds, and the absence of major
cross-bedding, is inferred to indicate a below wave-base depositional environment.
The benthonic foraminiferal assemblage of limestone intercalations in the upper part of the
sandstone sequence implies deposition in a mid-neritic environment (about 40 to 60 m
below sea level). The limestone is inferred to mark preserved shallow-marine
carbonate horizons formed during times of reduced volcanism. The 5 m.y. time span
(Burdagalian to Langhian) that separates the lower and upper portions of the Bambu
limestone sequence suggests that this period was one of relatively inactive volcanism, or
that the limestones in Bambu and Nangka were preferentially preserved (e.g. limestone horizons
located between depositional channels).
The cross-laminated marker horizon (< 1 m thick), that locally marks the contact from
sandstone to breccia in the Batu Hijau deposit vicinity, may represent the preserved ripple cross-
laminations developed in a lower flow-regime turbidity current deposit (extended bouma facies
c2 ; Cas, 1979; Cas and Wright, 1987). The thin and discontinuous volcanic breccia horizons
within the upper part of the sandstone sequence are also consistent with an upper flow-regime
turbidity current deposits (extended Bouma facies z2 and z3 ; Cas and Wright, 1987), which are
capable of carrying gravel-size clasts. The greater degree of bedded rock types in the upper 50
m of the unit in the vicinity of Batu Hijau could indicate that deposition in this region occurred
at shallower depths than for the more massive sandstone and mudstone units that crop out to the
west and east.
4.2.4.2 Proximal Facies
The volcanic breccia sequence was deposited in a more proximal setting than the sandstone
sequence, as indicated by increased size, abundance and angularity of clasts. The early stages of
deposition of this sequence may signify the onset of renewed volcanic and seismic activity and
related high-energy sedimentation mechanisms. The massive and poorly sorted, open-
framework and muddy matrix characteristics of the breccia are consistent with transport of
abundant clasts by dispersive forces in a viscous debris flow (Cas and Wright, 1987). The local
tractional fabrics along the base and top of depositional units and fluid-escape structures further
support this hypothesis.
Either subaerial debris flows (e.g. lahars) or subaqueous mass flows, which were fed by
subaerial debris flows or pyroclastic flows, could have potentially deposited the breccia
sequence. The localized distribution of rounded cobble and boulder conglomerate lenses, which
are both matrix- and clast-supported, points towards a fluviatile environment, or the channelized
offshore extension of a river mouth. Conclusive evidence for subaerial versus subaqueous
depositional environments is lacking, and it is probable that both settings existed. Such would
be the case for coastal volcaniclastic deposits in an island arc setting, where the migration of the
coast line is controlled by sea-level changes, the topography of the volcanic apron, and the
volume of pyroclastic and resedimented debris flow deposits. The local intercalation of massive
and bedded (fining upward) sandstone and mudstone within the breccia sequence probably
supports the subaqueous interpretation, as these intervals could indicate local fluid turbulence
and the activity of subaqueous grain flows and fluidized sediment flows (Cas and Wright,
1987). However, preserved classical turbidite sequences have yet to be recognized in this unit.
The northwesterly trend of the coarser clastic facies across the Nangka−Batu Hijau−Tongoloka
region could represent the superimposition of a series of debris flow channels linked to the
volcanic source area. The southeasterly directed widening of this facies in the Batu Hijau area
(Figure 4.1) is consistent with an ancient southeasterly flow direction and the down-current
fanning out of lobate mass flows. However, mesoscopic paleocurrent indicators, such as flute
marks and cross-stratification, are lacking. In modern and ancient island arc-related submarine
environments, the fanning out of mass flows is commonly localized by a break in shelf slope,
which locally coincides with syn-depositional faults (cf. Cas and Wright, 1987; White and
McPhie, 1996). The potential applicability of this model to the deposition of the Batu Hijau
volacano-sedimentary succession is discussed in Section 4.10.
The general lack of rounding and fresh nature of the crystals in the rather uniform sandstone and
breccia sequences necessitates that deposition was rapid and synchronous to, or shortly after,
volcanism. There is no significant evidence for major reworking of clasts in a fluvial or near-
shore marine environment, with the exception of the volumetrically small conglomerate lenses.
The debris flow mechanism explains these crystal characteristics and allows for transport of
large quantities of volcanic material to distances of up to tens of kilometers from the eruptive
source.
4.2.4.3 Crystal-rich Volcaniclastic Rocks – The Need for Crystal Concentration Processes
The crystal-rich nature of volcaniclastic succession, which is typically characterized by more

than 50%, and up to 80%, crystals and microcrystals, is inconsistent with the 10-30% crystal
abundance in the phyric andesite clasts contained within the sequence. These clasts are inferred
to represent fragments of lavas and hybabyssal intrusions associated with the eruptive source to
the volcaniclastic sequence. Hence, a crystal concentration process is required to explain the
formation of the crystal-rich volcaniclastic deposits from a relatively crystal-deficient volcanic
source. The compilation of 1650 samples of silicic volcanic rocks by Ewart (1979) indicates that
most samples contain less than 40% phenocrysts, and it further indicates the need for a crystal
concentration mechanism to create the crystal-rich Batu Hijau volcaniclastic sequence.
Given the probability that the composition of the volcaniclastic rocks has been modified during
transport and deposition, several crystal concentration mechanisms may have been active. The
most probable processes suggested by Cas (1979) for crystal-rich volcaniclastic rocks include:
1) concentration of crystals in primary eruption columns, 2) concentration of crystals and lithic
fragments in resulting pyroclastic flows and resedimented debris flows (e.g. lahars) by
elutriation of fine vitric ash, 3) further concentration of crystals in secondary eruption columns
formed by the entrance of hot pyrocla stic flows into the ocean, and 4) elutriation of fines into
trailing sediment clouds accompanying submarine mass flows, resulting from slumping of
volcaniclastic deposits in near-shore (subaerial or submarine) settings. There also exists the
potential for debris flows to maintain consistency on contact with the sea and be deposited with
little additional modification. In the case of the Batu Hijau volcaniclastic succession,
mechanisms 1, 2 and 4 are the preferred crystal concentration processes, although, mechanism
3 may not be discounted altogether.
4.2.5 Geochemistry
As indicated in Section 4.2.4, the composition and crystal- and lithic-rich character of the
sandstone and breccia units in the andesitic volcaniclastic succession reflect modification by
volcano-sedimentary depositional processes. Therefore, the chemical compositions of these rock
types will only approximate those of the volcanic source. However, it is still useful to compare
the chemical compositions of these volcaniclastic rocks to the igneous rocks in the Batu Hijau
district and elsewhere.
The volcaniclastic rocks indicate major-oxide element concentrations that are consistent with
classification as low-K calc -alkaline basalts to andesites (Table 4.6 and Figures 4.27 to 4.29).
There does not appear to be any systematic difference in composition between the fine- and
coarse-grained volcaniclastic units, given the data at hand. The more basic samples plot in the
tholeiite fields of Irvine and Baragar (1971) and Miyashiro (1974), but fall within the calc -
alkaline field of Kuno (1968) (Figures 4.27 and 4.28). However, a calc -alkaline affinity is
inferred on the basis of the low total iron (FeOtotal/MgO ~1.8 at 57.5 wt. % SiO2) and the lack of
an iron-enrichment trend with increasing wt. % SiO2 for the nine least-altered samples analyzed
(Figures 4.29 and 4.31; Gill, 1981). In contrast, the composition of the only lava identified
within the volcaniclastic sequence is much more iron-rich (FeOtotal/MgO=3.2) and plots in the
tholeiitie field of the classification schemes of Kuno (1968), Irvine and Baragar (1971) and
Miyashiro (1974).
The CIPW-normative mineral compositions of representative samples (Table 4.6) indicate

similar quartz, orthoclase and albite abundances to those of the majority of arc-related andesites
(Gill, 1981), whereas the samples contain higher amounts of anorthite, hypersthene, corundum
and lower diopside than do most andesites. The presence of minor corundum in the breccia
samples indicates a slightly peraluminous composition, which may be attributed to the high
abundance of plagioclase (consistent with elevated normative-anorthite with respect to most arc-
related andesites) and possibly due to the presence of secondary, aluminum-rich clay minerals in
the matrix of the breccias.
The trends of major-oxide elements displayed in the Harker diagram plots (Figures 4.31 and
4.32) are consistent with low-K calc -alkaline andesites (Gill, 1981). The volcaniclastic rocks are
characterized by low LILE concentrations (e.g. <1 ppm Cs, <300 ppm Ba, <12 ppm Rb), low
LREE contents (e.g. < 4 ppm La, < 10 ppm Ce) and low HFSE abundances (e.g. < 1.0 wt. %
TiO2, < 50 ppm Zr, < 1 ppm Nb) (Table 4.6 and Figure 4.33). These elemental concentrations
are similar to those of the Batu Hijau district andesite intrusive suite (Section 4.3.4). The low
amounts of Zr, Th and U (<0.5 ppm Th, <0.2 ppm U) are consistent with the absence of zircon
in the volcaniclastic rocks. The K/Rb and Rb/Sr ratios (commonly 83-623 and <0.03,
respectively) are similar to low-K andesitic suites elsewhere (e.g. St. Kitts and New Britain;
Figures 4.36 and 4.37; Gill, 1981).
Where compared to N-MORB, the trace element concentrations display moderately enriched
LILE, slightly depleted HFSE (particularly Zr) and HREE, peaks at Ba, Pb and Sr, and a major
trough at Nb (Figure 4.38; Sun and McDonough, 1989). This is consistent with the data from
other subduction-related low-K igneous suites (Gill, 1981; Wilson, 1989; Tatsumi and Eggins,
1995). The REE are nearly equally enriched with respect to the chondrite norm of Sun and
McDonough (1989), and indicate a nearly flat distribution at ten times the norm (Figure 4.38),
consistent with low-K arc-related igneous suites (Gill, 1981). La/Yb (~2) and Nd/Sm (~3) ratios
are similar to the mantle values of Sun and McDonough (1989).
The radiogenic isotope compositions of the volcaniclastic rocks are similar to those of the
plutonic rocks in the Batu Hijau district and are discussed as a suite in Section 4.8.
4.2.6 Geochronology
The ages of benthonic foraminifera in the Bambu limestone sequence indicate ~20 Ma at the
base to 15 Ma at the top (Adams, 1984; Berggren et al., 1995). Therefore, most of the volcanic
sandstone, which lies stratigraphically beneath this horizon, is older than 20 Ma and the
volcanic lithic breccia, which lies above this interval, is younger than 15 Ma. The lowermost
portion of the volcanic sandstone as exposed in Sumbawa is inferred by Suratno (1994, 1995) to
be Late Oligocene-Early Miocene, on the basis of foraminiferal assemblages within intercalated
limestone and radiometric (K/Ar) ages from similar volcanic -volcaniclastic sequences
elsewhere in the Sunda-Banda arc. However, this maximum age is poorly constrained. Suratno
(1994, 1995) places a Middle Miocene age on the top of the volcaniclastic sequence elsewhere
in Sumbawa, also on the basis of foraminiferal assemblages.
CHAPTER 4 VOLCANO-SEDIMEMTARY AND INTRUSIVE EVOLUTION 83
4.3 Andesite Intrusions
Hypabyssal andesite intrusions comprise about 35% of the surface area of the district (Figure
4.1, Tables 4.1 and 4.3). The most abundant intrusion type consists of hornblende-plagioclase
phyric andesite, which forms most of the western portion of the district and occurs at depth
below Gold Ridge and Batu Hijau (Figure 4.2). Fine-grained phyric andesite to microquartz
diorite forms a smaller exposure in the northeastern part of the area. A third type of andesite
intrusion, which is pyroxene-plagioclase phyric, forms limited outcrop in the northern part of
the area. Dykes of the first two types of andesite intrude rocks of both volcaniclastic units,
implying the andesite intrusions are younger than the volcaniclastic succesion.
4.3.1 Hornblende-Plagioclase Phyric Andesite
The name of this intrusive unit is based upon mineralogy and textures easily identified with a
hand lens in the field. The actual compositions of the amphibole phenocysts include magnesio-
tschermakitic hornblende, tschermakite and magnesio-hastingsite, following the classification of
Leake (1978).
This unit forms most of the western part of the study area. Intrusive contacts with the
volcaniclastic rocks are commonly sharp and steeply dipping (>70o), where exposed. However,
low-angle to moderately dipping intrusive contacts are evident in drill core from the lower parts
of Batu Hijau and Gold Ridge, where the top of the andesite lies within 200 to 400 m of surface
(Gerteisen, 1998; this study). A similar relationship occurs in Sekongkang and Barakebo, where
roof pendants of volcanic lithic breccia, up to 100 m thick, form rafts within the andesite. The
Bambu limestone-sandstone sequence forms an inferred septum surrounded by andesite (Figure
4.2). However, the depth extent of this screen of wall-rock is not known. Dykes of phyric
andesite occur throughout the western, central and southeastern portions of the area. These
dykes trend easterly, northeasterly and northwesterly, and range from 1 to 10 m wide (e.g. Air
Merah and Tongoloka). The hornblende-plagioclase phyric andesite is commonly massive,
although, intrusive contacts display chilled margins and pilotaxitic texture locally.
The andesite unit contains several internal andesite intrusions. These are characterized by
gradational to sharp variations in the abundance, size and shape of phenocrysts, internal screens
of cognate gabbro and andesite xenoliths, and intra-intrusive contacts. The unit is mapped and
described as one major body, but represents a composite of a number of intrusions of similar
composition.
Table 4.3 General characteristics of the intrusions in the Batu Hijau district.
2
Name and Age (Ma) Surface 1 Aerial Texture Grain size3 Geometry Comments
location area (km2 ) percent (mm)
Porphyritic 15>x>6.8 >15 58 phyric, microcrystalline 0.5-2 circular to E-elongate, composite intrusion
andesite groundmass underlies much of area with gabbroic xenoliths
Fine-grained − 3 12 massive, phyric, micro- 0.2-1 E-elongate with E similar composition.

andesite-Katala crystalline groundmass and NE dykes to porphyritic andesite
Sekongkang 5.9 2.5 10 hypidiomorphic 0.5-4 E-elongate pluton tonalite / granodiorite
quartz diorite equigranular to with NE dykes dykes form late in
and tonalite porphyritic intrusive sequence
Santong quartz >5.0 1.5 6 hypidio- to idio-morphic 0.5-2 E-elongate pluton chilled margins,
diorite / diorite equigranular to subporphyritic with NE dykes variable texture & grain size
Porphyritic 5.0-4.7 0.3 1 aplitic groundmass 1-3, E-and NE-elongate Arung Ara tonalite cuts
tonalites- to 8 stocks with dykes quartz diorite; Katala tona-
Katala−Arung Ara lite cut by quartz diorite
Katala- 4.4-3.8 3 12 hypidiomorphic 1-3 E-elongate pluton composite pluton, with local
Batu Hijau equigranular with E and NW dykes variations in grain size
quartz diorite (includes Tongoloka) and mineral constituents
Batu Hijau 3.9 0.3 1 microaplitic 4 0.5-2 NE-elongate stock homogeneous distribution
porphyritic groundmass with NE dykes of phenocrysts relative to
dacite other porphyritic tonalites
Batu Hijau 3.8-3.7 0.1 ~0.5 strongly porphyritic, 1-8 semi-cylindrical complex at least three episodes
tonalite porphyry aplitic groundmass late dykes trend NE- and of intrusion, center of
complex to a lesser extent NW Batu Hijau ore deposit
Porphyritic andesite <3.7? <0.1 -- phyric to phaneritic, 1-4 dykes commonly <10m andesite & dacite dykes
and dacite dykes- microaplitic to E and NE-trending cut diatreme breccia; the
Santong – Batu Hijau aplitic groundmass youngest intrusions in area
Notes: 1 Aerial extent of intrusion; 2 approximate surface area of intrusion expressed as a percentage of total intrusion area; 3 length of plagioclase grains;
4
groundmass grain size is < 0.01 mm. Microcrystalline= < 0.02 mm.
4.3.1.2 Petrography
The strongly-phyric andesite is dark grey, massive, glomeroporphyritic and rarely pilotaxitic
(Table 4.2, Figure 4.9). It consists of very fine- to medium-grained phenocrysts set in an
aphanitic groundmass. The euhedral to subhedral phenocrysts consist commonly of 15 to 35%
normal and oscillatory zoned plagioclase and 3 to 7% pleochroic, medium-to light-brown
amphibole. The phenocryst abundance reaches 50% locally, particularly in Sekongkang
and West Nangka. Local variations in phenocryst size are common, with relatively equant
plagioclase and elongate amphibole crystals ranging up to 10 mm in length. It is not
uncommon for amphibole phenocrysts to be surrounded by a 0.1 to 0.3 mm wide rim of finely
intergrown magnetite and plagioclase (e.g. 98071101). This is characteristic of late-stage
dehydration and oxidation of the magma subsequent to amphibole crystallization (e.g. as
recorded for oxy-hornblende; Wones, 1981).
Ortho- and clino-pyroxene occur as minor phenocryst constituents locally (e.g. <2% of rock).
Accessory magnetite and lesser ilmenite form 3 to 5% of the microphenocrysts in the rock.
Olivine occurs rarely as phenocrysts with calcic plagioclase, ortho- and clino-pyroxene, and
magnetite in a porphyritic gabbro that marks an intra-intrusive contact zone about 500 m east of
the concentrator plant site.
The groundmass contains variable amounts of plagioclase microlaths, amphibole to 0.2 mm,
cryptocrystalline material (e.g. devitrified glass and secondary minerals), magnetite and minor
ilmenite (>7mt:1ilm). The groundmass is holocystalline locally, particularly in western
Sekongkang, portions of Barakebo, and in drill core from Batu Hijau (Gerteisen, 1998) and
Gold Ridge. In these areas, the rock is classified as a micro-gabbro, on the basis of the
abundance of plagioclase that contains >50 mole% anorthite component.
The relative crystallization sequence of phenocryst and groundmass phases is displayed in

Figure 4.20. In general, phenocrysts of magnetite and plagioclase crystallize early, followed by
amphibole (and other mafic silicates, where present) and the continuation of plagioclase
crystallization, prior to groundmass development and solidification. Samples of olivine-
pyroxene gabbro porphyry (e.g. 98100301) show this early crystallization of magnetite most
clearly, where magnetite inclusions occur within olivine and pyroxene. The early development
of magnetite is consistent with a calc -alkaline source magma (Gill, 1981).
The compositions of oscillatory, normal-zoned plagioclase phenocrysts commonly range from

An80 to An45 , core to rim (Figures 4.21 and 4.22). However, in rare samples that contain olivine
and pyroxene (e.g. 98100301), the plagioclase phenocrysts range from An 98 to An80 , core to rim.
In these calcic phenocrysts, rim overgrowths range from An60 to An45 (1-3 mole% orthoclase),
which indicates disequilibrium between the plagioclase phenocryst and the melt late in the
crystallization sequence. In the majority of the phyric andesite samples, the groundmass
plagioclase is commonly An 60 to An45 , similar in composition to the phenocryst rims. The
amphiboles analyzed (N=24) consist of magnesio-hastingsite and tschermakite and show local
increases in iron from core to rim (Figure 4.23). Diopside and enstatite comprise the pyroxene
phenocysts, where present (Figure 4.25). These mafic silicates are Mg-rich (ΣFe/(ΣFe + Mg) =
0.19 to 0.29 for pyroxene and 0.25 to 0.32 for amphibole). The olivine is chrysolite (Fo81-78 ).
The magnetite is Fe-rich and contains <2 mole % ulvospinel component (<0.7 wt. % TiO2,
N=9; Figure 4.26), and the ilmenite contains minor manganese (7 and 13 mole % pyrophanite,
or 3.0 and 6.8 wt. % MnO, N=2).
4.3.2 Fine-grained Phyric Andesite and Micro Quartz Diorite
This unit forms an easterly-elongate 3 km2 intrusion and several northeasterly trending dykes, up
to about 12 m wide, in the northeastern part of the study area (Figure 4.1). Intrusive contacts
with the volcaniclastic rocks are commonly sharp and steeply dipping (>70o ), where exposed.
Narrow northeasterly trending dykes (<2m wide) of fine-grained andesite in East Nangka and
Gold Ridge areas are tentatively ascribed to this intrusive unit. In general, this andesite is very
fine-grained and is distinguished from the phyric andesites by its lack of abundant phenocrysts.
No relative age relationships exist with the hornblende-plagioclase phyric andesite unit to the
west. However, both units show the same relative cross-cutting relationships with respect to
older volcaniclastic and younger plutonic rock types, and are of similar chemical composition
(Section 4.3.4). Some of the larger dykes display chilled margins and poorly developed cooling
joints perpendicular to steeply dipping dyke contacts.
4.3.2.2 Petrography
The poorly-phyric andesite is medium- to dark-grey, massive and glomeroporphyritic. Euhedral

to subhedral phenocrysts commonly consist of about 3 to 10% plagioclase to 1 mm in length
and trace to 5% amphibole to 2 mm (Table 4.1). The plagioclase is oscillatory, normal zoned
with optically determined compositions that range from An 70 to An40 , core to rim. The amphibole
is pleochroic locally, and ranges from medium- to light-brown. Diopsidic clinopyroxene forms
fine-grained phenocrysts locally. Plagioclase microlaths (~100 µm long), cryptocrystalline
material, minor amphibole and local clinopyroxene comprise the groundmass. This groundmass
is holocrystalline locally, consisting predominantly of abundant plagioclase and minor quartz
(i.e. micro-quartz diorite). The rock is highly magnetic and commonly consists of 3 to 7%
magnetite and rare ilmenite, as phenocrysts and groundmass phases.
4.3.3 Pyroxene-Plagioclase Phyric Andesite
The geometry of this andesite intrusion is the least constrained of the three andesitic units
recognized to date. It occurs as outcrop in one steam and the adjacent ridge crests to the north of
Air Merah. The andesite is adjacent to volcanic lithic breccia, but its contact relationships are
not clearly exposed. The limited map distribution of this unit, over more than 200 m of elevation
difference from stream to ridgecrest, and its locally holocrystalline texture are consistent with an
intrusive origin (as opposed to a relatively thin, aphyric lava flow). The chemical composition
of the one andesitic sample analyzed is similar to those of the more basic samples of
hornblende-plagioclase phyric andesite (Section 4.3.4).
4.3.3.2 Petrography
The strongly-phyric andesite is medium to dark grey, massive and glomeroporphyritic. Euhedral
to subhedral phenocrysts commonly consist of about 25-35% plagioclase, 2-3% diopsidic
clinopyroxene and 1-3% olivine (Table 4.1). The olivine is partially to completely replaced by
phyllosilicates (?serpentine and clay). The optically determined compositions of oscillatory,
normal-zoned plagioclase phenocrysts range from An 65 to An35 , core to rim. The groundmass
consists of plagioclase microlaths, clinopyroxene and cryptocrystalline material. It is
holocrystalline locally, consisting predominantly of abundant plagioclase and clinopyroxene
(i.e. micro-gabbro to micro-diorite). The rock contains 2-3% magnetite, as phenocysts and
groundmass phases.
4.3.4 Geochemistry
The andesite intrusions are characterized by chemical compositions that are similar to those of
the andesitic volcaniclastic rocks (refer to Section 4.2.3). The analyses of the least-altered
andesite samples (N=13) indicate major-oxide element concentrations that are consistent with
classification as low-K calc -alkaline basalt to andesite, or the plutonic equivalents of
gabbro/diorite and quartz diorite, respectively (Table 4.6; Figures 4.27 to 4.30). This is
consistent with the early crystallization of magnetite in the hornblende-plagioclase phyric
andesite. The inflection point with respect to the concentration of iron at about 52 wt. % SiO 2 in
the Harker diagram (Figures 4.31 and 4.32) represents one anomalous sample and is not
interpreted to be diagnostic of an iron-enrichment trend (typical of tholeiites), given the textual
evidence of early magnetite crystallization. Where plotted on alkali element and FeOtotal/MgO
versus SiO 2 discrimination diagrams, the andesites display trends similar to those of St. Kitts,
Lesser Antilles and Cape Hoskins, New Britain (Figures 4.27 and 4.29). The andesites are alkali
element deficient when compared to common porphyry copper-related, basic intrusive rocks in
island arc settings elsewhere, using the data reported by Titley and Beane (1981) (Figure 4.27).
However, this may reflect, in part, the inclusion of variably alkali-metasomatized intrusive
rocks in the data of Titley and Beane (1981). On the AFM diagram (Figure 4.28), the andesites
plot adjacent to the region defined by intrusions from the Koloula porphyry system,
Guadalcanal.
The CIPW-normative mineral compositions of hornblende-plagioclase phyric and fine-grained

andesite samples (Table 4.6) indicate similar quartz, albite and diopside abundances to those of
the majority of arc-related andesites, excluding the extreme composition of the micro-gabbro
sample (Gill, 1981). However, the samples contain slightly higher normative anorthite
and hypersthene and significantly lower orthoclase than most andesites. These
relative differences highlight the low-K and and magnesian character of the Batu Hijau district
andesites. The presence of olivine phenocrysts in hypersthene-normative andesite indicates
samples with low FeOtotal/MgO ratios (e.g. Mt Hood, USA and Paricutin, Mexico; Gill, 1981).
The andesites are characterized by low LILE concentrations (e.g. <1.1 ppm Cs, <200 ppm Ba,
<12 ppm Rb), low LREE contents (e.g < 7 ppm La, < 17 ppm Ce) and low HFSE abundances
(e.g. < 1.1 wt. % TiO 2 , < 70 ppm Zr, < 2 ppm Nb) (Table 4.6 and Figure 4.33). These elemental
concentrations are lower than those of the Batu Hijau district plutonic rock suite (Section 4.6.6),
with the exception of TiO 2 , which is relatively high. This difference probably reflects the greater
abundance of ilmenite and titano-magnetite, and the increased concentration of titanium in
amphiboles, in the andesites than in the more acidic plutonic rocks. However, the limited
analysis (N=4) of two phyric andesite samples indicates that the magnetite contain little
titanium. The discrimination of these rock types from those of the Batu Hijau plutonic suite is
also clear in the immobile element ratio plots included in Figures 4.34 and 4.35 (after Mueller
and Groves, 2000). The low amounts of Zr, Th and U (<1.2 ppm Th, <0.3 ppm U) are consistent
with the absence of zircon in the andesites. The K/Rb ratios (commonly 300 to 1200) are higher
than most arc-related andesites, but are similar to the low-K New Britain suite (Figure 4.36;
Gill, 1981). The Rb/Sr ratios (<0.03) are similar to those of low-K suites elsewhere (e.g. St.
Kitts and New Britain; Figure 4.36). The positive correlation of V and Sc to TiO 2 is consistent
with the inclusion of these elements in titano-magnetite and ilmenite (Figure 4.33). The
decrease in the concentrations of TiO 2 , V, Sc and Ni with increasing SiO2 abundance indicates
the preference of these compatible elements for ferro-magnesium minerals, as opposed to the
coexisting melt (Gill, 1981).
Where compared to N-MORB (Sun and McDonough, 1989), the trace element concentrations
for the andesites are similar to those for the volcaniclastic rocks, displaying moderately enriched
LILE, slightly depleted HFSE and HREE, peaks at Ba, Pb and Sr, and a major trough at Nb
(Figure 4.38). The LREE are slightly more enriched than the HREE with respect to the
chondrite norm of Sun and McDonough (1989) (e.g. La/Yb ratios of ~1.5 to 3; Figures 4.39 and
4.40). The Nd/Sm ratio (~3 to 3.5) is similar to the mantle value of Sun and McDonough
(1989). The relatively flat REE patterns of the normalized andesite samples are similar to low-K
calc-alkaline suites in orogenic arcs elsewhere (e.g. Tonga and Mashu, Japan; Gill, 1981).
4.3.5 Geochronology
The andesite intrusions are inferred to be of similar age, as each of the three major rock types
share the same cross-cutting field relationships with respect to the older volcaniclastic rocks and
the younger felsic plutonic rocks. A maximum age of intrusion for the hornblende-plagioclase
phyric andesite in Bambu is provided by the lower age of the limestone in this area, ~15 Ma
(Sections 4.2.2.3 and 4.2.6). A minimum age constraint is provided by a andesitic -dacitic
pyroclastic sequence, which unconformably overlies hornblende-plagioclase phyric andesite in
the Teluk Puna vicinity, to the south of the study area (Figure 1.2 and Section 4.5). The age of
zircons separated from a sample collected at the base of this sequence indicate an age of ~6.8
Ma (Section 4.5.4).
4.4 Hornfelsic Andesitic Rock
In several areas, volcaniclastic rocks and andesite intrusions proximal to the margins of quartz
diorite plutons are unusually tough and display a very fine-grained, granoblastic matrix or
groundmass. These rock types display hornfelsic texture (Compton, 1962), are classified
collectively as hornfels, and are inferred to have developed as a result of thermal-induced
recrystallization (cf. Turner, 1968). Limited zones of hornfels also exist in volcaniclastic rocks
adjacent to contacts of phyric andesite intrusions. However, this occurrence of hornfels is minor.
4.4.1 Field Relationships
Significant localities of hornfelsic andesitic rocks occur in the area. A 1.5 km by 100 to 150 m
septum of fine-grained andesite hornfels lies between quartz diorite and tonalite intrusions at
Katala (Figure 4.1). Drill holes in this area (SKD02 and 03) indicate this septum to be a roof
pendant, less than 50 m thick (Figure 4.2). Both hornblende-plagioclase phyric andesite and
volcanic lithic breccia form hornfels within an ~ 100 m margin to a 500 m by 300 m embayment
within quartz diorite at Sekongkang. Hornfels continues to depths of more than 300 m beneath
surface in drill hole SAD 04. At West Nangka, to the east, phyric andesite hornfels occurs as a
narrow (+10 m) margin to a 75 m wide dyke of quartz diorite.
In the vicinity of Batu Hijau, volcanic sandstone hornfels occurs along a 50 to 75 m wide
margin to quartz diorite in Brang Belu. Previous workers note biotite hornfels in the andesitic
rock in drill core from the western margin of the Batu Hijau deposit (unpublished Newmont
Nusa Tenggara Company reports). However, the geometry and extent of this hornfels unit is
difficult to determine, due to the moderate to intense hydrothermal biotite alteration that affects
the rock.
In general, hydrothermal biotite alteration is distinct from biotite hornfels, as secondary biotite
forms mosaics of very fine- to fine-grained, shred-like biotite in mafic silicate sites, commonly
in the presence of rutile (or leucoxene) and hydrothermal magnetite. In contrast, biotite in
hornfels is typically associated with diopsidic pyroxene, displays a decussate texture and occurs
throughout the rock groundmass.
4.4.2 Petrography
The hornfels groundmass consists of a granoblastic mosaic of very fine-grained plagioclase and
quartz. Very fine-grained, decussate biotite and local pyroxene comprise the contact
metamorphic assemblage (Figure 4.10). The biotite is strongly pleochroic from dark reddish
brown to pale brown. Ortho- and clino-pyroxene accompanies the plagioclase-quartz-biotite
assemblage within hornfels at Sekongang, West Nangka and Katala, but is absent at Air Merah.
The clinopyroxene is weakly pleochroic from light green to colorless and has optical properties
consistent with diopside. This assemblage includes fine-grained, yellowish-brown garnet
(?andradite) within meters of some of the quartz diorite contacts at Sekongkang and West
Nangka. Hornfelsic andesitic rocks contain abundant very fine-grained magnetite (> 5%) and
ilmenite with lamellar intergrowths of hematite.
4.4.3 Mineral Composition
Plagioclase neoblasts are composed of An35 to An32 (andesine) in volcanic lithic breccia in
Sekongkang and volcanic sandstone in Br. Belu, Air Merah (N=4; Figure 4.21). This
plagioclase composition is more sodic than relict plagioclase crystals, which range commonly
from An70 to An40 . The biotite is phlogopitic in composition, with a Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratio of 0.21 to
0.26. The biotite contains moderate titanium (2.7 to 4.6% TiO 2 ) and below stoichiometric
amounts of potassium (7.3 to 10% K2 O). Limited analysis of orthopyroxene in Sekongkang
indicates an enstatitic composition, with a ΣFe/(ΣFe+Mg) ratio of 0.28.
4.5 Teluk Puna Volcaniclastic Sequence
A thick sequence of dacitic to andesitic volcaniclastic breccia and sandstone comprises the
central portion of the Teluk Puna prospect area, southwest of the Tongoloka Valley (Figure 1.2).
Teluk Puna lies outside of the map area indicated in Figure 4.1. However, the volcaniclastic
succession is described briefly here because it provides additional stratigraphic and timing
constraints for the geological history of the Batu Hijau district.
The dacitic to andesitic volcaniclastic sequence forms an easterly trending, gently south dipping
sequence in this area (Figures 1.2 and 5.13). This sequence is resistant to weathering processes
and forms cliffs commonly ranging from 20 to 30 m high. The unit is inferred to lie
unconformably on gently dipping (~15o to 30o ), andesitic volcanic lithic breccia and
hornblende-plagioclase phyric andesite intrusive rock in the northern part of the Teluk Puna
area. This lower contact is not exposed. However, the unconformable relationship is inferred on
the basis of the abrupt change in the composition and style of clastic sequences from lower,
andesitic volcanic lithic breccia to upper, more dacitic volcaniclastic rock, and the absence of
andesite dykes within the overlying dacitic sequence. Structure contours based on the trace of
this lower contact indicate a 16o to 22o dip to the south. This is consistent with bedding
measurements collected internal to the dacitic sequence (e.g. 22o to 24o south). The upper
contact is also marked by an unconformity, with a gently dipping (e.g < 14o south), coastal
epiclastic sequence of volcanic -derived conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone. A steeply
dipping and north-northwesterly trending, porphyritic hornblende tonalite dyke, about 25 m
wide, cuts the dacitic volcanic breccia sequence in the central part of the area (Figure 5.13).
The minimum thickness of the dacitic volcaniclastic sequence is 900 m, assuming a 20o dip to
the south, as the stratigraphic top is not preserved in this area. The projection of the
unconformable base of this sequence above the Batu Hijau district, to the north, would put the
unconformity at a present-day elevation of ~2500 m, or about 2 km above the top of the Batu
Hijjau deposit (Figure 1.2). Hence, the present-day surface of the Batu Hijau district, which
CHAPTER 4 VOLCANO-SEDIMEMTARY AND INTRUSIVE EVOLUTION 91
ranges from 200 to 700 m, would have been at least 3 km below the top of the Teluk Puna
volcaniclastic rock unit when it was deposited (~6.8 Ma, Section 4.5.4).
The Teluk Puna volcaniclastic rock unit is light- to medium-gray and ranges from massive to
moderately sorted. The most common rock type is dacitic to andesitic crystal- and lithic-
volcanic breccia, with subangular to angular lithic clasts up to 6 cm in diameter supported in a
crystal-rich sand matrix. Clast size increases to 10 to 35 cm locally. Significant intervals of
crystal-rich volcanic sandstone form sub-units up to about 100 m thick. Where recorded, 50 to
200 cm bedding within the volcanic breccia sequence is moderately developed and defined by
variations in clast size and abundance.
4.5.2 Petrography
The abundance of clasts within the breccia sequence is variable, commonly ranging from 5 to
20%. The subangular clasts are generally monomictic and consist of quartz-hornblende-
plagioclase phyric dacite (Figure 4.11). The phenocryst assemblage of the clasts consists of
about 10-15% plagioclasese, 0.5 to 2 mm, 3-5% amphibole, up to 2 mm, 1-2% resorbed quartz
eyes, up to 1 mm, 2-3% martite, <0.4 mm in diameter, and minor ?ilmenite. The martite
indicates the nearly complete replacement (>90%) of magnetite cores by hematite. Lamellae of
hematite within magnetite indicate that this process took place under oxidizing, subsolidus
conditions. The plagioclase is normally zoned. However, optical determinations of composition
are unreliable, as polysynthetic twins are obscured by calcite and albite alteration. The
amphibole is weakly pleochroic from pale green-brown to pale green. The groundmass to the
dacite clasts consists of plagioclase microlaths, iron-oxides and cryptocrystalline material.
The breccia matrix is compositionally similar to the phyric clasts. This matrix contains about
15-40% euhedral and broken, angular crystals, 0.2 to 2 mm, supported in a groundmass of
plagioclase microlaths, 0.02 to 0.05 mm in length, and microcrystalline material (<0.02 mm).
The crystals consist predominantly of plagioclase, with lesser amounts of amphibole (2-5%),
resorbed quartz (2-3%), martite (2-3%) and minor ?ilmenite. Common axiolitic devitrification
of the groundmass adjacent to the crystals is marked by radiating greenish-brown ?smectitic
clay. The plagioclase crystals are variably replaced by secondary calcite and ?albite.
4.5.3 Depositional Setting
The volcaniclastic sequence was probably deposited in a subaerial, oxidized setting. The
abundant martite in the phyric clasts and matrix to the volcanic breccia and sandstone units is
consistent with oxidation of the unit during, or shortly after, deposition. Such oxidation is more
likely to have occurred in a subaerial, rather than subaqueous environment. Evidence of a
submarine or fluviatile depositional setting, such as rounded and well-sorted clasts, marine
fossils, fluid-escape structures and thinly bedded fine-grained clastic rocks, are distinctly absent.
In these respects and in its relatively quartz crystal-rich component, the Teluk Puna
volcaniclastic sequence is different from the andesitic volcaniclastic successsion to the north.
The Teluk Puna volcaniclastic sequence could represent the deposits of subaerial pyroclastic
flows or debris flows (e.g. lahars). Both depositional mechanisms favor thick, massive to
bedded, matrix-supported fragmental deposits. The axiolitic devitrification of portions of
breccia matrix and the oxidation of magnetite (martitization) may have occurred as a result of
the vapor phase alteration that commonly characterizes primary pyroclastic debris flows
(McPhie et al., 1993). However, other evidence of primary pyroclastic origin has yet to be
documented (e.g. thermal welding, glass shards, pumice and gas segregation pipes). This may,
in part, reflect the relative lack of study in this region, as compared to the map area to the north.
4.5.4 Geochemistry
The one sample of volcanic breccia analyzed is moderately altered to calcite and secondary
albite and returns more than 7% LOI on chemical analysis. Therefore, the results of this one
analysis may not be representative of the volcaniclastic sequence. However, it is useful to
compare the chemical composition of this sample to the andesitic volcaniclastic succession to
the north, particularly in terms of immobile elements, which are less affected by secondary
alteration.
The Teluk Puna volcanic lithic breccia contains more SiO 2 and Na2 O than the andesitic
volcaniclastic rocks, when normalized to an anhydrous major-oxide elemental assemblage (cf.
Tables 4.6 and 4.8). It also contains lower concentrations of TiO 2 , Fe2 O3 , MgO and CaO than do
analyses of the andesitic sequence. The CIPW norm reflects these relative differences in the
abundance of major-oxide elements. The Teluk Puna sample is characterized by a higher
albite/anorthite ratio and a lower normative color index than the samples of the andesitic
volcaniclastic sequence. The composition of the Teluk Puna volcanic lithic breccia is consistent
with a low-K calc -alkaline affinity, and, in this aspect, is similar to the andesitic volcaniclastic
rocks.
The volcanic breccia sample contains similar LILE concentrations, higher LREE contents (e.g.
8.3 ppm La) and higher HFSE abundances (with the exception of TiO 2 ), where compared to the
andesitic volcaniclastic rocks (Tables 4.6 and 4.8; Figures 4.34 and 4.35). The higher amounts
of Zr, Th and U in the Teluk Puna sample are consistent with the relative abundance of zircon.
The LREE/HREE ratio of the sample is relatively high (e.g. La/Yb ratio of 3.6) and the Nd/Sm
ratio (4.2) is also higher than in samples of the andesitic volcaniclastic sequence (Figure 4.40).
4.5.5 Geochronology
The Teluk Puna volcaniclastic unit is inferred to unconformably overly phyric andesite and
volcanic lithic breccia. If this relationship is correct, then the unit must be younger than 15 Ma.
The Teluk Puna sequence is, in turn, overlain by an epiclastic sequence inferred by Suratno
(1994 and 1995) to be Plio-Pleistocene. Given these constraints, the age of the volcaniclastic
succession is bracketed to lie between 15 Ma and about 2 to 5 Ma.
U-Pb SHRIMP dating was conducted for zircons separated from both the phyric dacite clasts
and matrix to a volcanic breccia unit located about 250 m above the stratigraphic base of the
sequence (sample 98112302). The zircons are prismatic, elongate (aspect ratio ~3:1), and
typically 50 to 100 µm long by 15 to 40 µm wide. The weighted mean age of seven analyses is
6.84 + 0.16 Ma (2σ; Table 4.10 and Figure 4.41), which supports the age inference from field
relations.
4.6 Plutonic Rocks
Equigranular to porphyritic, intermediate to felsic phaneritic intrusions comprise about 15% of

the surface area in the Batu Hijau district (Figure 4.1; Table 4.3). Eguigranular hornblende
quartz diorite accounts for more than 90% of the phaneritic intrusions in the study area.
Differences in texture, mineral assemblage and U-Pb SHRIMP zircon ages indicate at least three
phases of equigranular quartz diorite intrusion. Equigranular granodiorite and tonalite occur as
late-stage dykes along the margins of quartz diorite plutons at Sekongkang and Katala.
Porphyritic plutons, stocks and dykes are volumetrically small and account for less than 10% of
the phaneritic intrusions in the district (Figures 4.1 and 4.2; Table 4.3). At least six phases of
porphyritic intrusion are indicated, including the three main phases of tonalite porphyry that
comprise the Batu Hijau deposit.
4.6.1 Equigranular Hornblende Quartz Diorite
Equigranular and lesser subporphyritic, quartz dioritic intrusions crop out over an easterly-
elongate belt that extends over 12 km through the central portion of the area. The north-south
width of individual plutons ranges from about 100 m in eastern Katala to more than 2 km in
Sekongkang. Three major sub-units are differentiated on the basis of texture, mineral
assemblage, cross-cutting field relationships with porphyritic intrusions and U-Pb SHRIMP
zircon ages. These are designated: QD1- equigranular and subporphyritic quartz diorite and
tonalite at Sekongklang, QD2- equigranular and subporphyritic quartz diorite to diorite in
Santong, and QD3- equigranular quartz diorite at Katala, Batu Hijau and Air Merah (Figures 4.1
and 4.2; Tables 4.3 and 4.4). The equigranular quartz diorite stocks and dykes that occur in the
Tongoloka region have similar mineral assemblages and textures to QD3. However, the ages of
the Tongoloka intrusions are not well constrained, and hence their correlation to the quartz
diorites to the north is not certain. All equigranular to subporphyritic quartz dioritic bodies are
termed “equigranular” to clearly differentiate this type of intrusion from the truly porphyritic
intrusions that occur in the study area.
Equigranular quartz dioritic plutons, stocks and dykes intrude andesitic volcaniclastic rocks and
andesite intrusions throughout the study area. The QD2 and QD3 quartz dioritic intrusions are
east-northeast- and east-elongate, respectively. The QD1 body is more circular by comparison.
The Batu Hijau deposit is localized along the western margin of a major northerly-directed
deflection in the overall trend of the QD3 quartz diorite. Cross-cutting intrusive field
relationships and absolute age constraints indicate QD3 to be a composite pluton of at least two
intrusions, the younger of which occurs in the Batu Hijau area (refer to Sections 4.6.4.1 and
4.6.7 for additional data). Intrusive contacts dip steeply, commonly more than 70o . Intrusive
margins are locally characterized by a reduction in constituent mineral grain size and aplitic
textures (e.g. micro-quartz diorite from the southwestern margin of QD2, Bambu-Santong area).
Quartz diorite dykes, several meters to 75 m wide, are oriented subparallel to the margins of
proximal equigranular plutons. Common dyke strike-directions are easterly in proximity to QD1
and QD3 in the central portion of the district, northeasterly in the vicinity of QD2, and
northwesterly in the Air Merah, Batu Hijau and Tongoloka regions.
4.6.1.2 Petrography
The following description is a broad summary of the quartz diorites described in Table 4.4. In
general, the intrusions are light grey, fine- to medium-grained and hypidiomorphic equigranular
to subporphyritic (Figure 4.12). Plagioclase, quartz and 5 to 15% pleochroic, brownish-green to
light-green amphibole comprise the majority of the mineral assemblage. Plagioclase is normal
and oscillatory zoned from labradorite cores to andesine rims. Rare oligoclase overgrowths
occur on the rims to more calcic plagioclase crystals. This indicates local disequilibrium
between early-formed crystals and melt late in the crystallization sequence.
Very fine- to medium-grained biotite (<5%) and pyroxene (up to 7%) form additional phases in
parts of Katala and Sekongkang, but are not recorded elswhere in the study area. The biotite is
moderately pleochroic from dark- to light-brown. Hornblende is locally absent from mafic
mineral assemblages that consist of biotite and pyroxene. Where all three mafic minerals are
present, late magmatic biotite and hornblende form rims to early oikocrysts of ortho- and clino-
pyroxene, which enclose plagioclase and quartz (e.g. Katala). There is textural evidence for both
the crystallization of hornblende after biotite and the crystallization of biotite after hornblende,
although the former relationship is more common. In assemblages that lack hornblende, biotite
rims and post-dates pyroxene (e.g. Tatuk, Sekongkang). The inferred crystallization sequence
for quartz diorites QD1 and QD3 is indicated in Figure 4.20.
Granular quartz and plagioclase grains (0.1 to 0.5mm) form the interstices to larger framework
crystals within the quartz diorites and comprise from <5 to 15% of the equigranular varieties,
and as much as 40% of the subporphyritic types. At Katala and Sekongkang, interstitial
potassium-feldspar (?microcline) comprises as much as 5% of the mineral assemblage. There is
no potassium-feldspar in the quartz diorite in the Santong area.
Table 4.4 Description of predominantly equigranular plutonic rocks in the Batu Hijau district.
Rock Type General Texture Phenocrysts or Groundmass or Plagioclase Accessory Minerals Magnetic Field Relationships and
(Map ID) Crystals Interstitial Phases Composition Susceptibility Distribution
Hornblende ------ ------ ------- ------- ------- ------ plutons and dykes
quartz diorite throughout district
Sekongkang hypidiomorphic 50-75% plg, 0.5-3mm; interstitial qz- An 60 to 30 2-4% mt and ilm 2500-5500 intrudes andesite and
(QD1) equigranular and 5-15% qz to 1mm; plg+ksp, 0.1-0.5mm, core to rim, (~1-3mt:1ilm), 0.4- x 10-5 SI volcanic lithic breccia;
subporphyritic 5-15% hbl, 1-2mm; comprise up to 40% local An 20 0.8mm; ilm/hm in bi- grades into porphyritic &
local opx & cpx ( up of rock locally rim o/g pyx bearing phases tonalitic phases locally
to 5-7%) and bi (<3%)
Santong hypidio- and idio- 60-90% plg, 0.2-2mm; interstitial plg+qz, An 80 to 40 2-3% ilm and 500-5500 intrudes andesite and
(QD2) morphic equi- 0-10% qz , <0.5mm; 0.1-0.2mm, consti- core to rim subordinate mt, 0.2- x 10-5 SI volcaniclastic rock units;
granular to sub- 7-10% hbl, 1-3mm tutes <5% of rock 0.6mm includes micro-quartz
porphyritic commonly, up to diorite & diorite locally
Katala-Batu 70-85% plg, 1-3mm; 40% of rock locally An 70 to 30 2-3% mt and ilm
Hijau (QD3) hypidiomorphic 5-15% qz to 1mm; interstitial qz- core to rim (mt>ilm), 0.4- 2500-5000 intrudes andesite and
equigranular 5-15% hbl, 1-3mm; plg+ksp, 0.1-0.5mm, 0.8mm; ilm/hm in bi- x 10-5 SI volcaniclastic rock units;
local opx, cpx and bi comprise up to 15% pyx bearing phases composite pluton that
of rock locally intrudes po tonalite in
(titanite after ilm, Katala and po dacite in
apatite in all QD) Batu Hijau
Granodiorite hypidiomorphic 35-50% plg, 1-2mm; interstitial ksp-qz, An 40 to 30 <1% ilm and tr. mt; <500 x 10-5 SI late dykes in Katala;
equigranular 35-50% qz to 1mm; 0.1-0.5mm, comprise core to rim rare apatite marginal to equigranular
7-10% ksp to 1mm; less than 10% of rock hbl quartz diorite (QD3)
3-7% hbl/bi to 1mm
Tonalite to hypidiomorphic 15-50% plg , 1-4mm; interstitial qz-plg, & An 55 to 25 1-3% pyrite (after <100 x 10-5 SI late dykes in Sekongkang;
Granodiorite equigranular to 20-40% qz to 1mm, lesser ksp, 0.05- core to rim ilm or magnetite?) ; forms intrusive breccia
porphyritic; graphic local qz eyes to 5mm; 0.4mm , comprise tourmaline in cavities with clasts of QD1 and
qz-plg intergrowth 3-5% bi to 1mm 10-40% of rock rare apatite andesite
Notes: 1) bi-pyx+hb-bearing equigranular quartz diorite in Katala and Sekongkang associated with adjacent bi-pyx hornfelsic andesite and volcaniclastic rocks.
2) Abbreviations: An- anorthite component determined by optical and microprobe analyses, ap- apatite, bi- biotite, cpx- diopside, hbl- amphibole, ilm- ilmenite, ilm/hm- lamellar
hematite in ilmenite, mt - magnetite, o/g- overgrowth, opx- enstatite, plg- plagioclase, po- porphyritic, pyx- pyroxene, qz- quartz, tt- titanite. Mineral abundance estimates are
approximate.
Accessory minerals include very fine- to fine-grained magnetite, ilmenite and minor apatite.
Each of these phases form inclusions within framework silicate crystals, which suggests a
relatively early crystallization history (Figure 4.20). The local rims of magnetite around ilmenite
are consistent with continued magnetite crystallization subsequent to that of ilmenite. Fine
aggregates and lamellar blebs of titanite commonly replace ilmenite along cleavage planes.
Lamellar intergrowths of hematite, ~3 to 5 µm wide, occur within the ilmenite grains in biotite-
pyroxene+amphibole-bearing quartz diorite at Sekongkang and Katala. The hematite and
titantite hosted in ilmenite are inferred to be subsolidus in origin. Although zircon was not
recorded in thin section, its existence is indicated by the elongate zircon crystals, typically 70 to
200 µm long and 15 to 40 µm wide (aspect ratios >5:1), which were separated for U-Pb
SHRIMP dating.
The ΣFe/(ΣFe+Mg) versus AlIV plot (Figure 4.23) indicates that the Batu Hijau district
amphiboles, excluding actinolite, are more restricted in AlIV contents than the amphiboles in
mineralized porphyry intrusions in the highlands of Papua New Guinea (Freida and Yuat South;
Mason, 1978) and in Finnmarka granodiorite (P-3; Czamanske and Wones, 1973). However, the
limited range of amphibole AlIV concentrations of the unmineralized Karawari tonalite in Papua
New Guinea (Mason, 1978) is similar to ranges of amphibole compositions in samples from the
Batu Hijau district equigranular quartz diorites, which also lack abundant copper minerals
external to the Batu Hijau deposit. The ΣFe/(ΣFe+Mg) ratios (0.21 to 0.33) are similar between
the Batu Hijau and New Guinea amphibole populations and a positive correlation exists
between ΣFe/(ΣFe+Mg) and AlIV. This degree of correlation is greater for mineralized intrusions
(e.g. about 0.95 for PNG examples; Mason, 1978) than for unmineralized intrusions (e.g. 0.42 to
0.82 for Batu Hijau populations, excluding actinolite; and 0.76 for Finnmarka; Czamanske and
Wones, 1973).
The pyroxenes in the two samples analyzed consist of diopside and enstatite (Figure 4.25). Both
pyroxenes are Mg-rich, with similar ΣFe/(ΣFe+Mg) ratios to the amphiboles in the same
samples. Analyses of magmatic biotite in equigranular quartz diorite from Katala (sample
97101030) indicate a phlogopitic composition (Fe/(Fe+Mg) = 0.22 to 0.27, Figure
4.24). These biotites contain substantially higher AlVI than magmatic biotites from
porphyry-related plutons in Papua New Guinea (Mason, 1978), Guadalcanal (Chivas, 1982) and
Bingham Canyon (Hendry et al., 1985). The magnetite contains 0.2 to 5.8% TiO 2 (1-17 mole%
ulvospinel, N=14 from 5 samples), with the exception of one Ti-rich analysis (13.8% TiO 2 ) and
two Ti-poor analyses (<0.2% TiO 2 ; Figure 4.26). The ilmenite contains significant manganese
(12 to 46 mole% pyrophanite, or 8.7 to 22 wt. % MnO, N=4 in 2 samples).
The compositions of the plagioclase crystals in the equigranular quartz diorite intrusions range
from An80 to An30 , core to rim (Figure 4.21 and 4.22). Where sodic plagioclase rims mantle
more calcic plagioclase crystals, the composition of the overgrowths ranges from about An20 to
An10 . The amphiboles consist predominantly of magnesio-hornblende and lesser actinolitic
hornblende, and do not display consistent zoning from core to rim (Figure 4.23).
However, alkali and magnesium contents are locally enriched in the amphibole rims of quartz
diorite at Air Merah (sample 97091010). Euhedral magnesio-actinolite crystals, 1 to 3 mm long,
occur locally (e.g. Santong Valley sample 98062708) and are inferred to indicate subsolidus
reequilibration of amphibole. The results of amphibole -plagioclase thermobarometry (Section
4.6.8) further support the interpretation of varying degrees of subsolidus amphibole
reequilibration in most of the equigranular quartz diorite samples analyzed.
4.6.2 Granodiorite and Tonalite Dykes Associated with Hornblende Quartz Diorite
Predominantly equigranular, steeply dipping (>70o ) granodiorite to tonalite dykes form late-
stage intrusions adjacent to quartz diorite plutons at Katala and Sekongkang (Figures 4.1 and
4.2). At Katala, pinkish grey granodiorite dykes, 1 to 8 m wide, occur along the southern margin
of an equigranular quartz diorite intrusion (QD3). The dykes trend easterly and intrude fine-
grained andesite hornfels. Fine-grained granodioritic to granitic veins, less than 5 cm wide,
intrude equigranular quartz diorite in the general vicinity. At Sekongkang, equigranular and
subporphyritic, light grey tonalite and granodiorite dykes, 2 to 3 m wide, intrude phyric andesite
and subporphyritic quartz diorite (QD1). The common strike-direction is northeasterly. These
dykes are locally hydrothermally altered to sericitic assemblages with primary mineralogy and
textures completely obscured.
Layers of prismatic and granular quartz form crenulate bands, 5 to 20 mm wide, within aplitic
portions of the margins of equigranular tonalite and granodiorite dykes at Sekongkang locally
(e.g. SAD04 143.3m, Figure 4.13 D). The constituent quartz crystals are oriented approximately
perpendicular to the quartz bands. The contacts between the quartz bands and the groundmass
are sharp, irregular and convolute, consistent with a quasi-plastic mode of quartz emplacement.
The aplitic groundmass is composed of plagioclase, quartz, minor biotite+potassium-feldspar,
and 5 to 7% cubic pyrite, as clusters. No pyrite occurs in the quartz bands.
The textural and wall-rock contact relationships of the quartz bands are similar to those
described as comb quartz layers by Kirkham and Sinclair (1988), and as ribbon rock, crenulate
quartz layers, brain rock, ptygmatically folded quartz veins and quartz rinds by other workers in
North American porphyry copper and molybdenum systems (Nielsen, 1968; Ware, 1971; White
et al., 1981; Carten et al., 1988). Comb quartz layers typically form in the apical portions of
mineralized felsic intrusions and along intrusive margins in a physical and chemical setting
similar to pegmatite-aplite bodies. The quartz layers and aplitic wall-rock crystallize rapidly
from an aqueous fluid, which formed late in crystallization of the intrusion as a product of
resurgent or secondary boiling, due to the vapor saturation of the magma (Kirkham and Sinclair,
1988; Lowenstern and Sinclair, 1996). The significance of this inferred vapor saturation event
during the emplacement of late-stage tonalite and granodiorite dykes at Sekongkang is further
discussed in Section 4.10.2.
4.6.2.2 Petrography
The hypidiomorphic equigranular fine- to medium-grained granodiorite dykes at Katala contain

approximately equal amounts of andesine (An40 to An30 ) and quartz, 10 to 15% microcline and
about 5% biotite and amphibole. A very fine-grained groundmass of potassium-feldspar+quartz
comprises about 5% of the rock (Table 4.4). Accessory minerals include minor ilmenite (< 1%),
trace magnetite and apatite.
The least-altered of the late-stage dykes at Sekongkang consists of fine- to medium-grained

hypidiomorphic equigranular biotite granodiorite. This dyke contains andesine, quartz and 3-
10% pleochroic dark- to light-brown biotite and interstitial quartz, oligoclase and potassium-
feldspar (Figure 4.13). The graphic intergrowth of skeletal quartz within plagioclase occurs
locally (Figure 4.13 C). This disequilibrium growth texture further supports the interpretation of
rapid crystallization in the ascending melt due to vapor saturation (Fenn, 1986; Candela, 1989;
Lowenstern and Sinclair, 1996). Granular mosaic grains of very fine-grained quartz, plagioclase
and minor potassium-feldspar comprise the groundmass in these dykes. In the subporphyritic
tonalite dykes in the area, phenocrysts consist of plagioclase, biotite and 2 to 5% resorbed
quartz eyes to 5 mm. The resorbed quartz phenocrysts indicate disequilibrium between the
phenocrysts and the melt. This is commonly attributed to a rapid decrease in lithostatic pressure
(i.e. depth) and undercooling of the ascending magma during crystallization (Candela, 1989).
The general crystallization sequence of minerals in the granodiorite dykes is early plagioclase,
followed by ?amphibole and biotite, and the late-stage development of interstitial quartz and
potassium-feldspar (Figure 4.20). Accessory minerals in the granodiorite dykes include pyrite,
enclosed within fine-grained biotite, ilmenite, apatite and minor tourmaline as radiating crystals
within local cavities. The pyrite is inferred to be a subsolidus replacement of ilmenite or
magnetite. Elongate and prismatic zircon crystals, typically 100 to 150 µm long and 15 to 30
µm wide (aspect ratios > 5:1), were separated from granodiorite dyke samples from both Katala
and Sekongkang. The morphologies of these zircons are similar to those collected from
equigranular hornblende-biotite quartz diorite (e.g. sample 97101030, Katala).
The following mineral compositions refer to analyses performed on one sample of an

equigranular granodiorite dyke collected from Sekongkang (sample 97091713A). The
plagioclase crystals in the range from An55 to An25 , core to rim (Figure 4.21 and 4.22). Local
sodic plagioclase overgowths to the rims of more calcic plagioclase crystals indicate an
oligoclase composition (~An15 ). The biotite is phlogopitic (Fe/(Fe+Mg)= 0.20 to 0.26, Figure
4.24) and similar in composition to biotite from equigranular quartz diorite. The biotites contain
moderate concentrations of AlVI (0.29 to 0.43 pfu) and titanium (0.30 to 0.58 pfu). These
concentrations are also similar to those of biotites in equigranular quartz diorite, but plot outside
the fields of magmatic biotite from porphyry-related intrusions elsewhere in the world.
4.6.3 Porphyritic Hornblende Tonalite
Porphyritic hornblende tonalite forms elongate stocks at Arung Ara and Katala, and planar
dykes in the eastern portion of the study area (Figures 4.1 and 4.2). The stocks are situated along
the margins of equigranular quartz diorite plutons. Cross-cutting relationships in drill core
indicate: 1) the emplacement of equigranular quartz diorite QD2 prior to the intrusion of
porphyritic tonalite at Arung Ara and 2) the emplacement of the equigranular quartz diorite
QD3 after the intrusion of the porphyritic tonalite at Katala. Hence, the intrusion of QD1 and
QD3 are separated in time by the emplacement of the porphyritic tonalites (Table 4.3). This
interpretation is supported by U-Pb SHRIMP zircon age date results, which are discussed in
Section 4.6.7.
The stocks range from about 700 m (NE-SW) by 300 m (NW-SE) at Arung Ara to about 1.2 km
(E-W) by 300 m (N-S) at Katala. Steeply dipping planar dykes, 2 to 20 m wide, occur peripheral
to these stocks. The strike-directions of these dykes indicate a similar spatial pattern to
equigranular quartz diorite dykes in the area. Easterly- to northeasterly-strike-directions are
common for porphyritic tonalite dykes located in the easterly elongate intrusive belt, whereas,
northwesterly strike-directions characterize dykes in the vicinity of Batu Hijau (Figure 4.1).
4.6.3.2 Petrography
Hornblende tonalite is light- to medium-grey, massive and strongly porphyritic (Figure 4.14).
Phenocrysts of fine- to medium-grained plagioclase, hornblende and minor resorbed quartz eyes
comprise about 20 to 40% of the rock (Table 4.4). Amphibole crystals, 1 to 5 mm in length,
comprise 3 to 7% of the rock commonly, but may range up to 10 mm in length and account for
12 to 15% of the tonalite in portions of the Arung Ara stock. Plagioclase commonly indicates
normal and oscillatory zoning from labradorite cores to andesine rims. However, reversely
zoned crystals comprise about 10% of the plagioclase phenocrysts in some of the least-altered
tonalite samples from Katala (e.g. sample 97101143). Fine-grained biotite and relicts of enstatic
orthopyroxene comprise minor phenocryst constituents at Arung Ara. The inferred
crystallization sequence is early plagioclase, followed by amphibole and locally biotite, and late
quartz phenocrysts, prior to the development of the aplitic groundmass (Figure 4.20). The
groundmass of tonalites at Arung Ara and Katala consists of a mosaic of very fine-grained
plagioclase and quartz, and locally includes potassium-feldspar, biotite and rare amphibole.
Fine-grained magnetite, ilmenite and minor apatite comprise the accessory minerals. The ratio
of magnetite to ilmenite exceeds 4:1, with textural evidence supporting the crystallization of
magnetite during and after that of ilmenite. Blebs and aggregates of subsolidus titanite form
poorly defined bands in ilmenite parallel to the length of the host grains. The separated zircons
are distinct from zircons in the equigranular intrusions. The zircons in the porphyritic tonalite
samples (e.g. SRD02 305m and 97101143) are stubby and prismatic, typically 90 to 200 µm
long and 40 to 100 µm wide (aspect ratios of ~2:1).
Table 4.5 Description of porphyritic plutonic rock types in the Batu Hijau district.
Rock Type General Phenocrysts Groundmass Plagioclase Accessory Minerals Magnetic Field Relationships and
Texture Composition Susceptibility Distribution
Porphyritic strongly 15-30% plg, 1-3mm, up allotriomorphic- An 70 to 35 2-4% mt and ilm, 2000-5000 small plutons and dykes at
hornblende porphyritic; to 8mm; granular plg-qz, core to rim, 0.4-1mm, mt:ilm x 10-5 SI Katala and Arung Ara; po
tonalite aplitic 3-7% hbl, 1-5mm; 0.05-0.2mm ; reversely ratio >4:1; tonalite intrudes QD2 at
groundmass tr.-2% resorbed qz eyes to locally includes ksp zoned at ilm altered to titanite; Arung Ara and is intruded
2mm; (2-3%), bi (2-3%) Katala minor apatite by QD3 at Katala
local bi (1-2%) to 1mm; and rare hbl
minor relict opx, <2mm;
(hbl ranges up to 12% at
Arung Ara);
Phenos=20-40% of rock
Porphyritic porphyritic, but 10-30% plg, 0.5-3mm, allotriomorphic- An 50 to 30 2-3% mt as phenos, 1500-3000 lone stock and NE dykes at
dacite to a lesser 1mm most common; granular plg-qz, core to rim 0.2-1mm, and in x 10-5 SI Batu Hijau, where it
extent than 3-10% hbl, 1-2mm; <0.01mm groundmass, intrudes andesite and
other 1-5% bipyramidal qz <0.05mm ; mt alter. volcaniclastic rocks and is
porphyritic eyes to 1.5mm; trace bi; to hm & titanite; intruded by QD3 and
intrusions Phenos=15-40% of rock minor apatite tonalite porphyries
Tonalite strongly 25-45% plg, 1-8mm; allotriomorphic- An 50 to 35, 1-2% mt octahedra to 2000-3000 stocks and NE-trending
porphyry porphyritic, <1-7% hbl, 2-8mm; granular plg-qz, core to rim; 2mm; rare ilm; x 10-5 SI dykes in Batu Hijau; more
complex aplitic tr.-7% resorbed qz eyes to 0.05-0.3mm; An 20 rim mt in groundmass, than three phases;
groundmass 10mm; minor cpx; minor bi within o/g in Young 0.05-0.2mm; apatite; description biased towards
1-2% bi books to 4mm; groundmass of Tonalite titanite rims to mt least-altered Young
Phenos=35-60% of rock Young Tonalite Tonalite
Porphyritic Porphyritic, 10-30% plg, 0.5-4mm; plg microlaths, 0.02- An 70 to 40 3-5% mt and ilm as 3000-5000 narrow dykes (2-50m),
andesite aplitic to micro- 5-15% hbl, 0.5-4mm; 0.2mm, and 3-10% core to rim phenos, 0.2-0.5mm x 10-5 SI commonly 10-15m at
crystalline local cpx, <3% and allotriomorphic qz, (>3mt:1ilm); mt in Santong, Batu Hijau and
groundmass <1.5mm ; local qz eyes to <0.3mm; minor hbl, groundmass; apatite; Katala; includes dacite and
3mm; 0.05-0.2mm, & 0- local titanite-?hm alt. quartz diorite phases
Phenos=15-30% of rock 3% interstitial ?ksp of ilm
Mineral abbreviations: An- anorthite component, bi- biotite, cpx- diopside, hbl- amphibole, ilm- ilmenite, ilm/hm- lamellar hematite in ilmenite, ksp- K-feldspar, mt - magnetite,
o/g-overgrowth, opx- enstatite, plg- plagioclase, pyx- pyroxene, qz- quartz. Microcrystalline= <0.02 mm; cryptocrystalline= <0.005 mm. Other abbreviations given in Table 4.4.
The stated mineral abundances represent visual estimates and are approximate.
The compositions of the plagioclase crystals in the porphyritic tonalite samples from Arung Ara
and Katala (e.g. SRD02 305m and 97101143) range from An70 to An35 , core to rim (Figure 4.21
and 4.22). Where sodic plagioclase rims mantle more calcic plagioclase crystals, the
composition of the overgrowths range from about An25 to An20 . The amphiboles consist
exclusively of magnesio-hornblende, and generally do not indicate consistent compositional
zoning from core to rim (Figure 4.23). These amphiboles contain more aluminum than
amphiboles in the equigranular intrusions. There is a moderate positive correlation of
ΣFe/(ΣFe+Mg) to AlIV (r=0.61 for 34 amphiboles from 3 samples). The distribution of
compositions in Figure 4.23 coincides with the more aluminous amphiboles from mineralized
quartz diorite porphyry at Freida, Papua New Guinea (DRM080; Mason, 1978). However, the
porphyritic tonalite amphiboles lack the actinolitic rims that characterize the amphiboles in the
mineralized New Guinea plutons.
Electron microprobe analyses of the minor biotite, enstatitic orthopyroxene and ilmenite in the
porphyritic tonalites were not undertaken. The magnetite is relatively pure and contains <0.5%
TiO2 (<1 mole % ulvospinel, N=7 from 2 samples, Figure 4.26). These magnetites are titanium-
poor with respect to those analyzed from the equigranular quartz diorite samples.
4.6.4 Batu Hijau Porphyritic Dacite and Tonalite Porphyry Complex
The Batu Hijau deposit contains several phases of porphyritic felsic stocks and dykes (Figures
4.1 and 4.2; Clode et al., 1999). The oldest of these intrusions is a pre-mineral porphyritic
dacite to tonalite with an extremely fine-grained holocrystalline groundmass. To avoid
confusion with the tonalite porphyry complex that forms the core of the deposit, and porphyritic
tonalites elsewhere in the study area, this intrusion is referred to as porphyritic dacite in the
text. This same unit is classified as porphyritic quartz diorite by Clode et al. (1999) and dacite
porphyry by Mitchell et al. (1998).
The early-, syn- and late-mineral tonalite porphyry stocks and dykes that comprise the core of
the deposit are termed the Old Tonalite, Intermediate Tonalite and Young Tonalite, respectively
by Mitchell et al. (1998), Proffett (1998) and Clode et al. (1999). This nomenclature is adopted
in the present study and portions of the following descriptions are based, in part, on the findings
of these previous workers. Mitchell et al. (1998) document a fourth tonalite intrusion (Tonalite
Porphyry) in the eastern part of the deposit. However, the extent and geometry of this tonalite
porphyry intrusion are not constrained, as its presence has been documented on only one cross-
section (9009080 mN; Figure 4.2) to date.
Porphyritic dacite
The porphyritic dacite forms a northeasterly-elongate 1.0 km by 500 m stock and dykes to
several meters wide in the eastern portion of the Batu Hijau deposit. The stock extends more
than 800 m beneath surface as indicated by diamond drilling. The intrusive contacts with
adjacent volcaniclastic rocks and phyric andesite are subvertical. Equigranular to
subporphyritic quartz diorite, part of the QD3 composite pluton, intrudes the porphyritic dacite
and contains fragments of this rock type within matrix-supported intrusion breccias (Mitchell et
al., 1998). All of the tonalite porphyries at Batu Hijau display contact age-relationships that
indicate their intrusion subsequent to the emplacement of the porphyritic dacite (Mitchell et al.,
1998; Clode et al., 1999). Hence, the porphyritic dacite is the oldest felsic intrusion recognized
in the Batu Hijau deposit to date.
Tonalite porphyry intrusions
The Old, Intermediate and Young Tonalites were emplaced adjacent to the contact between
equigranular quartz diorite and older andesitic rocks. The tonalite porphyry intrusions form a
steeply dipping cluster of upward-tapering, pseudo-conical stocks in the center of the deposit
(Clode et al., 1999). The tonalite intrusions are similar in composition and phenocryst content.
Proffett (1998) distinguishes individual intrusions by their cross-cutting contact relationships,
presence of quartz vein fragments, the abundance and size of quartz phenocrysts, quartz vein
abundance and copper and gold grade. Mitchell et al. (1998) infer the Tonalite Porphyry in the
eastern part of the deposit to be older than the Young Tonalite, on the basis of contact age-
relationships.
The Old Tonalite is the smallest of the tonalite porphyry intrusions. On cross section 9009080
mN (Figure 4.2), it is limited to narrow remnants along the margins of the main tonalite stock.
The Intermediate Tonalite comprises the largest part of the main tonalite complex. Mitchell et
al. (1998) interpret two main intrusive bodies: a northern body that is largely concealed and
forms small dykes at surface, and a southern body that forms a 500 by 300 m surface exposure
(Figures 4.1 and 4.2). The Young Tonalite forms a steeply (80o -90o ) southeast-dipping
northeast-elongate stock that intrudes the northern Intermediate Tonalite. The main Young
Tonalite stock tapers upwards from 75 to 100 m wide at the 0 m RL to ~40 m wide at the 400
m RL (Proffett, 1998). Two major north-northeasterly trending dykes, 10 to 20 m wide, and a
series of subsidiary northwesterly striking dykes, typically 5 to 15 m wide, branch from this
main stock (Proffett, 1998).
Intrusive breccias are common along the margins of Intermediate Tonalite and, to a lesser
extent, Young Tonalite and Old Tonalite (Mitchell et al., 1998; Proffett, 1998). The breccias
range from several centimeters up to about 30 m wide. The breccias contain fragments of
mineralized wall-rock and locally, early “A” quartz veinlets (terminology of Gustafson and
Hunt, 1975), within a tonalite porphyry matrix (Mitchell et al., 1998).
Relatively large crystals of euhedral quartz and feldspar are documented along the contact of
the Intermediate Tonalite where it intrudes the Old Tonalite (e.g. SBD014 481m; Mitchell et
al., 1998). In addition, vein-like structures of quartz crystals with prismatic terminations project
downwards into the porphyritic matrix of surrounding Intermediate Tonalite in SBD014 541m
(Mitchell et al., 1998). Mitchell et al. (1998) and Proffett (1998) interpret these structures to be
quartz rinds, similar to those along the contacts of intermediate and late porphyry intrusions in
Yerington, Nevada (Ware, 1971) and in porphyry copper and molybdenum deposits elsewhere
in North America (e.g. Henderson; Kirkham and Sinclair, 1988; Section 4.6.2). The textures
and characteristics of these quartz rinds are consistent with their development in response to
volatile exsolution, or vapor saturation of the melt, late in the crystallization sequence (cf.
Kirkham and Sinclair, 1988; Candela, 1989; Lowenstern and Sinclair, 1996). If the analogy
with Yerington and Henderson is correct, the quartz rinds indicate proximity, perhaps less than
100 m, to the apex of a non-venting intrusion.
4.6.4.2 Petrography
Porphyritic dacite
The porphyritic dacite is light- to medium-grey and massive. Phenocrysts of fine-grained

plagioclase, hornblende and 2- 5% resorbed quartz eyes comprise about 15-40% of the rock
(Figure 4.15 A, B; Table 4.4). Plagioclase commonly displays normal zoning from An50 to
An30 , core to rim, as determined by optical methods. The micro-phenocrysts of quartz, 0.1-1.5
mm in mean diameter, locally show a high-temperature bipyramidal form (Mitchell et al.,
1998). Fine-grained biotite is a trace phenocryst constituent.
The groundmass consists of extremely fine-grained allotriomorphic-granular quartz and

plagioclase, commonly <0.01 mm in mean grain diameter. The extremely fine-grained
character of the groundmass and the common presence of bipyramidal quartz micro-
phenocrysts distinguish the porphyritic dacite from the tonalite porphyry intrusions at Batu
Hijau and the porphyritic tonalites elsewhere in the study area. Fine-grained magnetite
phenocrysts and minor apatite comprise the accessory minerals. The magnetite is locally
replaced by aggregates of hematite and titanite (Mitchell et al., 1998). Zircon cystals separated
for dating indicate a stubby and prismatic habit. The common dimensions of these grains are 60
to 150 µm long by 30 to 70 µm wide (aspect ratio ~ 2:1).
Tonalite porphyry intrusions
The tonalite porphyries are light- to medium-grey, massive and strongly porphyritic (Figure
4.15 C, D). The abundance of total phenocrysts commonly ranges from 40 to 60% of the rock
volume, which is greater than the concentration of phenocrysts in all other porphyritic felsic
intrusions in the study area (Table 4.4). The large abundance of phenocrysts suggests that the
intrusive complex did not vent, as most silicic volcanic rocks contain less than 40%
phenocrysts (cf. Ewart, 1979; and Section 4.2.4.3). The tonalite porphyry intrusions are broadly
similar in composition and mineral content. However, the abundance and diameter of quartz
phenocrysts increases from less than 1% and 4mm in the Old Tonalite, through 1-4% and 2-6
mm in the Intermediate Tonalite, to as much as 3-7% and 8-10 mm in the Young Tonalite
(Mitchell et al., 1998). The Young Tonalite is the least-altered of the tonalite porphyry
intrusions and is described in greater detail than the other intrusions in this section.
The Young Tonalite contains phenocrysts of fine- to coarse-grained plagioclase, hornblende,

biotite and resorbed quartz eyes. The amphibole crystals are rimmed by prismatic magmatic
biotite and completely replaced by shred-like secondary biotite in the thin sections studied.
Hexagonal flakes and books of biotite comprise 1 to 2% of the rock. Plagioclase (andesine)
commonly shows normal and oscillatory zoning, with local rim overgowths of oligoclase. The
relatively uniform thickness of some of these overgrowths suggests that the oligoclase is
magmatic, as opposed to secondary, in origin. Minor diopside phenocrysts to 0.2 mm occur as
inclusions in plagioclase and magnetite locally. The groundmass consists of allotriomorphic -
granular quartz and plagioclase, 0.05 to 0.3 mm in mean diameter. Minor biotite flakes also
occur. The general order of crystallization in the Young Tonalite is as follows: 1) early
plagioclase and diopside phenocrysts, 2) hornblende, 3) biotite and quartz phenocrysts, and 4)
late quartz, plagioclase and biotite as an aplitic groundmass (Figure 4.20).
Magnetite forms octahedral phenocrysts to 2 mm and minute crystals (0.05-0.2 mm) in the
groundmass. Rare ilmenite forms small phenocrysts (magnetite to ilmenite ratio >10:1).
Euhedral apatite is a common accessory mineral, as inclusions within phenocrysts and in the
groundmass. Subsolidus titanite occurs in secondary biotite that forms rims to magnetite
phenocrysts. No potassium-feldspar has been recorded in the Young Tonalite samples, which
distinguishes this tonalite porphyry from the felsic intrusions outside of the Batu Hijau deposit.
Zircon occurs rarely as inclusions in bioite. The zircons separated from the Old, Intermediate
and Young Tonalites are similar in size and morphology to those from other felsic porphyritic
intrusions in the district. The zircons from the Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry intrusions are
stubby, prismatic and typically 90 to 250 µm long and 50 to 110 µm wide (aspect ratio ~2:1).
Microprobe analyses of mineral grains were undertaken for one sample of least-altered Young
Tonalite only (SBD41 414m). The compositions of the plagioclase crystals in the Young
Tonalite range from An50 to An25 , core to rim (Figure 4.21 and 4.22). Where sodic plagioclase
rims mantle more calcic plagioclase crystals, the composition of the overgrowths range from
about An20 to An10. No amphiboles were analyzed, as the amphiboles are completely
replaced by secondary biotite. The magmatic biotite in this sample is phlogopitic
(Fe/(Fe+Mg)= 0.25 to 0.30, Figure 4.24), but is slightly more iron-rich than biotites from the
equigranular felsic intrusions elswhere in the district. However, the concentrations of AlVI and
Ti are similar to biotites from these other intrusions. Young Tonalite biotites contain
significantly more AlVI than magmatic biotites from other late-stage intrusions associated with
porphyry copper intrusive complexes elsewhere in the world (Figure 4.24). The analysis of
magnetite phenocrysts indicates a nearly pure Fe 3 O4 compositon, with <0.2% TiO2 (N=3;
Figure 4.26).
4.6.5 Porphyritic Andesite Dykes
Porphyritic andesite, dacite and quartz diorite dykes intrude all other rock types in the study
area, with the exception of the tonalite porphyry intrusions at Batu Hijau. No contact age-
relationship is recorded between the porphyritic andesite dykes and these tonalites, to date.
Porphyritic andesite dykes intrude porphyritic dacite and equigranular quartz diorite (QD3) in
the Batu Hijau vicinity. In the Santong Valley and at Gold Ridge, porphyritic andesite and dacite
dykes cross-cut an andesitic volcanic breccia unit, which was emplaced late in the geological
development of the district (refer to Section 4.7). On the basis of these relationships, the
porphyritic dykes are interpreted to be of comparable age to, if not younger than, the Batu
Hijau tonalite porphyry complex. The Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company geologists refer to
the late-stage, porphyritic dykes as “feldspar porphyry”, which reflects the moderate abundance
of plagioclase phenocrysts.
The steeply dipping, planar dykes occur predominantly in the vicinity of the Santong Valley,
Gold Ridge, Air Merah and Batu Hijau. The width of these dykes range from tens of
centimeters to about 25 m. Strike-directions vary from northeasterly to easterly, and, in the
vicinity of Batu Hijau, northwesterly. Intrusive contacts are sharp and display fine-grained
chilled margins locally.
4.6.5.2 Petrography
Porphyritic andesite to quartz diorite is greenish-grey and medium- to dark-grey and massive
with 15 to 30% phenocrysts of fine- to medium-grained plagioclase, ampibole and local
clinopyroxene (Figure 4.16; Table 4.4). Plagioclase displays normal and oscillatory zoning
from labradorite cores to andesine rims. The amphibole is pleochroic from medium-brownish
green to pale brown. Resorbed quartz microphenocrysts and phenocrysts (~0.3 to 2 mm in
mean diameter) occur locally. The groundmass of the andesite-quartz diorite consists of
abundant plagioclase microlaths, 0.02 to 0.2 mm in length, up to 10% allotriomorphic quartz
(<0.3 mm) and minor hornblende. Minor interstitial potassium-feldspar occurs locally. The
general crystallization sequence is early plagioclase, followed by amphibole +clinopyroxene,
and locally, late quartz, prior to the formation of plagioclase+quartz as groundmass phases
(Figure 4.20).
Fine-grained magnetite, ilmenite and minor apatite comprise the common accessory minerals.
Euhedral crystals of apatite and titanite to 0.2 mm occur within the groundmass of porphyritic
andesite-quartz diorite at Gold Ridge (e.g. SGD01 270.5-279.4m). Secondary titanite and calcite occur
along length-parallel cleavage planes in host ilmenite. The zircons recovered from the Gold
Ridge dyke are typically nearly equant to slightly elongate (aspect ratios of <2:1) and less than
100 µm in maximum dimension. The zircons analyzed by the U-Pb SHRIMP method are
resorbed, with an embayed morphology unlike that of any of the zircons separated from the
other felsic intrusions in the study area.
The compositions of the plagioclase crystals in a porphyritic andesite dyke sample from Air
Merah (9807036) range from An66 to An47 , core to rim (Figure 4.21 and 4.22). Two distinct
populations of amphibole are present. The first consists of magnesio-hornblende cores and
bodies, which are similar in composition to amphiboles in the porphyritic tonalites, and the
second consists of actinolitic hornblende rims (Figure 4.23). A general depletion in alkali
elements accompanies the depletion in AlIV from core to rim. Both types of amphiboles contain
more iron than the amphiboles in the other felsic intrusions in the district (ΣFe/(ΣFe+Mg)= 0.32
to 0.37). The clinopyroxene is diopside and also relatively iron-rich with respect to the
diopsides analyzed from other intrusions in the area. The magnetite phenocrysts analyzed
(N=3) indicates relatively moderate concentrations of titanium (3.8-5.2% TiO 2 or 11-14 mole %
ulvospinel; Figure 4.26).
4.6.6 Geochemistry
4.6.6.1 Major-Oxide Elements
The majority of the least-altered felsic phaneritic intrusions indicate whole -rock chemical
compositions that are consistent with classification as low-K calc -alkaline quartz diorites and
tonalites (Figures 4.27 to 4.30). A small group plot as medium-K calc -alkaline rocks. These
consist of biotite-bearing equigranular quartz diorite (QD1 and QD3) and granodiorite dykes at
Sekongkang and Katala, and two of the three analyzed late-stage porphyritic andesite dykes
(Figure 4.27). The felsic intrusions are hypersthene-normative and metaluminous with the
exception of the porphyritic tonalite stocks and equigranular granodiorite-tonalite dykes at
Sekongkang and Katala, which are corundum-normative (Table 4.7).
The equigranular intrusions display a greater range of SiO 2 composition (59 to 71 wt. % SiO 2 ,
normalized to a LOI-free total) than do the porphyryitic intrusions, which cluster around 57 wt.
% SiO 2 (quartz diorite), 66 wt. % SiO 2 (hornblende tonalite and dacite) and 69 wt. % SiO 2
(Batu Hijau tonalite porphyries; Figure 4.31). This is consistent with the interpretation of the
emplacement of a fractionated series of equigranular plutons through time versus discrete
pulses of magmatism for the smaller porphyritic intrusions.
Table 4.6 Major- and trace-element analyses of least-altered volcaniclastic rocks,

andesitic intrusions and lava in the Batu Hijau district.
Analysis No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sample No. 98070121 98110702 99050501 99050605 99050603 98100301 97092601 99050602
Location G. Ridge Br. Pede Air Merah Tongoloka Air Merah Concentrator Air Merah Air Merah
Rock Type cpx-hb volcanic volcanic volcanic volcanic po ol-plg po hb-plg fine-grain.
and. lava sandstone sandstone lithic bx. lithic bx. micro gabbro and. dyke andesite
SiO2 wt % 51.73 52.55 54.10 51.50 57.06 49.91 55.24 55.54

TiO2 wt % 1.27 0.84 0.74 0.75 0.67 0.79 0.71 0.76
Al2O3 wt % 17.26 17.65 17.11 19.10 17.65 19.18 17.21 18.16
Fe2O31 wt % 10.04 8.98 7.77 8.33 7.96 9.55 8.46 9.12
MnO wt % 0.14 0.16 0.15 0.18 0.18 0.16 0.21 0.17
MgO wt % 2.80 5.65 3.90 4.63 3.90 6.04 4.83 3.43
CaO wt % 9.41 7.44 7.39 8.26 5.62 10.25 7.43 8.24
Na2O wt % 2.70 2.70 3.10 2.22 3.66 2.55 3.56 2.67
K2O wt % 0.36 0.04 0.48 0.15 0.02 0.46* 0.12 0.29
P2O5 wt % 0.26 0.08 0.12 0.14 0.13 0.08 0.13 0.11
LOI wt % 4.33 3.76 3.95 4.26 3.50 1.35 1.74 1.31
Total wt % 100.30 99.85 98.81 99.52 100.35 99.86 99.64 99.80
FeOt/MgO2 3.23 1.43 1.79 1.62 1.84 1.42 1.58 2.39
C wt % 0.70* 0.19 0.23 0.21 0.02 0.18 0.06 0.06

S wt % 0.02 0.02 0.24 0.14 0.16 0.07 0.02 0.14
Ba ppm 362 75 196 138 74 193 84 211

Cs ppm 0.9 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.6 1.1 0.6 0.5
Nb ppm 2.6 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.7 1.8 0.7
Rb ppm 17 4 8 2 2 12 2.2 2
Sc ppm 25.2 26.1 23.5 23.6 17.2 27.4 25.0 22.6
Sr ppm 440 398 318 387 397 357 376 353
Th ppm 1.47 0.51 0.50 0.49 0.40 0.37 1.23 0.36
U ppm 0.44 0.21 0.17 0.16 0.12 0.12 0.34 0.11
V ppm 258 243 188 196 150 249 193 183
Y ppm 30 11 17 15 17 14 15 20
Zr ppm 96 39 50 46 48 31 63 40
K/Rb 176 83 498 623 83 318 453 1204
Rb/Sr 0.039 0.010 0.025 0.005 0.005 0.034 0.006 0.006
Ba/Rb 21 19 25 69 37 16 38 106
V/Ni 18 12 21 20 25 9 7 23
Au ppb <2 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 10 3

Ag ppm 0.9 <0.4 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.4 0.9 <0.5
As ppm 3 5 5 4 4 <1 2 3
Cd ppm 0.7 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 0.8 <1 0.9 1.2
Co ppm 22 33 21 24 20 31 21 24
Cr ppm 65 43 101 52 48 45 144 107
Cu ppm 161 62 133 64 63 26 158 62
Mo ppm 2.5 4.0 <2 <2 <2 <2 2.5 2.0
Ni ppm 14 20 9 10 6 28 29 8
Pb ppm 11 <5 5 5 7 <5 <5 8
Se ppm <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 0.5 <0.5 <0.5
Zn ppm 92 90 93 114 112 68 137 106
CIPW Norm3
Quartz mol % 9.7 8.9 10.8 10.4 15.2 1.1 9.4 13.8
Corundum mol % 0.7 1.9
Orthoclase mol % 2.3 0.2 3.0 0.9 0.1 2.8 0.7 1.8
Albite mol % 25.8 25.4 29.6 21.1 34.1 23.2 32.8 24.8
Anorthite mol % 36.1 37.6 33.3 42.5 28.1 40.1 31.4 37.9
Diopside mol % 9.4 0.4 3.8 8.8 4.4 2.9
Hypersthene mol % 10.5 22.8 15.3 19.9 15.9 19.5 16.4 13.7
Magnetite mol % 3.7 3.2 2.8 3.0 3.5 3.3 3.6 3.9
Ilmenite mol % 1.9 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.1
Apatite mol % 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2
An/(An+Ab) 0.58 0.60 0.53 0.67 0.45 0.63 0.49 0.60
Color Index 4 25.5 27.6 23.0 24.0 20.4 32.7 25.4 21.6
Refer to text for definition of least-altered samples.

1
All iron reported as Fe 2O3. 2FeOt is total iron calculated as FeO (equivalent to 0.9 * Fe 2O3).
3
Basis for Norm calculations: Fe 2O3/(FeO+Fe 2O3) is calculated as 0.33 for <55% SiO2 and 0.4 for >55% SiO2.
4
Color Index is the sum of all normative mafic minerals. Asterik (*) indicates elevated C, S or K2O value due to the
presence of calcite, pyrite and sericite or illite, respectively.
Abbreviations: and-andesite, bi-biotite, bx-breccia, cpx-clinopyroxene, eg-eguigranular, G. Ridge-Gold Ridge, hb-
hornblende, ol-olivine, plg-plagioclase, po-porphyritie, qdio-quartz diorite, Sekong-Sekongkang.
Table 4.7 Major-and trace-element analyses of least-altered phaneritic intrusions and late
andesite-quartz diorite dykes in the Batu Hijau district.
Analysis No. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Sample No. 97092452 98070501 97101030 97091713 97101143SBD120 404SBD4 405 97110883 SGD1 275
Location Sekong. Bambu Katala Sekong. Katala Batu Hijau Batu Hijau Katala G. Ridge
Rock Type eg hb eg hb eg bi-hb eg bi gdio po hb po hb Young po hb po hb
qdio micro qdio qdio dyke tonalite dacite Tonalite qdio dyke and. dyke
SiO2 wt % 60.24 58.62 58.93 68.98 65.87 64.54 67.76 56.15 51.89
TiO2 wt % 0.58 0.50 0.58 0.46 0.44 0.41 0.30 0.75 0.49
Al2O3 wt % 16.88 16.35 18.42 14.08 15.98 17.71 16.08 16.89 16.80
Fe2O31 wt % 6.47 6.22 5.96 3.43 4.94 4.35 3.52 7.17 6.01
MnO wt % 0.11 0.18 0.14 0.04 0.13 0.03 0.05 0.24 0.20
MgO wt % 2.88 2.46 2.73 1.35 2.39 1.64 1.39 5.21 2.67
CaO wt % 6.26 6.66 6.48 2.26 5.35 3.75 3.58 7.60 8.17
Na2O wt % 3.58 3.47 3.87 3.73 3.57 4.82 5.01 2.04 2.22
K2O wt % 1.21 0.39 0.80 2.39 0.67 0.56 0.75 0.86 1.22*
P2O5 wt % 0.14 0.18 0.21 0.09 0.15 0.18 0.20 0.15 0.19
LOI wt % 2.14 4.72 1.01 2.34 0.91 2.31 0.70 3.00 9.36
Total wt % 100.49 99.75 99.13 99.15 100.40 100.30 99.34 100.06 98.00
FeOt/MgO2 2.02 2.28 1.96 2.29 1.86 2.39 2.28 1.24 2.03
C wt % 0.02 0.62* 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.08 0.03 0.14 1.43*

S wt % 0.04 0.01 0.02 1.60* 0.03 0.18 0.02 0.29* 0.03
Ba ppm 454 291 346 675 407 192 680 320 412
Cs ppm 0.4 0.6 1.4 4.0 0.5 1.1 0.5 0.1 5.9
Nb ppm 2.2 1.4 2.6 3.9 2 1.3 1.3 2.1 1
Rb ppm 24 7 18 63 12 14 16 14 31
Sc ppm 11.7 9.8 10.9 10.7 9.9 5.9 4.4 21.5 11.1
Sr ppm 524 454 552 542 406 553 446 405 366
Th ppm 2.38 0.64 1.90 5.69 1.74 0.72 2.12 1.85 1.30
U ppm 0.67 0.20 0.50 1.74 0.46 0.21 0.55 0.51 0.36
V ppm 139 93 109 78 83 73 37 180 104
Y ppm 15 13 9 23 10 8 10 15 13
Zr ppm 91 59 65 152 70 72 63 74 49
K/Rb 418 462 369 315 463 332 389 510 327
Rb/Sr 0.046 0.015 0.033 0.116 0.030 0.025 0.036 0.035 0.085
Ba/Rb 19 42 19 11 34 14 43 23 13
V/Ni 9 23 11 7 6 15 9 3 13
Au ppb 3 2 75 31 22 39 75 <1 <2

Ag ppm 1.0 <0.4 0.7 <0.4 0.9 0.5 0.4 <0.4 0.4
As ppm 4 <1 <1 4 <1 1 <1 13 2
Cd ppm 0.6 <0.5 <0.5 1.9 1.1 <0.5 1.6 <0.5 2.7
Co ppm 17 13 16 10 14 7 7 15 14
Cr ppm 105 63 126 250 94 125 123 208 84
Cu ppm 37 11 160 81 98 1330* 252 181 20
Mo ppm 3.7 2.1 4.3 8.4 1.9 15 3.0 <2 <2
Ni ppm 16 4 10 11 13 5 4 55 8
Pb ppm 8 <5 12 54 9 <5 6 6 33
Se ppm <0.5 0.5 <0.5 <0.5 0.8 2.0 <1 0.5 <1
Zn ppm 72 88 113 149 113 54 38 104 171
CIPW Norm3
Quartz mol % 15.0 18.1 13.5 29.6 24.9 21.8 23.9 15.2 13.0
Corundum mol % 1.7 3.1 1.1
Orthoclase mol % 7.3 2.4 4.8 14.7 4.0 3.4 4.5 5.3 8.1
Albite mol % 32.9 33.1 35.5 34.9 32.6 44.1 45.6 19.1 22.5
Anorthite mol % 27.0 29.6 31.2 11.1 26.0 17.8 16.7 35.8 36.4
Diopside mol % 3.1 3.4 0.2 1.9 6.3
Hypersthene mol % 11.4 9.4 11.0 5.6 9.5 7.0 5.9 18.2 10.2
Magnetite mol % 2.2 2.8 2.5 1.5 2.1 1.9 1.5 3.1 2.3
Ilmenite mol % 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.4 1.1 0.8
Apatite mol % 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.5
An/(An+Ab) 0.45 0.47 0.47 0.24 0.44 0.29 0.27 0.65 0.62
Color Index 4 17.5 16.3 14.5 7.8 12.2 9.5 7.8 24.3 19.6
1
All iron reported as Fe 2O3.2 FeOt is total iron calculated as FeO (equivalent to 0.9 * Fe 2O3).
3
Basis for Norm calculations: Fe 2O3/(FeO+Fe 2O3) is calculated as 0.33 for <55% SiO2 and 0.4 for >55% SiO2 .
4
Color Index is the sum of all normative mafic minerals. Asterik (*) indicates elevated C, S, K2O or Cu value due to the
presence of calcite, pyrite, sericite or chalcopyrite, respectively
Abbreviations: as given in Table 4.6
Table 4.8 Major- and trace-element analyses for diatreme breccia and other rock types
in the Batu Hijau district.
Analysis No. 18 19 21
Sample No. SGD1 142 98112102A 98120101
Location Gold Ridge Teluk Puna Coast road
Rock Type diatreme volcanic po cpx-plg
breccia lithic breccia andesite dyke
SiO2 wt % 51.27 55.49 51.22

TiO2 wt % 0.84 0.61 0.80
Al2O3 wt % 18.52 17.02 19.59
Fe2O31 wt % 6.90 6.88 8.16
MnO wt % 0.23 0.14 0.15
MgO wt % 3.86 2.78 3.81
CaO wt % 5.95 4.61 9.23
Na2O wt % 2.26 4.79 2.88
K2O wt % 0.95* 0.40 0.54
P2O5 wt % 0.39 0.12 0.14
LOI2 wt % 8.50 7.76 3.62
Total wt % 98.72 100.60 100.14
FeOt/MgO3 1.61 2.23 1.93
C wt % 0.80 0.82* 0.05

S wt % 2.05* 0.03 0.03
Ba ppm 231 193 197

Cs ppm 4.7 0.7 0.1
Nb ppm 0.9 2.7 0.8
Rb ppm 28 14 8
Sc ppm 22.3 13.8 21.2
Sr ppm 310 268 422
Th ppm 1.29 1.57 0.54
U ppm 0.40 0.40 0.15
V ppm 202 149 213
Y ppm 15 22 15
Zr ppm 52 103 38
K/Rb 282 237 560
Rb/Sr 0.090 0.052 0.019
Ba/Rb 8 14 25
V/Ni 16 21 11
Au ppb 8 <2 2
Ag ppm <0.4 0.5 <0.4
As ppm 11 3 2
Cd ppm 2.5 0.9 <0.5
Co ppm 17 15 21
Cr ppm 81 35 27
Cu ppm 158 24 79
Mo ppm 6.0 <2 <2
Ni ppm 13 7 19
Pb ppm 17 5 <5
Se ppm 1.0 1.0 1.5
Zn ppm 133 76 76
CIPW Norm4
Quartz mol % 14.9 9.9 5.3
Corundum mol % 4.7 0.7
Orthoclase mol % 6.2 2.5 3.3
Albite mol % 22.5 46.3 27.0
Anorthite mol % 29.9 23.7 40.6
Diopside mol % 5.0
Hypersthene mol % 17.1 13.9 14.4
Magnetite mol % 2.6 2.4 2.9
Ilmenite mol % 1.3 0.9 1.2
Apatite mol % 0.9 0.3 0.3
An/(An+Ab) 0.57 0.34 0.60
Color Index 5 21.0 17.2 23.5
1
All iron reported as Fe 2O3. 2 LOI > 5% reflects the abundance of secondary minerals due to hydrothermal
alteration and/or oxidation. 3FeOt is total iron calculated as FeO (equivalent to 0.9 * Fe 2O3).
5
Color Index is the sum of all normative mafic minerals. Asterisk (*) indicates elevated C, S or K2O value due to
the presence of calcite, pyrite or sericite, respectively
Abbreviations: as given in Table 4.6
The intrusions display alkali-enrichment trends, with a slight increase in FeOtotal/MgO (~1.8 to
2.8) towards higher SiO 2 , and plot along the high alumina-tholeiite boundary of Kuno (1959)
(Figures 4.27 and 4.29). The low-K felsic intrusions lie along the SiO 2 -rich extension of the
trends defined by the low-K andesite intrusions in the study area and the igneous rock suites in
the Lesser Antilles and New Britain. The medium-K intrusions display trends similar to those
of the South Sandwich and Aleutian islands, and the island arc Koloula porphyry complex in
Guadalcanal. The felsic intrusions are low in alkali concentrations with respect to classic calc -
alkaline suites (e.g. Cascades, USA) and porphyry-copper related intrusions in both continental
and island arc settings. However, they are similar to the intrusions associated with Koloula
(Figures 4.27 and 4.28). The CIPW-normative felsic mineral assemblages of the intrusion
samples, as plotted on the chemical norm diagram of Streckeisen and Le Maitre (1979),
indicate compositions of quartz diorite, tonalite and granodiorite (Figure 4.30 A), which are
consistent with the petrological classification of these intrusive rock types. A ternary plot of
normative felsic mineral compositions further shows the similarity between Batu Hijau district
felsic intrusions and those at Koloula (Figure 4.30 B). Both populations are K-deficient (low
normative alkali-feldspar), with the exception of the granodiorite dykes, with respect to
porphyry-related intrusions in continental settings (e.g. Bingham and Ray, USA).
The major-oxides TiO 2 , Fe2 O3 , MgO and CaO decrease with increasing SiO 2 (Figure 4.30).
TiO2 is anomalously low in the Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry intrusions, which probably reflects
the lack of titanium in magnetite and the general absence of ilmenite in these samples. Na2 O
changes little with increasing SiO 2 , with the exception of the Batu Hijau porphyritic dacite and
tonalite porphyries, which are relatively enriched in Na2 O. This may, in part, reflect
hydrothermal alteration, but, is also considered to represent magmatic differentiation processes.
K2 O increases with increasing SiO 2 for the medium-K quartz diorites and granodiorites and
shows little consistent variation for low-K quartz diorites and tonalites.
Figure 4.32 summarizes the trends of the major-oxide elements and indicates the key
differences between low-K Batu Hijau tonalitic intrusions and medium-K biotite quartz diorites
and granodiorites at Sekongkang and Katala. The relationships between these major-oxide
element trends and the interpreted crystallization sequences for each group of intrusions
suggests that similar fractional crystallization processes occurred for both low-K and medium-
K types for rocks with <65 wt. % SiO 2 (e.g. compositional trends dominated by crystallization
of pyroxene, amphibole, calcic plagioclase and iron-titanium oxides). For intrusions with
>65wt. % SiO 2 , two separate paths are inferred. The low-K Batu Hijau tonalite path is probably
controlled by crystallization of amphibole, biotite, sodic plagioclase and magnetite, and the
medium-K Sekongkang and Katala paths are influenced by crystallization of biotite, sodic
plagioclase, potassium feldspar, ilmenite and magnetite.
4.6.6.2 Trace-Elements
The trace-element concentrations of the felsic intrusions are characterized by low to moderate
LILE (e.g. <5.9 ppm Cs, 80-680 ppm Ba, <63 ppm Rb), moderate LREE (e.g. 3-12 ppm La, 10-
27 ppm Ce) and low to moderate HFSE (e.g. 49-152 ppm Zr, 1-4 ppm Nb) (Table 4.7 and
Figure 4.33). These elemental concentrations are higher than those of the Batu Hijau andesitic
intrusive and volcaniclastic rock suites, and are broadly consistent with low- to medium-K calc -
alkaline suites in the island arcs of Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and elsewhere (Mason
and McDonald, 1978; Gill, 1981). Trace-element differences exist between the low-K calc -
alkaline tonalite porphry intrusions at Batu Hijau and the medium-K calc -alkaline equigranular
granodiorite dykes at Sekongkang and Katala, with the former suite characterized by lower
concentrations of LILE, LREE and HFSE than the latter group. The difference between these
two groups of intrusions is also expresed by the immobile element ratio plot in Figure 4.34,
which shows the tonalite porphyries to plot at lower Zr/Al2 O3 and TiO 2 /Al2 O3 with respect to
the equigranular granodiorite dykes.
The low concentrations of the compatible elements V, Ni, and Sc in the majority of felsic
intrusions with respect to many island arc calc -alkaline suites indicate a relatively more evolved
composition (Figure 4.33; Gill, 1981; Carmichael et al., 1974). The late-stage porphyritic
andesite dykes are relatively rich in Ni (~3 to 7 times that of Ni in other felsic intrusions), and,
to a lesser extent, Cr. The general increase of Cr with increasing SiO 2 is inconsistent with the
usual compatible behavior of Cr during crystallization and indicates a similar trend to the
incompatible elements Zr and Nb. The K/Rb ratios (commonly 300 to 550) are greater than
most arc-related andesites, but are similar to the calc -alkaline Java trend (Figure 4.36; Gill,
1981) and porphyry-related intrusive suites in the island arcs of Papua New Guinea and the
Solomon islands (Mason and McDonald, 1978). The Rb/Sr ratios increase with increasing K2 O,
and diplay ratios of 0.01-0.04 for low-K intrusions and ratios of 0.05-0.19 for medium-K
intrusions (Figure 4.37).
Normalized trace-element diagrams
Where compared to N-MORB of Sun and McDonough (1989), the trace-element

concentrations for the felsic intrusions display moderately enriched LILE, slightly enriched to
depleted HFSE, depleted HREE, peaks at Ba, Pb and Sr, and a major trough at Nb (Figure
4.38). These relative concentrations are consistent with arc-related low- to medium-K
magmatism (Wilson, 1989; Tatsumi and Eggins, 1995). Chrondrite-normalized LREE values
(La ~20 to 50) are significantly enriched with respect to HREE (Yb ~5 to 10; Figure 4.39).
Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry intrusions contain the lowest HREE concentrations in the suite.
The general increase of REE through time, for both the tonalite porphyry and equigranular
quartz diorite-granodiorite suites, is consistent with the greater extent of differentiation from
early to late intrusions in each group (Gill, 1981). The La/Yb (~4 to 9) and Nd/Sm (~4 to 5)
ratios are well above those of the andesitic rocks in the area and that of the primitive mantle
values of Sun and McDonough (1989) (Figure 4.40). However, little systematic variation exists
within the felsic intrusive suite for either of these ratios, which probably indicates similar
magma source regions and fractionation processes.
Ti/Zr ratios are below that of the primitive mantle and those of the andesitic rocks in the study area.
Very low ratios (e.g. Ti/Zr <30) characterize the more highly evolved tonalite porphyries at
Batu Hijau and the late-stage equigranular granodiorite-tonalite dykes at Sekongkang and
Katala. Most of the felsic intrusions have slightly higher Th/U ratios than the andesitic rocks
in the study area (~3 to 4 vs. ~2 to 3), both populations lying below that of the primitive mantle
(Figure 4.40). Anomalously high Th/U ratios (up to 7) for tonalite porphyry intrusions in the
Batu Hijau deposit coincide with samples that contain low Zr (e.g. <65 ppm). In addition,
variably biotite-altered samples of the Old, Intermediate and Young Tonalites, porphyritic
dacite and equigranular quartz diorite in Batu Hijau display Th/U ratios of 4 to 9. Therefore,
these high Th/U ratios could reflect the fractionation of U into vapor, as well as cyrstals, in
order to suppress U-enrichment in the residual Batu Hijau melts (e.g. Irazu volcano, Costa
Rica; Allegre and Condomines, 1976; Gill, 1981) or the effects of hydrothermal alteration.
4.6.6.3 Zircon Saturation Temperatures
Zircon saturation temperatures, as defined by Watson and Harrrison (1983), indicate the
approximate temperature of zircon saturation, or crystallization, from a cooling melt of a given
major-element oxide and Zr composition. The temperatures are based on the distribution
coefficient of Zr in zircon versus that of the melt, which is dependant on the relative abundance
of Zr with respect to a fractionation index, M=(Na+Ca+K)/(Si∗Al) (Watson and Harrison,
1983). In general, the greater the Zr/M ratio, the higher the saturation temperature, or the earlier
that the zircon develops in the crystallization sequence of an intrusion. Zircon saturation
temperatures that fall below the solidus may indicate intrusions where Zr concentrations did not
reach sufficient levels to cause the crystallization of zircon (i.e. samples with low saturation
temperatures should not have indigeneous zircons).
The zircon saturation temperatures determined for the felsic intrusions in the study area range
from 667o to 813o C (Table 4.9). The temperatures are greater for the equigranular granodiorite
and tonalite dykes at Sekongkang and Katala (776o -813o C) than for the Batu Hijau tonalite
porphyry intrusions (718-726o C). Most of the samples show zircon saturation temperatures that
lie above the wet solidus (2 Kb) for granodiorite (~675o C; Naney, 1983) and tonalite (~700o C;
Schmidt and Thompson, 1996). This is consistent with the presence of euhedral, and
presumably indigeneous, zircons in these samples. However, the low saturation temperature of
the late-stage porphyritic andesite dyke at Gold Ridge (667o C, sample SGD01 275 m) suggests
that the resorbed and embayed zircons in this sample are exotic in origin, perhaps representing
xenocrysts assimilated from older zircon-bearing felsic intrusions in the area.
4.6.7 Geochronology
More than seven felsic intrusive events are indicated in the Batu Hijau district on the basis of contact
age-relationships and U-Pb SHRIMP age date results. The relative and absolute age relationships of the
major intrusions are summarized in Table 4.3. On the basis of cross-cutting field relationships, the
intrusions are constrained to be younger than the Early to Middle Miocene andesitic volcaniclastic
sequence and subsequent hypabyssal phyric andesite intrusions, and older than the Plio-Pleistocene
volcaniclastic sequence and coralline limestone units that occur along the coast of southwestern
Sumbawa (Figure 3.2). At Teluk Puna, the porphyritic hornblende tonalite dyke that intrudes the dacitic
volcaniclastic sequence is clearly younger than the ~6.8 Ma weighted mean U-Pb SHRIMP age obtained
from zircons collected from the volcaniclastic unit (Section 4.5.5).
Table 4.9 Major element (wt %) and Zr (ppm) analyses of select least-altered felsic intrusions from the Batu Hijau district.
Description and Area Sample No. SiO 2 TiO 2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 LOI Total Zr M lnDZr T (oC) Mean STD
Equigranular Quartz Diorite

Sekongkang 97092452 60.24 0.58 16.88 6.47 0.11 2.88 6.26 3.58 1.21 0.14 2.14 100.49 91 1.940 8.306 727 - -
Santong 98070501 58.62 0.50 16.35 6.22 0.18 2.46 6.66 3.47 0.39 0.18 4.72 99.75 59 1.925 8.739 695
99050606 58.97 0.59 17.03 6.74 0.22 2.89 7.36 2.78 0.02 0.12 3.44 100.16 49 1.821 8.925 688 692 5
Batu Hijau area 99050502 57.20 0.60 18.15 6.81 0.14 3.21 7.09 3.43 0.82 0.20 2.32 99.97 64 1.951 8.658 699
99050902 62.80 0.41 17.08 5.64 0.09 1.78 4.88 4.12 1.27 0.19 1.94 100.20 68 1.667 8.597 722 711 16
Katala 97101030 58.93 0.58 18.42 5.96 0.14 2.73 6.48 3.87 0.80 0.21 1.01 99.13 65 1.846 8.642 707 - -
706 15
Equigranular Granodiorite & Tonalite
Sekongkang dykes SAD 04 311.5 65.09 0.51 15.41 5.61 0.15 2.49 3.20 3.49 0.58 0.11 4.02 100.66 91 1.227 8.306 776
97091713A 68.98 0.46 14.08 3.43 0.04 1.35 2.26 3.73 2.39 0.09 2.34 99.15 152 1.362 7.793 811
Katala dyke 97100808A 69.68 0.38 14.80 3.78 0.08 1.20 2.28 3.43 2.60 0.09 2.35 100.67 143 1.269 7.854 813
800 21
Porphyritic Intrusions
Arung Ara porphyritic BHD 17 47m 62.85 0.38 16.11 4.85 0.12 2.08 4.87 3.72 0.49 0.12 4.50 100.09 67 1.577 8.612 727
tonalite SRD 02 305m 65.86 0.43 15.97 4.48 0.11 2.34 5.52 3.88 1.03 0.37 1.11 101.10 64 1.799 8.658 709 718 13
Katala porphyritic 97101144 62.06 0.52 17.95 5.98 0.15 2.36 5.36 3.80 0.71 0.20 1.40 100.49 64 1.585 8.658 723
tonalite 97101143 65.87 0.44 15.98 4.94 0.13 2.39 5.35 3.57 0.67 0.15 0.91 100.40 70 1.649 8.568 725 724 1
B. Hijau porphyritic dacite SBD120 404m 64.54 0.41 17.71 4.35 0.03 1.64 3.75 4.82 0.56 0.18 2.31 100.30 72 1.423 8.540 743 - -
B. Hijau Interm. Tonalite SBD 14 612m 67.43 0.29 14.66 6.24 0.05 1.35 3.60 4.55 0.30 0.15 1.45 100.07 61 1.534 8.706 722
B. Hijau Young Tonalite SBD 14 585m 65.98 0.31 16.53 3.79 0.06 1.28 4.22 4.89 0.50 0.18 0.91 98.65 59 1.562 8.739 718
SBD 41 406m 67.76 0.30 16.08 3.52 0.05 1.39 3.58 5.01 0.75 0.20 0.70 99.34 63 1.510 8.674 726 722 4
Late porphyritic andesite 98070736 54.52 0.69 15.80 7.81 0.21 5.28 7.07 3.40 0.36 0.13 4.79 100.06 89 2.252 8.328 705
-quartz diorite dykes 97110883 56.15 0.75 16.89 7.17 0.24 5.21 7.60 2.04 0.86 0.15 3.00 100.06 74 1.997 8.513 707 706 1
Gold Ridge porphyritic SGD 01 275m 51.89 0.49 16.80 6.01 0.20 2.67 8.17 2.22 1.22 0.19 9.36 99.22 49 2.181 8.925 667 - -
andesite dyke 716 19
Notes: M values, lnDZr and zircon saturation temperatures calculated from the equation, lnDZr = -3.80-(0.85(M-1)) + 12900/T(oK), where
M=(Na+Ca+K)/(Si*Al) after Watson and Harrison (1983).
Mean and standard deviation (STD) of sample populations are indicated.
All samples are known or inferred to contain indigenous zircon, with the exception of SGD 01 275m, which contains resorbed zircon xenocrysts, and samples
98070501,99050606, 99050502, 98070736 and 97110883, where zircon was not recorded in thin section and mineral separation was not undertaken.
Abbreviations: B.- Batu, interm.-intermediate.
The results of the U-Pb SHRIMP dating of zircons from the felsic intrusions are shown in
Table 4.10 and Figure 4.41. These results indicate absolute ages that are consistent with the
relative contact age-relationships defined in outcrop and drill core. However, the age data
further constrain the temporal relationships between the different intrusive centers in the
district. This definition cannot be achieved by field relationships alone, because cross-cutting
relationships are lacking between intrusions of one center with those of another.
The earliest felsic intrusive event dated is that of the emplacement of QD1 quartz diorite pluton
and late-stage granodiorite to tonalite dykes at Sekongkang at 5.88 + 0.14 Ma 1 . This was
followed by the intrusion of the QD2 quartz diorite pluton at Santong (older than 5.0 Ma) and
the subsequent emplacement of porphyritic tonalite stocks at Santong and Katala from 4.99 +
0.16 Ma to 4.70 + 0.16 Ma, respectively. The intrusion of the QD3 quartz diorite composite
pluton and late-stage granodiorite dykes at Katala ocurred at about 4.5 to 4.4 Ma, with
subsequent quartz diorite emplacement in the vicinity of the Batu Hijau deposit at around 3.8
Ma. The age of this later event is inferred on the basis of contact age-relationships and
SHRIMP results. The Batu Hijau porphyritic dacite yields an age of 3.89 + 0.08 Ma and is
intruded by a late phase of the QD3 quartz diorite composite pluton.
The development of the Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry complex occurred between 3.76 + 0.10
Ma and 3.67 + 0.12 Ma (2σ), on the basis of dates from the Old, Intermediate and Young
Tonalites. The relative order of absolute SHRIMP dates is at variance with the contact age-
relationships defined in drill core for the tonalite porphyry intrusions (cf. 3.67 Ma for the Old
Tonalite, 3.76 Ma for the Intermediate Tonalite and 3.74 Ma for the Young Tonalite). However,
the differences between these three age dates are not statistically significant at the 90%
confidence interval, given the precision of the dating technique (Table 4.11). Hence, the
development of the Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry complex spanned 90 + 160 k.y. (2σ), with the
emplacement of the three major intrusions occurring in a time-span comparable to the precision
of the U-Pb SHRIMP dating technique.
Lastly, the emplacement of the porphyritic andesite-dacite dykes in the central part of the
district post-dates all other volcano-plutonic activity in this area, on the basis of the contact
age-relationships discussed in Section 4.6.5. Hence, these late-stage dykes are inferred to be of
comparable age to, or younger than, 3.7 Ma, the age of Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry complex.
The 4.76 + 0.11 Ma date for zircons collected from a 7 m wide dyke in Gold Ridge probably
reflects the weighted mean age of zircon xenocrysts (5.2 to 4.4 Ma) assimilated from older
felsic intrusions during dyke emplacement (SGD01 276 m; Table 4.10). This statement is
supported by the resorbed and embayed morphology of the zircons analyzed, and a zircon
saturation temperature (667o C) that falls below the solidus for this particular sample, as
discussed in Section 4.6.6.
1
The U-Pb SHRIMP ages represent weighted means of 6 to 18 zircon analyses at the 2σ confidence
limit.
Table 4.10 Summary of 206Pb/238U SHRIMP age data.
1 2
Area Sample Description Age (Ma) 2 sigma No. of
analyses
Teluk Puna 98112302 dacitic volcaniclastic breccia 6.84 0.16 7
Sekongkang 971713A equigranular biotite granodiorite dyke 5.88 0.14 8
Arung Ara SRD02 305m porphyritic hornblende tonalite 4.99 0.16 8
Katala 97101143 porphyritic hornblende tonalite 4.75 0.22 6
Katala SKD01 276m porphyritic hornblende tonalite 4.70 0.16 8
Katala 97100808A equigranular biotite granodiorite dyke 4.49 0.12 6
Katala 97101030 equigranular pyroxene-hornblende-biotite quartz diorite 4.43 0.14 9
Batu Hijau SBD12 329m porphyritic dacite 3.89 0.08 7
Batu Hijau SBD91 416m Old Tonalite 3.67 0.12 8
Batu Hijau SBD04 157m Intermediate Tonalite 3.76 0.10 18
Batu Hijau SBD41 414m Young Tonalite 3.74 0.14 7
3
Gold Ridge SGD01 276m porphyritic andesite dyke 4.76 0.10 11
1 2
Weighted mean of six to eighteen individual zircon spot analyses for each sample population; Two standard errors of the mean.
3
All zircons analyzed in this dyke appear to be xenocrysts sourced from older intrusions.
Hence, the reported age is not indicative of the true age of the dyke, which post-dates the development of the diatreme breccia.
The youngest zircon for this population is 4.40 + 0.19 Ma, which is inferred to represent a maximum age of dyke emplacement.
Table 4.11 Significant differences for 206Pb/238U SHRIMP age data.
Age (Ma) Sample Age Difference Significance Level

6.84 98112302 ------ *** >99% confidence interval
5.88 97091713A *** ------ ** 95-99%
4.99 SRD02 305 *** *** ------ * 90-95
4.76 SGD01 276 *** *** ** ------ 24 All significant levels below 90 are labelled
4.75 97101143 *** *** * 8 ------
4.70 SKD01 276 *** *** ** 51 31 ------
4.49 97100808A *** *** *** *** ** * ------
4.43 97101030 *** *** *** *** ** ** 47 ------
3.89 SBD12 329 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ------
3.67 SBD91 416 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ------
3.76 SBD04 157 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 87 72 ------
3.74 SBD41 414 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ** 57 18 ------
98112302 97091713A SRD02 305 SGD01 276 97101143 SKD01 276 97100808A 97101030 SBD12 329 SBD91 416 SBD04 157 SBD41 414
volcaniclastic eg gdio dyke po tonalite po and. dyke po tonalite po tonalite eg gdio dyke eg qz diorite po dacite Old Tonalite Interm Tonalite Young Tonalite
Teluk Puna Sekongkang Arung Ara Gold Ridge Katala Batu Hijau
Notes:
The statistical significance of the difference between the mean ages of the sample populations, each with an analytical uncertainty, is determined for each pair of ages by
employing the P-value test (Cox and Snell, 1981; Moore and McCabe, 1989). The values expressed for the age difference significance levels are equivalent to (1.0 - P) x 100.
Hence, the age difference significance levels correspond to the following levels of certainty:
*** strong evidence for significant difference
** moderate to strong evidence for significant difference
* weak to moderate evidence for significant difference
levels below 90 indicate a reasonable consistency between mean age date pairs (ie not significantly different)
Abbreviations as given for Table 4.6.

4.6.8 Thermobarometry
4.6.8.1 Introduction to the Amphibole-Plagioclase Thermobarometry Technique
Estimates of the pressure (depth) and temperature of felsic intrusion emplacement may be
determined through the application of the aluminum-in-hornblende barometer of Anderson and
Smith (1995) and the amphibole -plagioclase thermometer of Holland and Blundy (1994). The
barometer was initially formulated on an empirical basis from the pressures determined for
contact aureoles adjacent to hornblende-bearing calc -alkaline plutons (Hammarstrom and Zen,
1986; Hollister et al., 1987). The barometer has subsequently been calibrated experimentally
for the equilibrium assemblage of quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, hornblende, ilmenite and
titanite, in the presence of melt and fluid (Johnson and Rutherford, 1989; Schmidt, 1992).
The total aluminum content of hornblende may be used to determine the pressure of
crystallization, or equilibration, of the equilibrium assemblage in calc -alkaline intrusions. The
Al content of the amphibole increases with pressure, following the Tschermak exchange vector,
Si + (Mg, Fe)2+ = AlIV + AlVI (Johnson and Rutherford, 1989; Schmidt, 1992). The Al content
is also sensitive to temperature, due to reactions such as albite + tremolite = edenite + 4 quartz,
and the exchange vector AlIV + (K, Na) = Si (Holland and Blundy, 1994). Anderson and Smith
(1995) document that the barometer is also sensitive to oxygen fugacity, with low fO2
conditions leading to AlVI enrichment and Fe 3+ depletion in amphiboles and anomalously high
estimates of pressure. Hence, in order to avoid incorrect results, Anderson and Smith (1995)
recommend the exclusion of iron-rich amphiboles that contain Fe 2+/(Fe 2++Mg) ratios more than
0.65 and Fe 3+/(Fe 2++Fe 3+) ratios less than 0.20. The barometer is applicable over a range of
conditions, 600o to 850o C and 1 to 10 Kb. The precision of the barometer is + 0.6 Kb (2σ) and
the temperature-dependance is about 1 Kb per 75o C at 2 Kb (Anderson and Smith, 1995).
In order to determine pressure from the Al-in-hornblende barometer for the samples selected
from the Batu Hijau district, temperature estimates were obtained by the application of the
amphibole-plagioclase thermometer of Holland and Blundy (1994). Two exchange reactions
are utilized: 1) albite + tremolite = edenite + 4 quartz, for quartz-bearing assemblages, and 2)
anorthite + richterite = edenite + albite, for both quartz-bearing and silica-undersaturated
assemblages. Holland and Blundy (1994) advise that the application of the thermometer be
restricted to amphiboles with >0.02 pfu (per formula unit) NaA , AlVI<1.8 pfu and Si in the range
of 6.0 to 7.7 pfu, and plagioclase compostions less calcic than An90 , in the case of the first
exchange reaction. Although the restrictions for the application of the second exchange reaction
are similar, notable differences include the requirement of >0.03 pfu NaM4 for amphibole and
An10 to An90 for plagioclase. The precision of the thermometer is +40o C over a range of 400o to
900o C and 1 to 15 Kb (Holland and Blundy, 1994). Pressure and temperature estimates are
calculated by the iterative solution of both the barometer of Anderson and Smith (1995) and the
thermometers of Holland and Blundy (1994). The cation abundance and the allocation of ferric
and ferrous iron for the amphiboles that form the basis for the thermobarometric calculations
are determined following the methodology of Holland and Blundy (1994) and indicated in
Table 4.12.
Table 4.12 Compositions of co-existing amphibole and plagioclase (rims) and thermobarometry results for equigranular and porphyritic intrusions in the Batu Hijau district
Equigranular Quartz Diorite (Sekongkang - 97091937) Equigranular Quartz Diorite (Katala - 97101030) Equigranluar Quartz Diorite (Brang Belu - 97091010)
ID No. 372ahbl1a 372ahbl1b 372ahbl2a 372ahbl2b 372hbl1a 372hbl2a 372hbl3a 373hbl1a 301hbl1a 301hbl2b 302hbl1a 302hbl2a 302hbl3a 302hbl4a 303hbl1a 303hbl2a 101hbl1Ar 101hbl3Ab 104hbl1r 10Ahbl2c 10Ahbl3b 10Ahbl4r 10Ahbl5r 10Bhbl1c 10Bhbl2b 10Bhbl3Ar 10Bhbl3Br
SiO2 52.03 51.99 49.42 50.06 51.74 50.68 51.92 52.41 50.54 49.33 51.34 51.11 50.42 50.70 49.85 50.89 49.34 48.93 48.26 49.34 49.66 49.20 49.19 49.61 50.67 50.11 49.47
TiO2 0.84 1.24 1.47 1.54 1.03 1.42 1.09 1.01 0.97 1.40 1.08 1.19 1.42 0.95 0.97 1.23 1.34 1.45 1.33 1.03 1.29 1.21 1.30 1.44 1.31 1.55 1.53
Al2O3 3.75 4.23 4.63 5.61 4.26 5.07 4.13 3.49 5.41 5.28 4.66 5.42 6.51 4.51 5.12 5.46 5.14 5.63 5.53 5.12 5.10 4.87 5.21 4.83 4.99 5.22 5.10
Fe2O3 2.18 2.33 1.62 3.02 2.91 3.47 2.36 1.26 4.01 2.99 1.37 2.87 3.76 2.94 3.05 2.00 1.34 2.98 2.74 2.27 1.99 0.22 0.58 1.53 1.07 0.39 0.00
FeO 7.21 7.15 10.13 8.92 7.21 8.09 6.95 8.05 6.85 7.26 8.13 7.39 6.50 6.95 6.86 8.04 14.85 13.11 13.28 14.08 14.87 16.19 15.79 14.65 15.06 16.58 16.45
MnO 0.38 0.36 0.42 0.30 0.00 0.22 0.33 0.00 0.30 0.33 0.35 0.00 0.00 0.40 0.31 0.45 0.19 0.44 0.32 0.44 0.37 0.31 0.27 0.26 0.30 0.34 0.25
MgO 17.73 17.97 15.90 16.23 17.81 16.46 18.16 18.47 17.13 16.53 17.12 17.27 17.35 17.44 16.99 17.01 11.90 12.48 12.17 11.79 11.81 11.02 11.05 11.70 11.43 10.97 10.80
CaO 11.75 11.90 11.28 11.38 11.11 11.27 11.76 11.85 11.63 11.48 11.66 11.45 11.81 11.54 11.56 11.71 11.65 11.51 11.28 11.22 11.65 11.63 11.51 11.48 11.59 11.64 11.46
Na2O 0.63 0.92 1.27 1.70 0.99 1.22 0.97 0.95 1.11 0.84 0.48 0.94 1.08 1.03 0.77 0.52 1.64 1.42 1.54 1.54 1.52 1.73 1.70 1.34 1.13 1.78 1.90
K2O 0.40 0.40 0.41 0.43 0.52 0.70 0.36 0.35 0.65 0.63 0.59 0.58 0.76 0.46 0.59 0.58 0.35 0.39 0.34 0.32 0.29 0.37 0.29 0.27 0.25 0.36 0.40
Total (%) 96.90 98.49 96.55 99.19 97.58 98.60 98.03 97.84 98.60 96.07 96.78 98.22 99.61 96.92 96.07 97.89 97.74 98.34 96.79 97.15 98.55 96.75 96.89 97.11 97.80 98.94 97.36
Si 7.449 7.340 7.232 7.117 7.363 7.215 7.355 7.440 7.171 7.182 7.378 7.243 7.062 7.291 7.234 7.251 7.279 7.157 7.175 7.308 7.274 7.363 7.334 7.345 7.428 7.334 7.355
IV
Al 0.551 0.660 0.768 0.883 0.637 0.785 0.645 0.560 0.829 0.818 0.622 0.757 0.938 0.709 0.766 0.749 0.721 0.843 0.825 0.692 0.726 0.637 0.666 0.655 0.572 0.666 0.645
VI
Al 0.082 0.044 0.031 0.057 0.078 0.066 0.045 0.024 0.076 0.088 0.168 0.149 0.137 0.056 0.110 0.168 0.173 0.128 0.144 0.202 0.155 0.222 0.250 0.188 0.290 0.235 0.249
Ti 0.090 0.132 0.162 0.165 0.110 0.152 0.116 0.108 0.104 0.153 0.117 0.127 0.150 0.103 0.106 0.132 0.149 0.159 0.149 0.115 0.142 0.136 0.146 0.160 0.144 0.171 0.171
3+
Fe 0.235 0.248 0.178 0.323 0.311 0.371 0.251 0.135 0.429 0.327 0.148 0.306 0.397 0.318 0.333 0.214 0.149 0.328 0.306 0.253 0.219 0.025 0.065 0.171 0.118 0.043 0.000
2+
Fe 0.864 0.845 1.239 1.061 0.859 0.963 0.823 0.955 0.813 0.884 0.977 0.876 0.762 0.836 0.833 0.958 1.832 1.604 1.651 1.744 1.822 2.026 1.969 1.814 1.846 2.029 2.045
Mn 0.046 0.043 0.052 0.036 0.000 0.027 0.040 0.000 0.036 0.041 0.043 0.000 0.000 0.049 0.038 0.054 0.024 0.055 0.040 0.055 0.046 0.039 0.034 0.033 0.037 0.042 0.031
Mg 3.783 3.781 3.468 3.439 3.777 3.492 3.834 3.907 3.622 3.587 3.667 3.647 3.621 3.738 3.675 3.612 2.616 2.720 2.697 2.603 2.578 2.458 2.455 2.582 2.497 2.393 2.393
Ca 1.802 1.800 1.769 1.734 1.694 1.719 1.785 1.802 1.768 1.791 1.796 1.739 1.772 1.778 1.798 1.788 1.842 1.804 1.797 1.781 1.829 1.865 1.839 1.821 1.821 1.825 1.826
Na 0.175 0.252 0.360 0.469 0.273 0.337 0.266 0.261 0.305 0.237 0.134 0.258 0.293 0.287 0.217 0.144 0.469 0.403 0.444 0.442 0.432 0.502 0.491 0.385 0.321 0.505 0.548
K 0.073 0.072 0.077 0.078 0.094 0.127 0.065 0.063 0.118 0.117 0.108 0.105 0.136 0.084 0.109 0.105 0.066 0.073 0.064 0.060 0.054 0.071 0.055 0.051 0.047 0.067 0.076
Σ cations 15.150 15.217 15.336 15.362 15.196 15.254 15.225 15.255 15.271 15.225 15.158 15.207 15.268 15.249 15.219 15.175 15.320 15.274 15.292 15.255 15.277 15.344 15.304 15.205 15.121 15.310 15.339
3+
XFe 0.21 0.23 0.13 0.23 0.27 0.28 0.23 0.12 0.35 0.27 0.13 0.26 0.34 0.28 0.29 0.18 0.08 0.17 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.01 0.03 0.09 0.06 0.02 0.00
XFe 0.19 0.18 0.26 0.24 0.19 0.22 0.18 0.20 0.18 0.20 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.18 0.18 0.21 0.41 0.37 0.38 0.40 0.41 0.45 0.45 0.41 0.43 0.46 0.46
Xab 0.59 0.59 0.75 0.75 0.41 0.65 0.73 0.81 0.62 0.62 0.68 0.66 0.60 0.59 0.63 0.50 0.41 0.41 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43
T1 (oC) 639 711 732 749 696 701 690 674 716 688 572 652 710 713 673 650 735 767 762 709 738 697 697 696 607 700 690
T2 (oC) 698 730 687 727 799 752 676 620 745 723 630 698 742 741 697 692 791 808 805 780 790 768 761 771 722 771 772
P1 (Kb) 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.7 0.3 0.9 0.2 -0.2 1.0 1.2 0.6 1.4 1.8 0.4 1.2 1.5 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.2 0.9 1.2 1.1 1.1
P2 (Kb) -0.1 -0.1 0.7 1.0 -1.1 0.3 0.3 -0.2 0.6 0.9 0.8 1.1 1.4 0.0 1.0 1.2 -0.2 -0.3 -0.2 -0.3 -0.3 0.0 0.4 -0.4 0.7 0.2 0.1
Mineral hornblende-plagioclase with interstitial quartz-minor k-feldspar; hornblende-biotite-plagioclase with interstitial quartz and minor k-feldspar; hornblende-plagioclase with interstitial quartz; includes magnetite-ilmenite-(titanite)
Assemb. includes magnetite-ilmenite-(titanite) includes magnetite-ilmenite/hematite-(titanite) and relict enstatite-diopside
Porphyritic Tonalite (Arung Ara - SRD02 305m) Poryphyritic Tonalite (Katala - 97101143) Late Porphyritic Quartz Diorite Dyke (Batu Hijau - 98070736)
ID No. D21hbl1b D21hbl2r D22hbl1r D22hbl2b D22hbl3c D23hbl1c D23hbl2c D24hbl1c 431hbl1a 431hbl2a 431hbl3a 432hbl1a 432hbl2a 432hbl4a 433hbl1a 433hbl3a 434hbl1a 435hbl1a 361hbl2a 363hbl4a 361hbl1r 361hbl2c 361hbl4r 363hbl1Ab 363hbl2b 363hbl4r
SiO2 49.34 48.18 48.93 48.73 48.78 48.39 47.82 47.99 48.17 49.14 48.62 48.58 49.74 48.01 49.98 49.60 49.76 49.55 47.41 48.85 46.82 46.72 47.09 48.38 48.64 48.55
TiO2 1.08 1.06 1.01 0.91 1.07 1.14 1.35 1.58 0.81 0.86 0.98 1.10 1.14 1.17 0.95 1.22 0.90 0.94 1.71 1.56 1.55 1.60 1.51 1.51 1.33 1.44
Al2O3 6.82 6.92 6.31 6.79 7.12 7.00 6.92 7.04 7.49 7.41 7.80 7.76 7.51 7.27 6.24 6.69 6.60 6.97 7.53 6.55 7.14 7.14 7.18 6.69 5.94 5.73
Fe2O3 4.26 5.13 3.86 4.62 4.88 4.04 4.44 4.52 4.87 4.33 5.79 4.19 4.67 4.30 3.68 3.28 4.51 4.63 4.61 4.93 5.04 4.61 5.32 3.73 3.51 4.10
FeO 11.69 10.80 12.28 11.64 11.34 11.49 11.50 11.06 8.09 7.80 6.52 8.51 8.24 8.46 8.07 8.99 7.73 7.60 9.67 7.56 9.70 10.24 9.37 12.25 12.68 11.55
MnO 0.37 0.18 0.33 0.47 0.45 0.24 0.43 0.34 0.91 1.03 1.04 0.71 0.44 0.51 0.72 0.76 0.87 0.94 0.41 0.25 0.28 0.35 0.30 0.35 0.38 0.61
MgO 13.12 13.01 12.44 13.22 13.43 13.24 12.63 13.13 15.03 15.43 15.87 14.88 15.90 15.06 16.15 15.79 16.21 16.09 14.22 15.65 13.54 13.41 13.74 12.55 12.32 13.15
CaO 11.22 10.92 10.68 10.71 10.95 10.93 11.30 11.11 10.63 11.25 10.85 11.04 10.44 10.63 11.02 10.24 10.62 10.49 10.95 11.40 11.08 11.28 11.21 11.61 11.47 11.50
Na2O 1.26 1.51 1.35 1.21 1.25 1.10 1.35 1.21 0.90 1.00 1.16 1.09 1.30 0.97 0.70 0.91 0.95 0.92 1.17 1.32 1.26 1.45 1.21 1.21 1.15 1.20
K2O 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.08 0.13 0.00 0.23 0.48 0.30 0.29 0.14 0.18 0.15 0.15 0.17 0.00 0.52 0.30 0.30 0.44 0.25 0.21 0.21 0.22
Total (%) 99.29 97.71 97.19 98.30 99.40 97.65 97.87 97.98 97.13 98.73 98.93 98.15 99.52 96.56 97.66 97.63 98.32 98.13 98.20 98.37 96.71 97.24 97.18 98.49 97.63 98.05
Si 7.086 7.026 7.180 7.069 7.004 7.053 6.995 6.982 6.984 7.008 6.904 6.973 7.008 6.994 7.158 7.121 7.091 7.064 6.869 6.990 6.898 6.875 6.896 7.040 7.145 7.093
IV
Al 0.914 0.974 0.820 0.931 0.996 0.947 1.005 1.018 1.016 0.992 1.096 1.027 0.992 1.006 0.842 0.879 0.909 0.936 1.131 1.010 1.102 1.125 1.104 0.960 0.855 0.907
AlVI 0.241 0.216 0.272 0.230 0.209 0.256 0.188 0.189 0.264 0.254 0.210 0.286 0.255 0.243 0.212 0.253 0.200 0.235 0.155 0.095 0.138 0.114 0.136 0.188 0.174 0.080
Ti 0.117 0.116 0.111 0.099 0.116 0.125 0.149 0.173 0.088 0.092 0.105 0.119 0.121 0.128 0.102 0.132 0.096 0.101 0.186 0.168 0.172 0.177 0.166 0.165 0.147 0.158
3+
Fe 0.460 0.563 0.426 0.505 0.527 0.443 0.489 0.495 0.531 0.464 0.619 0.452 0.495 0.472 0.396 0.354 0.484 0.497 0.503 0.531 0.559 0.511 0.586 0.409 0.388 0.451
Fe2+ 1.404 1.317 1.507 1.412 1.362 1.400 1.407 1.346 0.981 0.930 0.774 1.022 0.971 1.030 0.967 1.079 0.921 0.906 1.172 0.905 1.196 1.260 1.148 1.491 1.557 1.411
Mn 0.045 0.022 0.041 0.058 0.055 0.030 0.053 0.042 0.112 0.124 0.125 0.086 0.053 0.063 0.087 0.092 0.105 0.114 0.050 0.030 0.035 0.044 0.037 0.043 0.047 0.075
Mg 2.808 2.827 2.721 2.858 2.874 2.876 2.753 2.847 3.247 3.279 3.359 3.183 3.339 3.270 3.447 3.378 3.442 3.419 3.071 3.337 2.973 2.941 2.999 2.721 2.697 2.863
Ca 1.727 1.706 1.679 1.665 1.685 1.707 1.771 1.732 1.651 1.719 1.651 1.698 1.576 1.659 1.691 1.575 1.622 1.602 1.700 1.748 1.749 1.779 1.759 1.810 1.805 1.800
Na 0.351 0.427 0.384 0.340 0.348 0.311 0.383 0.341 0.253 0.277 0.319 0.303 0.355 0.274 0.194 0.253 0.262 0.254 0.329 0.366 0.360 0.414 0.344 0.341 0.328 0.340
K 0.024 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.024 0.015 0.024 0.000 0.043 0.087 0.054 0.053 0.025 0.033 0.027 0.027 0.031 0.000 0.096 0.055 0.056 0.083 0.047 0.039 0.039 0.041
Σ cations 15.177 15.194 15.141 15.167 15.200 15.163 15.217 15.165 15.170 15.226 15.216 15.202 15.190 15.172 15.123 15.143 15.163 15.128 15.262 15.235 15.238 15.323 15.222 15.207 15.182 15.219
XFe3+ 0.25 0.30 0.22 0.26 0.28 0.24 0.26 0.27 0.35 0.33 0.44 0.31 0.34 0.31 0.29 0.25 0.34 0.35 0.30 0.37 0.32 0.29 0.34 0.22 0.20 0.24
XFe 0.33 0.32 0.36 0.33 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.32 0.23 0.22 0.19 0.24 0.23 0.24 0.22 0.24 0.21 0.21 0.28 0.21 0.29 0.30 0.28 0.35 0.37 0.33
Xab 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.47 0.45 0.46 0.48 0.57 0.52 0.39 0.53 0.55 0.45 0.45 0.44 0.45 0.45 0.52 0.42 0.42 0.42
T1 (oC) 721 757 695 737 752 722 765 766 720 718 763 724 719 724 694 688 710 724 795 805 808 833 797 767 740 793
T2 (oC) 747 776 741 749 734 734 773 773 740 747 786 746 746 742 727 726 734 748 804 825 812 827 795 779 793 811
P1 (Kb) 2.0 1.6 2.0 1.8 1.8 2.2 1.5 1.5 2.6 2.5 2.0 2.7 2.5 2.4 1.9 0.3 2.0 2.1 1.3 0.3 0.8 0.1 1.0 1.3 0.1 1.2
P2 (Kb) 1.6 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.6 2.1 1.3 1.4 2.3 2.0 1.5 2.3 2.1 2.1 1.5 1.9 1.6 1.7 1.0 -0.2 0.7 0.3 1.1 1.0 -0.3 1.6
Mineral quartz, hornblende and plagioclase phenocrysts in a groundmass of plagioclase-quartz quartz, hornblende and plagioclase phenocrysts in a groundmass of plagioclase-quartz-biotite diopside, hornblende and plagioclase phenocrysts in a plagioclase-rich groundmass
Assemb. biotite-hornblende-minor k-feldspar; includes magnetite-ilmenite-(titanite); relict enstatite and minor k-feldspar; includes magnetite-ilmenite-(titanite) with minor quartz; includes magnetite-ilmenite-(titanite)
3+ 3+ 3+ 2+ 2+ 2+
Notes: XFe = Fe /(Fe + Fe ); XFe = Fe /(Mg + Fe ); titanite occurs commonly as an alteration product of ilmenite within the majority of the intrusions in the district.
Xab = albite porportion of rim of plagioclase phenocryst grain in contact or in near contact (<3mm) with an amphibole rim. In the case of samples 97091010 and SRD02 305m, the Xab values represent average rim compositions from 2-3 grains within 10mm of the amphibole grains analyzed.
T1 and T2 are from the edenite-tremolite (T1) and edenite-richterite (T2) thermometers of Holland and Blundy (1994) at a specified pressure. P1 and P2 represent the pressures determined by the input of T1 and T2 into the Al-in-hornblende barometer of Anderson and Smith (1995).
T and P solved by iteration. Preferred T and P values are indicated in bold print. Stated precisions (2 sigma) are + 0.6Kb (Anderson and Smith, 1995) and + 40oC (Holland and Blundy, 1994). Calculated pressure is temperature-dependant (~1Kb per 75oC, at P=2kb).
118 CHAPTER 4 VOLCANO-SEDIMEMTARY AND INTRUSIVE EVOLUTION
4.6.8.2 Application to Batu Hijau District Intrusions
Several of the equigranular quartz diorite and porphyritic tonalite samples from the Batu Hijau
district contain amphibole in textural equilibrium with biotite, plagioclase (An60 to An20 ),
quartz, ilmenite, and, less commonly, minor K-feldspar (Table 4.12). The composition of the
amphiboles in these sele cted samples meet the criteria of Holland and Blundy (1994) expressed
above. The presence of titanite in most of these samples is related to subsolidus alteration of
ilmenite and titano-magnetite in the presence of plagioclase. The general lack of equilibrium
titanite, the local absence of K-feldspar, and the relatively calcic composition of plagioclase (cf.
An35 to An25 recommended by Anderson and Smith, 1995), indicate that some results may
reflect maximum pressures, due to the potential incorporation of excess aluminum in
amphibole. However, Anderson and Smith (1995) note that samples that lack equilibrium
titanite and K-feldspar from the Mount Stuart batholith, northern Washington Cascades, do not
appear to indicate significantly different pressure results than those samples which contain
these minerals.
The compositions of the amphiboles in the samples, which are typically Mg-rich with
Fe 3+/(Fe 2++Fe 3+) more than 0.2, are consistent with the high fO2 conditions commonly
associated with magnetite-bearing, calc-alkaline igneous suites (Czmanske and Wones, 1973;
Ishihara, 1981) and suited for the application of the aluminum-in-hornblende barometer. The
low Fe 3+/(Fe 2++Fe 3+) ratios of the amphiboles in one of the samples (< 0.17; 97091010) are
noted. However, these amphiboles are Mg-rich (Fe 2+/(Fe 2++Mg) < 0.45) and considered
reasonable candidates for the use of the barometer. The amphibole compositions in some of the
felsic intrusion samples from the Batu Hijau district do not contain sufficient Na to utilize the
thermometer of Holland and Blundy (1994) and have thus been excluded from the
thermobarometric database (e.g. subsolidus actinolite in 98062708, Figure 4.23).
The pressure and temperature estimates are based on the electron microprobe analyses of
adjacent amphibole and plagioclase rims in six samples, which include three samples of
equigranular quartz diorite, two samples of porphyritic tonalite and one sample of a late-stage
porphyritic andesite dyke (Tables 4.12 and 4.13, Figure 4.1). The analyses include phenocryst
phases and minor matrix grains in porphyritic rocks, and framework crystals in equigranular
quartz diorites. The lack of unaltered amphibole in the Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry complex
precludes the application of the Al-in-hornblende barometer to determine the emplacement
conditions of these intrusions.
4.6.8.3 Results
The results of the thermobarometric calculations are indicated in Figure 4.42 and Tables 4.12
and 4.13. In general, the pressures and temperatures indicated by the porphyritic intrusions lie
above the solidus of wet tonalite (Anderson and Smith, 1995; Schmidt and Thompson, 1996),
whereas the equigranular quartz diorites fall below this solidus. The hypersolidus relationship is
consistent with the quenching of amphibole (typically magnesio-hornblende) and plagioclase
compositions in phenocrysts formed during the crystallization sequence of porphyritc
hornblende tonalite and andesite dykes, prior to the development of the groundmass and
complete solidification. These results indicate equilibration at mean pressures and temperatures
that range from about 2.3 Kb and 720o C, for the 4.7 Ma tonalite stock at Katala, to 0.8 Kb and
790o C, for the late andesite dyke in the Santong Valley, near Batu Hijau. This dyke is inferred
to be younger than 3.7 Ma. There is moderate scatter to the data, with individual pressure-
temperature pairs forming clusters about the above means. However, there is a distinct
separation of data between the porphyritic tonalite samples and the andesite dyke.
Table 4.13 Preferred mean pressure-temperature estimates for felsic equigranular

and porphyritic intrusions in the Batu Hijau district.
Analysis Sample, Location Number of Pressure Temperature Approx. Age
o
Number (intrusion type) Analyses Kbar C Ma
Equigranular
1 97091937, Sekongkang 8 0.3 + 0.4 699 + 34 5.9
(QD1 - quartz diorite)
2 97101030, Katala 8 1.1 + 0.5 672 + 48 4.4

3 97091010, Brang Belu 11 0.9 + 0.3 709 + 44 4.4-3.8?

Porphyritic
4 SRD02 305m, Arung Ara 8 1.8 + 0.3 739 + 25 5
(porphyritic tonalite)
5 97101143, Katala 10 2.3 + 0.3 718 + 20 4.7

(porphyritic tonalite)
6 98070736, Batu Hijau 8 0.8 + 0.5 792 + 32 <3.7

(porphyritic andesite dyke)
Notes: Pressures and temperatures determined by the iterative application of the Al-in-
hornblende barometer of Anderson and Smith (1995) and the edenite-tremolite thermometer of
Holland and Blundy (1994). Uncertainties in pressure and temperature estimates represent one
standard deviation from the mean. Age estimates are based on U-Pb SHRIMP results and age-
contact relationships.
If the pressure is assumed to be lithostatic, then the depth of equilibration may be estimated
(e.g. 1 Kb = 3.6 km, using a density of 2.8 g/cm3 ). The hydrostatic pressure component is not
considered to be significant during the crystallization of the hornblende and plagioclase
phenocrysts and mineral grains analyzed. However, the fugacity of water probably increased
late in the crystallization history of the tonalite porphyry intrusive complex at Batu Hijau, and
this is discussed in Section 4.10. Hence, assuming lithostatic pressure, hornblende and
plagioclase phenocrysts developed at depths of about 8 km in the melts that formed the
porphyritic tonalite stock in Katala and about 3 km for the late-stage andesite dyke. The depth
of complete solidification of the porphyritic intrusions may be estimated by projecting the mean
of each sample population at constant temperature back to the solidus. This assumes that there
was only limited cooling of the magma during ascent, a hypothesis that is supported by
previous studies concerning the rapid emplacement of felsic porphyritic intrusions at high
crustal-levels (c.f. Jahns and Burnham, 1967; Burnham, 1979; Candela, 1989). Hence, the
inferred depths of solidification of the porphyritic intrusions are about 3 to 5 km for the
tonalites and <2 km for the andesite dyke. The older porphyritic intrusions were emplaced and
solidified at greater pressures and depths than the younger porphyritic intrusions. If significant
cooling did occur in the late-stages of crystallization, then the pressure and depth estimates for
the solidus should increase.
The zircon saturation temperatures for zircon-bearing intrusions are plotted on the wet tonalite
solidus in Figure 4.42 for means of comparison to the thermobarometric results. The pressures,
or depths, that correspond to these saturation temperatures reflect a minimum pressure for
zircon crystallization in each intrusion type. These pressures indicate a cluster of points, which
range from about 1.4 Kb (5 km) at 720o C for porphyritic tonalite at Arung Ara to 0.8 Kb (3 km)
at 745o C for porphyritic dacite at Batu Hijau. These estimated pressures and zircon saturation
temperatures are similar to those determined from the thermobarometric calculations for zircon-
bearing porphyritic intrusions. It is worth noting that the zircon saturation temperatures for late-
stage andesite dykes lie below the wet tonalite solidus at pressures <2 Kb, which is consistent
with the absence of indiginous zircons in this intrusion type (Sections 4.6.5.2, 4.6.6 and 4.6.7).
The thermobarometric results for the equigranular quartz diorite intrusions indicate subsolidus
pressure and temperatures. This relationship, combined with the actinolitic hornblende
composition of some of the amphiboles (e.g. 97091737, Sekongkang), suggests the subsolidus
reequilibration of amphibole and plagioclase. The equigranular hypidiomorphic textures of
these plutons are consistent with a slow cooling history subsequent to solidification, which
would favor subsolidus cation exchange between coexisting crystal phases. The results indicate
mean pressures (depths) and temperatures that range from about 1.1 Kb (4 km) and 670o C, for
the 4.4 Ma quartz diorite pluton at Katala (QD3), to 0.3 Kb (1 km) and 700o C, for the 5.9 Ma
quartz diorite pluoton at Sekongkang (QD1). There is moderate scatter to the data, but the
Sekongkang data plot as a distinct population with respect to the Batu Hijau and Katala data
points.
The temperature of solidification of these equigranular plutons may be estimated by projecting

the mean pressures of each data population at constant pressure to the wet tonalite solidus. This
assumes that the final equilibration of the amphibole and plagioclase crystals in these intrusions
occurred at the same lithostatic pressure (depth) as that which charaterized the solidus (i.e. no
change in depth of pluton between emplacement and subsolidus reequilibration). If an uplift
event occurred subsequent to solidification and prior to reequilibration, then these estimates
would represent maximum temperatures and minimum pressures (depths). The corresponding
temperature (and depth) estimates include 725o C (4 km) for Katala and 740o C (3 km) for Brang
Belu, near Batu Hijau. These temperatures are higher than the zircon saturation temperatures
for the quartz diorite plutons in these areas (707o C for Katala and 711o C for Brang Belu), but
are considered a reasonable indication of the solidus, given the precision of the amphibole -
plagioclase thermometer (+40o C, Holland and Blundy, 1994).
The low pressure estimate for amphibole in the Sekongkang sample necessitates a high
temperature estimate (e.g. >850o C), which is considerably higher than the 727o C zircon
saturation temperature. This may reflect the limitations of the thermobarometer, the actinolitic
hornblende (low-Al) composition of the sample analyzed, post-solidus uplift of the pluton prior
to reequilibration, or high emplacement temperatures. If the lattermost possibility proved to be
the case, then the Sekongkang quartz diorite would be similar to the late tonalite and
granodiorite dykes in this area, which indicate zircon saturation temperatures of 776o to 811o C.
The implications of the depth and temperature of emplacement of both porphyritic and
equigranular felsic intrusions are discussed further in Section 4.10.2.3.
4.7 Santong Volcanic Bre ccia
Andesitic volcaniclastic breccia forms an elliptical map pattern about 1.2 km (north-south) by
600 m (east-west) in the vicinity of Gold Ridge and the Santong Valley (Figure 4.1). The
breccia body tapers with depth and plunges moderately (~45o ) towards the south along its
northern contact and steeply (>70o ) towards the south along its southern margin (Figure 4.2).
The contacts with adjacent rock units, as recorded in outcrop and drill core, are unconformable.
The contact age-relationships and primary lithologic textures discussed below indicate this unit
to be a near-surface eruptive vent (diatreme) breccia that formed late in the igneous evolution
of the Batu Hijau district. The non-genetic descriptive terminology that follows adopts that of
McPhie et al. (1993) for volcaniclastic rocks.
The andesitic breccia unit forms recessive outcrop in stream valleys and a portion of Gold
Ridge. The unit displays unconformable contacts with underlying and adjacent volcanic lithic
breccia and sandstone, phyric andesite intrusion(s), equigranular quartz diorite (QD3) and
porphyritic hornblende tonalite dykes. Late-stage porphyritic andesite and dacite dykes,
centimeters to several meters wide, exhibit intrusive contacts with the breccia body in outcrop
and drill core (e.g. SGD01 271 to 279m). There are no direct cross-cutting relationships
between the andesitic breccia unit and the tonalite porphyry intrusions that comprise the core of
the Batu Hijau deposit.
Two major facies are recognized by Newmont geologists from recent exposures created by site
development subsequent to thesis mapping (A. Maryono, written communication, 2000). These
include: 1) an upper, poorly to moderately sorted and bedded facies, characterized by
carbonized logs, leaf fragments and subrounded to subangular, argillic -altered rock clasts
supported in a soil- and clay-rich matrix, which form surficial deposits along the axis of the
Santong River, and 2) a lower, more massive facies, characterized by polymictic and milled
rock fragments supported in an argillic -altered sandy matrix that lacks abundant organic
material. The following descriptions focus on the lower facies, which comprises the majority of
the diatreme breccia unit.
The breccia unit is medium-gray to greenish-gray, where least-altered and unoxidized, and light
gray to white, where affected by argillic alteration and oxidized. The most common rock types
consist of lithic-, crystal- and accretionary lapilli-bearing andesitic volcanic sandstone and
breccia. The lithic clasts are angular to subrounded, commonly less than 64 mm in mean
diameter and supported in a coarse ash matrix. Clast size increases to 50 to 200 cm locally.
Common clast types include andesitic volcaniclastic rock, phyric andesite, equigranular quartz
diorite, porphyritic tonalite, fine- to coarse-volcanic sandstone and minor, comb quartz vein
fragments. Clasts of copper-iron sulfide-bearing quartz diorite occur locally (C. Clode, written
communication, 2000). The abundance and size of the clasts in the breccia decrease from the
Santong River to the Gold Ridge area, towards the north, with a corresponding increase in the
abundance of fining-upwards, graded sequences of accretionary lapilli-bearing volcanic
sandstone.
The size, abundance and angularity of clasts in the Santong breccia decrease from south to
north, which probably reflects clast transport from a southern wall-rock source during breccia
emplacement. In the vicinity of the southern breccia margin, the compositions of the cla sts
commonly reflect the composition of the adjacent wall-rock. Volcaniclastic clasts are more
abundant to the west and quartz diorite-tonalite clasts are more common towards the east.
Clasts of felsic intrusions are typically more rounded than clasts of andesitic volcaniclastic
rock. Milled and rounded ball-bearing-like clasts, typically 2 to 6 mm in mean diameter, are
common in the Santong breccia, particularly towards the south.
In drill core from SGD01 (Gold Ridge), which provides the best exposure of the stratigraphy of
the northern portion of the breccia unit to date, several broadly fining-upwards sequences are
apparent (Figure 4.17). Each sequence typically includes a coarse clastic base, which has a
mean clast size of more than 1 cm and a maximum clast size in excess of 6 cm, that broadly
fines-upward to an accretionary lapilli-rich fine- to medium-sandstone top. The true thickness
of these fining-upward sequences ranges from about 15 to 60 m, with the amalgamation of
units inferred locally. The thicknesses of the accretionary lapilli-bearing tops range from about
1 to 10 m. The contact with the clastic base of the overlying sequence is typically sharp. The
mean grain size of the matrix to these graded units ranges from >1 mm for the basal sequence
to about 0.25 mm for the upper sequence. Clast abundance also varies from bottom to the top of
each units, with 20-40% clasts for the base and typically <5% for the top.
4.7.2 Petrography
4.7.2.1 Volcanic Breccia
The abundance of clasts within the breccia unit is variable and commonly ranges from <5-40%,
as discussed. The clast types include those pre-breccia rock types documented in Sections 4.1
to 4.4 and 4.6, minor fine- to medium-comb quartz vein fragments to 1 cm, and rare
altered/mineralized (pyrite-chalcopyrite-chalcocite) quartz diorite. In addition, subrounded
clasts of polycrystalline quartz and plagioclase, less than 1 mm in mean diameter, comprise up
to 3% of the thin sections studied. In this clast type, mosaics of quartz and plagioclase grains,
typically less than 0.1 mm in diameter, form circular domains with cuspate-lobate boundaries to
interstitial chlorite and light brown isotropic material. The texture and grain size of these
polycrystalline mosaics are consistent with development by devitrification, with the quartz-
plagioclase forming after sites of potential spherulites and the interstitial chlorite replacing
glassy groundmass (M. Doyle, personal communication, 2000).
Many of the clasts are epidote-chlorite-calcite altered, whereas the matrix to the breccia lacks
epidote and typically includes carbonate, secondary clay-mica and chlorite (Figure 4.18).
Contact age-relationships, such as epidote veinlets in clasts that do not continue into the matrix
of the breccia, suggest that the Santong volcanic breccia formed subsequent to the epidote
alteration of the wall-rock.
The breccia matrix is compositionally distinct to the clasts. In the volcanic breccia sequence
that occurs in the southern part of the unit (e.g. SGD02, Santong Valle y), the matrix contains
about 15-40% broken and euhedral crystals, 0.05 to 1 mm, 10-20% milled rock fragments to
1mm, and minor polycrystalline quartz-plagioclase clasts (Figure 4.18). These crystals and
fragments are supported in a groundmass of microcrystalline material, less than 0.05 mm in
mean grain size. The crystals consist predominantly of plagioclase, with lesser amounts of
quartz (5-10%), which is locally resorbed, pyrite (1-4%), titanite (1-3%), minor hematite and
rare pleochroic pale brown to bluish-green amphibole. Variable amounts of carbonate and clay-
mica, and lesser amounts of chlorite have affected the lithic fragments and groundmass of the
breccia matrix, whereas plagioclase crystals are partially to completely replaced by calcite and
?albite.
4.7.2.2 Accretionary Lapilli-bearing Volcanic Sandstone
Accretionary lapilli-bearing volcanic sandstone intervals, which contain as much as 35% lapilli,
occur throughout the breccia unit. However, these lapilli-bearing intervals increase in
abundance towards the north, as discussed above. In SGD01, and in outcrops in the Gold Ridge
vicinity, these accretionary lapilli are 3 to 6 mm in diameter with aspect ratios of 3:2 to 2:1
(Figure 4.18). The cores are 2 to 5 mm in maximum diameter and consist of crystals of quartz,
plagioclase and carbonate, and polycrystalline quartz-plagioclase-chlorite, typically 0.05 to 0.2
mm in diameter. The 0.2 to 0.5 mm thick rims consist of fine-grained equivalents of the cores
and fine-outwards to material that is <0.005 mm in diameter. Rim-core contacts are sharp,
which enables the classification of the accretionary lapilli as rim-types, following the
nomenclature of Schumacher and Schmincke (1991).
The matrix of these accretionary lapilli-bearing intervals consists of broken and euhedral
plagioclase, quartz, with local rim overgrowths, pyrite, titanite, minor hematite (after pyrite)
and rare pleochroic, bluish-green to pale -brown amphibole, supported in a microcrystalline
groundmass (<0.01 mm). The total abundance of crystals does not exceed 30%. Crystal grain
size typically ranges from 0.05 to 0.2 mm. Rounded clasts of polycrystalline quartz-
plagioclase-chlorite, to 1 mm, comprise 1-3% of the matrix. Carbonate-clay-chlorite alteration
is moderate to intense.
4.7.3 Mode of Emplacement
The contact relationships, geometry, facies and textures of the Santong volcanic breccia body
are consistent with the development of this unit as a maar diatreme complex, created by a series
of phreatomagmatic eruptions (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984, Sillitoe et al., 1984; Cas and
Wright, 1987). The features consistent with diatreme emplacement include: 1) a downward
tapering, funnel-shaped geometry and sharp contacts with fractured wall-rock, 2) carbonized
wood and plant fragments in the upper levels of the sequence, 3) variable composition of clast
types that reflect the composition of proximal wall-rock, 4) the presence of extensively milled
and rounded rock fragments, 5) clasts of quartz veins and copper-iron sulfide-bearing intrusive
rocks, 6) pervasive hydrothermal alteration of the breccia matrix, and 7) the presence of
accretionary lapilli and clasts of devitrified ?spherulitic material. The abundance of coarse
clastic material in the southern portion of the breccia (e.g. SGD02), and the general decrease in
clast size towards the north, support the interpretation that the throat of the diatreme occurs in
the southern part of the unit.
Accretionary lapilli are typical of primary pyroclastic deposits in subaerial settings, particularly
those that are formed by phreatomagmatic eruptions (Schumacher and Schmincke, 1991;
McPhie et al., 1993). Potential depositional settings include surge deposits of tuff rings,
pyroclastic flow and fall deposits from phreatoplinian eruptions, fall deposits from ash clouds,
and subvolcanic intrusive (diatreme) breccia complexes (McPhie et al., 1993). The increased
abundance of accretionary lapilli-bearing coarse ash tuff in the northern portion of the Santong
breccia unit (e.g. SGD01, Gold Ridge) may suggest that this area occupied a more distal setting
than that represented by the southern, coarse clastic diatreme (throat) facies (e.g. SGD02,
Santong Valley). The rim-type characteristics of the accretionary lapilli in Gold Ridge are
similar to those documented for ash deposits proximal (within 3 to 4 km) to the
eruptive source in the Martleles Maar, Spain and the Laacher See Volcano, Germany
(Schumacher and Schmincke, 1991).
The concentration of accretionary lapilli within the ash-rich beds, which are interbedded with
lapilli-tuff and tuff-breccia in SGD01 (Gold Ridge), is consistent with pulses of increased
phreatomagmatic activity associated with the fragmentation and transport of adjacent wall-rock
during diatreme emplacement. The deposition of the accretionary lapilli by a pyroclastic surge
mechanism is not considered to be a probable scenario, as the characteristic bedforms of these
deposits have yet to be recognized (e.g. laminations, cross-bedding and dune forms; Cas and
Wright, 1987; McPhie et al., 1993). The abundance of fine-grained ash in the matrix of the
accretionary lapilli-bearing ash tuff and tuff-breccia does not support a pyroclastic flow origin,
as these types of flows typically display an elutriation of fine ash and an enrichment of the
crystal component in the matrix (McPhie et al., 1993). The moderately dipping orientation of
the northern breccia margin, as determined by surface mapping and a basement pierce-point in
SGD01 (down hole depth of 340 m), is not consistent with the subhorizontal setting that
typifies the surficial deposits of phreatomagmatic eruptions.
Therefore, the favoured source of the accretionary lapilli-bearing ash tuff and lapilli tuff-tuff
breccia sequence in the northern portion of the Santong breccia unit lies within the diatreme
vent, as opposed to the subaerial deposits of an adjacent tuff ring or a series of pyroclastic
flows. The presence of reworked fragmental material in the Santong Valley, which includes
bedded clay altered clasts, carbonized wood and plant fragments, suggest a near-surface setting
for this portion of the diatreme, or, alternatively, may indicate recent resedimentation by
surficial processes.
4.7.4 Geochemistry
The breccia unit is variably calcite-clay-mica-pyrite altered, which limits the significance of
any interpretation of the composition of the samples collected. The sampling of the breccia unit
was restricted to finer-grained volcanic sandstone intervals, in order to minimize contamination
by wall-rock fragments. The least-altered sandstone samples indicate 8.5 and 8.8% LOI on
chemical analysis. Therefore, the results of these analyses may not be representative of the
breccia unit. However, it is useful to compare the chemical composition of these samples to the
pre-breccia volcaniclastic and intrusive rock types, particularly in terms of immobile elements,
which are less affected by secondary alteration.
The breccia body contains less SiO 2 and more K2 O than the majority of the felsic intrusions in
the study area, when normalized to an anhydrous major-oxide elemental assemblage (Tables
4.7 and 4.8; Figure 4.27). However, the elevated K2 O values may, in part, reflect K-rich mica-
clay alteration. The breccia samples plot in the basaltic andesite to andesite fields on the TAS
diagram (Figure 4.27; Le Maitre, 1984) and display similar SiO 2 abundances to the late-stage
porphyritic andesite and dacite dykes that intrude the breccia unit. If compared to the Harker
diagram trends defined by the Batu Hijau district volcaniclastic and intrusive rock suites, the
breccia samples contain higher concentrations of TiO 2 and Al2 O3 , and lower abundances of
CaO and Na2 O, for the range, 57 to 59 wt. % SiO 2 (Figure 4.31). The CIPW norm reflects
these relative differences in the abundance of major-oxide elements. The breccia samples are
characterized by normative corundum (high-alumina, in part, due to mica-clay alteration),
relatively high normative orthoclase, and albite/anorthite ratios similar to late-stage porphyritic
andesite dykes.
The breccia samples contain higher LILE concentrations, lower LREE contents (e.g. ~7 ppm
La) and lower HFSE abundances (with the exception of TiO 2 ), when compared to the felsic
intrusions in the district (Tables 4.7 and 4.8; Figures 4.34 and 4.35). The LREE/HREE ratio
(e.g. La/Yb ~4.5 to 5) and the Nd/Sm ratio (~3.8) are lower than these ratios in the majority of
the felsic intrusions analyzed (Figure 4.40). The trace-element signature of the breccia samples,
including the relative relationships to NMORB- and chondrite-norms (Figures 4.38 and 4.39),
are more similar to the late-stage porphyritic andesite dykes than any other rock unit in the Batu
Hijau district.
4.7.5 Geochronology
The breccia unit intrudes, and contains fragments of, Miocene volcaniclastic rocks and phyric
andesite intrusions, and early Pliocene felsic intrusions. The youngest of these felsic intrusions
in the vicinity of the breccia body is constrained to be 5.0 Ma by U-Pb SHRIMP (SRD02
305m, Arung Ara porphyritic tonalite). However, the breccia also contains fragments of
equigranular quartz diorite that appear similar in texture and mineralogy to QD3 quartz diorite
at Batu Hijau-Katala, which indicate dates of 4.4 to 3.8 Ma, on the basis of U-Pb SHRIMP and
relative contact age-relationships (Section 4.6.7). Hence, the emplacement of the diatreme
certainly occurred subsequent to 5.0 Ma and probably after 3.8 Ma.
The porphyritic andesite and dacite dykes that intrude the breccia provide a minimum age
constraint to breccia emplacement. These dykes lack indigenous zircons and contain zircon
xenocrysts as young as 4.4 Ma (Figure 4.41; Section 4.6.7). Porphyritic andesite dykes post-
date the emplacement of porphyritic dacite (3.9 Ma; SBD12 329 m) and younger equigranular
quartz diorite (QD3; ~3.8 Ma) in the Batu Hijau area. Therefore, the age of the breccia is
loosely constrained to be approximately, or younger than, 3.7 Ma, the age of the Batu Hijau
tonalite porphyry complex. However, no actual contact age-relationship has been recorded
between the breccia unit and the Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry complex, to date.
4.8 Coastal Volcaniclastic Rocks and Phyric Basaltic Andesite Dykes
Basaltic to andesitic volcaniclastic rocks form the coastline to southwestern Sumbawa and
occur in ouctrop and road exposures to the northwest, west and south of the Batu Hijau district.
This volcaniclastic succession is intruded by steeply dipping, columnar-jointed, phyric basaltic
to andesitic dykes. The vocaniclastic rocks equate to the Plio-Pleistocene volcanic
conglomerate and epiclastic sequences described by Suratno (1994, 1995). The age of the
basaltic to andesitic dykes is not constrained, but could be in the Pleistocene. The
degree of hydrothermal alteration of these units (zeolite-calcite+smectite) is less in
metamorphic rank than the chlorite-calcite+epidote alteration that affects the Batu Hijau district
group of rocks.
The volcaniclastic succession and basaltic to andesitic dykes were not mapped in detail and do
not represent a focus of this study. However, both are described briefly in this section to place
the Batu Hijau district into the context of the regional geology discussed by others (e.g. Suratno
1994, 1995; Sudradjat et al., 1998).
4.8.1 Volcaniclastic Sequence
The volcaniclastic sequence unconformably overlies hornblende-plagioclase phyric andesite in

the vicinity of the primary accesss road, 3 km west of the concentrator plant site (Figure 1.2).
This andesite is contiguous with the phyric andesite intrusive complex that forms most of the
western part of the Batu Hijau study area (Section 4.3.1). Along the western coastline of
Sumbawa, the volcaniclastic succession contains greenish gray to reddish gray and tan volcanic
sandstone and minor mudstone. Moderate- to well-developed bedding in these units dips gently
towards the ocean, away from the Batu Hijau district (Figure 1.2). The sandstones are thin- to
thick-bedded, normal-graded and locally calcareous. Ripple forms, vertical burrows and fluid-
escape structures occur locally (e.g. southwest shore of Benete Bay). Interbeds of subangular to
subrounded lithic granules and cobbles, centimeters to tens of centimeters thick, are not
uncommon, although they constitute a small portion of a typical outcrop exposure. The matrix
to the sandstones typically consists of fine- to medium-sand, broken plagioclase and pyroxene
crystals and lithic fragments. The fine-grained clastic units are intercalated with increasing
amounts of volcaniclastic breccia and conglomerate towards the east, closer to the Batu Hijau
district.
Volcanic breccia and conglomerate units form cliffs 50 to 100 m high, near the river mouth of
Brang Tongoloka, along the south coast of Sumbawa. The coarse clastic units are massive and
less commonly, moderately bedded. The clasts, which consist predominantly of phyric andesite
and volcaniclastic rock types, typically range from cobble to boulder size and locally exceed 50
to 100 cm in mean diameter. Clast abundance is variable and typically ranges from 5 to 20 % of
the outcrop surface. The clasts are typically angular to subrounded and matrix-supported.
However, clast-supported beds of subrounded to rounded, polymictic cobble and boulder
conglomerate do occur along the south coast (Figure 4.19), where these beds are locally capped
by coralline limestone. The matrix of the breccia horizons contains abundant mud, lithic
granules, and broken to euhedral plagioclase and pyroxene crystals. In contrast, the matrix to
the conglomerate beds typically consists of sand, lithic granules and only a minor crystal
component.
Ouctrops of coralline limestone, which represent raised coral reefs, occur up to elevations of ~
75 m within 200 m of the coast line at Sekongkang Bay (Figure 1.2). The limestone is light
gray and composed primarily of a porous coralline framework, with centimeter- to decimeter-
scale vugs. The depositional age of this limestone is inferred to be younger than that of the
underlying Plio-Pleistocene volcaniclastic rocks, and hence, can be equated to either the
Quaternary reefal limestone, or late Pliocene coralline limestone, mapped in the coastal regions
of Sumbawa by Suratno (1994, 1995) (Figure 3.2). However, the younger age is preferred, on
the basis of the exhumation rates estimated in Chapter 5.
4.8.1.1 Depositional Setting
The well-bedded and normal-graded nature of the fine-clastic lithologies is inferred to indicate
a subaqueous depositional environment, particularly where ripple bed forms and fluid-escape
structures are present. The calcareous cement and the bioturbation (vertical burrows) features in
the sandstone in coastal outcrops further suggest a shallow marine setting. The lithic granule -
and cobble-bearing intercalations within the volcanic sandstone sequence are consistent with
higher-energy current deposition, which may reflect the proximity of paleo-river mouths and/or
the activity of turbidity currents.
The massive and poorly-sorted volcanic lithic breccia units probably represent the
resedimentation of primary volcanic material. The mud-rich, matrix-supported character of
these horizons is consistent with deposition by a debris flow mechanism, where dispersive
forces serve to buoy and transport large clasts over great distances from the volcanic source
region. Evidence for subaqueous deposition is lacking, except in exposures that contain graded
sandstone intercalations. A distal coastal setting is favored for the volcanic lithic breccia units,
where subaerial debris flows (e.g. lahars) episodically meet the sea and are reworked in a
shallow marine environment.
The clast-supported, bedded conglomerate sequences, which lack abundant crystals and mud in
the matrix, are inferred to have formed by subaqueous depostional processes. The rounded
nature of the cobbles and boulders in these units suggests the activity of fluvial processes prior
to final deposition in a near-shore marine environment. Such a setting is similar to that of the
present day, where a local hiatus in clastic sedimentation would enable the construction of coral
reefs on volcaniclastic substrate.
4.8.2 Pyroxene-Plagioclase Phyric Basaltic Andesite Dykes
Pyroxene-plagioclase phyric basaltic -andesite dykes intrude both the coastal volcaniclastic
sequence and the hornblende-phyric andesite that occurs in road exposures west of the
concentrator plant site (Figure 4.19). The dykes are subvertical and display pseudo-radial
orientations with respect to the western boundary of the study area. Dykes to the northwest of
the district strike north-northwest, dykes to the west trend west-northwest, and dykes to the
southwest strike northeast (Figure 1.2). The widths of these dykes typically range from 1 to 5
m, and may reach 12 m locally. The strike lengths inferred from aerial photographs and cliff
exposures exceed 500 m. Subhorizontal columnar cooling joints are commonly oriented
perpendicular to the dyke margins. The intrusive center to these dykes has yet to be identified.
However, at least three phyric andesitic dome-like intrusions are recorded in the vicinities of
Sekongkang Bay, Tongo and Puna Bay (Figure 1.2).
The phenocryst assemblage of the dykes consists of about 15 to 30% plagioclase, 0.5 to 3 mm
in length, 2 to 3% clinopyroxene, 0.5 to 1 mm in diameter, <0.5% orthoenstatite and local oxy-
hornblende (1 to 3%), up to 0.2 mm in length. The clinopyroxene has a maximum extinction
angle of 44o and birefirigence up to 0.028. The plagioclase is typically zoned from An70 in the
core to An35 in the rim. The groundmass contains cryptocrystalline material and 25 to 40%
plagioclase microlaths, 1 to 2% clinopyroxene, <0.02 mm in diameter, and locally up to 12 to
15% oxy-hornblende, <0.1 mm in length.
Accessory phases include trace to 1% magnetite microphenocrysts, 0.1 to 0.4 mm in diameter,

and minor apatite. In addition, 2-4% magnetite occurs within the groundmass as disseminated
grains less than 0.02 mm in diameter. Stilbite forms aggregates in vughs that are up to 0.7 mm
in maximum dimension. A dark green to brown radiating isotropic mineral (?smectitic clay)
fills interstertices and typically comprises 5-10% of the three samples studied in thin section.
The chemical analysis of one phyric dyke sample indicates a low- to medium-K calc -alkaline
basalt to basaltic andesite composition, after normalization to a LOI-free major-oxide
assemblage (cf. uncorrected values of 51% SiO 2 and 0.5% K2 O in Table 4.8). The dyke is
similar in composition to the most basic of the andesitic volcaniclastic rocks and phyric
andesite intrusions in the Batu Hijau district. However, the basaltic andesite dyke is
characterized by a greater abundance of K2 O and a higher FeOtotal/MgO ratio than most of these
andesitic rocks. The trace-element signatures of the coastal dyke sample and the andesitic rocks
are broadly similar, with the exception of slightly higher abundances of LILE (excluding low
Cs) and LREE (e.g. 4 ppm La) for the dyke.
4.9 Radiogenic Isotopic Constraints
4.9.1 Introduction to the Technique and Aims of the Present Study
The application of Sr, Nd and Pb isotope studies to orogenic island arcs is useful in
demonstrating the involvement of subducted oceanic crust and sea-floor sediments, and the
overlying mantle wedge in magma petrogenesis (White and Patchett, 1984; Woodhead and
Fraser, 1985; White and Dupre, 1986). Lead isotopes are particularly useful for indicating the
sedimentary component in island arc petrogenesis, due to the high concentration of Pb in
oceanic sediments and the relatively small abundance of Pb in the upper mantle (Wilson, 1989).
The results of Sr, Nd and Pb isotopes alone cannot differentiate between source contamination
in the mantle wedge and crustal contamination of the ascending magma in the overlying arc,
particularly in continental settings, where the crust may contain a radiogenic Pb component
(Wilson, 1989; Tatsumi and Eggins, 1995). In contrast, the Re-Os isotopic system is able to
distinguish the relative contribution of the source mantle with respect to that of island arc crust,
or subducted oceanic crust, in magma petrogenesis. This is because Re is concentrated in
crustal rocks and Os is concentrated in the mantle (Foster et al., 1996; McInnes et al., 1999b).
A suite of nine samples from the Batu Hijau district was analyzed for the radiogenic isotopes,
Sr, Nd and Pb (Table 4.14). This suite contains least-altered samples of each of the major rock
units in the area, including andesitic volcaniclastic rocks, phyric andesite, equigranular and
porphyritic felsic intrusions, and the Young Tonalite in the Batu Hijau deposit. It is
acknowledged that the isotopic composition of the volcaniclastic rock samples reflects a
combination of igneous and sedimentary processes. However, if sedimentation was nearly
coeval with volcanism, then the effects of resedimentation on the isotopic compositions of
these units may not have been significant.
The primary purposes of this analysis are to: 1) compare the Batu Hijau rock suite to other
suites of igneous rocks in well-known volcanic island arcs elsewhere, 2) establish the potential
source(s) to the magmas that led to the igneous development of the Batu Hijau district, and 3)
determine if a fundamental isotopic change occurred during the evolution of the area. Such a
change in isotopic signature could indicate a change in the characteristics of the magma source
region, due to mantle perturbation or the change in the composition of subducted oceanic crust,
or suggest different degrees of interaction between the ascending magma and the arc crust
throughout time.
4.9.2 Strontium–Neodymium Isotope Results
The Sr–Nd isotope results are summarized in Table 4.14. These results indicate a tight cluster
on the 143 Nd/144 Nd – 87 Sr/86 Sr plot (Figure 4.43). The distribution of the Batu Hijau suite data is
similar to those of the volcanic rocks for the Marianas, New Britain, Aleutian and South
Sandwich island arcs (Hawkesworth et al., 1977; Arculus and Powell, 1986; Wilson, 1989).
These arcs are isotopically some of the simplest and most primative examples of island arc
magmatism, with Sr–Nd data that overlap the Indian Ocean MORB (I-MORB) field, which
probably indicates magma generation from depleted mantle sources similar to those that yield
mid-ocean ridge basalts (Wilson, 1989).
The Batu Hijau suite lies within the overlap between the collective field summarized for these
simple arcs and the field that defines the Sunda arc (Vroon et al., 1993). Rocks from the Sunda
and Banda arc systems have much lower 143Nd/144Nd and 87Sr/86Sr than I-MORB. The Banda
arc indicates a major deviation from the I - MORB – oceanic island basalt (OIB) array (cf.
SNUM; O’Nions et al., 1979) arrays. This is probably due to the subduction of terrigenous
sediments sourced from the Australian craton, which are characterized by relatively high
87
Sr/86 Sr and low 143 Nd/144 Nd, and the resultant involvement of these sediments in arc magma
genesis (White and Patchett, 1984; Varne and Foden, 1986; van Bergen et al., 1993).
Within the Batu Hijau suite, the andesitic volcaniclastic units, phyric andesite and the Young
Tonalite display slightly higher 143 Nd/144 Nd than the remaining samples. In addition, the
volcanic sandstone sample shows higher 87 Sr/86 Sr than the other samples. However, these
differences are relatively minor, given the scatter of the data that define the island arc fields
summarized in Figure 4.43.
4.9.3 Lead Isotope Results
The Pb–Pb isotope data for the Batu Hijau district samples form a discrete cluster that lies
within, and adjacent to, the fields defined by volcanic rocks for the island arcs discussed in the
Sr–Nd subsection. In the 207 Pb/204 Pb– 206 Pb/204 Pb diagram (Figure 4.44 A), the Batu Hijau data
lies within the New Britain and the South Sandwich island arc fields, which have lower
206
Pb/204 Pb than for the Sunda and Banda arcs. The Batu Hijau data and most of the other island
arc fields fall within the Indian Ocean OIB (I-OIB) field and indicate higher 207Pb/204Pb than
I-MORB and lower 207 Pb/204 Pb than the Banda Sea sediments. The distribution of data in the
208
Pb/204 Pb– 206 Pb/204 Pb plot (Figure 4.44 B) is slightly different from that of 207 Pb/204 Pb–
206
Pb/204Pb diagram. The Batu Hijau data display higher 208Pb/204Pb than the South Sandwich
and New Britain arcs, although still plot within the I-OIB field.
Table 4.14 Strontium, neodymium and lead isotope compositions of selected least-altered rock samples from the Batu Hijau district.
87 87 87 206 207 208
Analysis No. Sample No. Rock type (Location) Rb Sr Rb/86 Sr Sr/86 Srm1 Sr/86 Sri2 Nd Sm Sm/Nd 143 Nd/144 Nd Epsilon3 Pb/204 Pb Pb/204 Pb Pb/204 Pb
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
1 SBD 123 326 volcanic sandstone (Batu Hijau) 3 383 0.02265 0.704260 0.70425 6.6 2.1 0.31 0.512998 6.7 18.599 15.626 38.784
2 98100402 cpx-hb volcanic lithic breccia (Tongoloka) 2 321 0.01069 0.703983 0.70383 4.2 1.3 0.32 0.512983 6.4 18.670 15.629 38.925
3 97092453 po hb-plg andesite intrusion (Sekongkang) 3 301 0.02498 0.703960 0.70396 8.1 2.5 0.30 0.512975 6.2 18.648 15.610 38.841
4 97101030 eg hb-bi quartz diorite (Katala) 18 552 0.09431 0.703841 0.70382 11.5 2.5 0.22 0.512945 5.6 18.639 15.589 38.754
5 97091713 eg bigranodiorite dyke (Sekongkang) 63 542 0.33618 0.704041 0.70401 14.0 3.4 0.24 0.512940 5.6 18.654 15.601 38.807
6 SR 2 305 po hb tonalite (Arung Ara) 18 407 0.12791 0.703855 0.70385 8.7 2.0 0.23 0.512953 5.8 18.619 15.603 38.763
7 97101143 po hb tonalite (Katala) 12 406 0.08548 0.703878 0.70387 9.1 2.1 0.23 0.512943 5.6 18.634 15.586 38.754
8 SBD 41 405 Young Tonalite porphryry (Batu Hijau) 16 446 0.10375 0.703855 0.70385 9.5 2.0 0.21 0.512983 6.4 18.558 15.597 38.651
9 SGD 01 275 po hb-plg andesite dyke (Gold Ridge) 31 366 0.24497 0.703952 0.70394 9.7 2.2 0.22 0.512964 6.0 18.635 15.593 38.768
Notes:
1
measured 87Sr/86Sr ratio
2
calculated initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio, which accounts for age and 87Rb/86Sr of rock analyzed
3
Epsilon Nd calculated relative to a present chondrite uniform reservoir (CHUR), the details of which are discussed in Section 1.3.2.4
The internal precision of the Nd and Sr isotope ratios are better than the reproducibility of the standards.
The standard reproducibilities are as follows: Nd- 0.000007 (N=5, La Jolla Nd) and Sr- 0.000013 (N=6, NIST-987).
Analytical uncertainty in the Pb isotope ratios is ±0.15% at the 95% confidence level (bias corrected with respect to NIST-981).
Abbreviations as given in Table 4.6.
The typical enrichment of 207 Pb/204 Pb and 208 Pb/204 Pb in arc magmas with respect to MORB in
volcanic island arcs constructed on oceanic crust is commonly attributed to the incorporation of
subducted terrigenous sediment-derived Pb into the mantle wedge source (Woodhead and
Fraser, 1985; Wilson, 1989). In contrast, the source of this Pb in continental volcanic arcs
would be more ambiguous, due to the presence of radiogenic Pb in the upper levels of
the sialic crust (cf. Tatsumi and Eggins, 1995).
Within the Batu Hijau suite, the andesitic volcaniclastic units and the phyric andesite contain
slightly higher 207 Pb/204 Pb and 208 Pb/204 Pb than do the other rock types. In contrast, the Young
Tonalite displays the lowest 206 Pb/204 Pb and 208 Pb/204 Pb of all the samples analyzed. The
correlation between 206 Pb/204 Pb and 208 Pb/204 Pb is moderate, expressed by a Spearman
correlation rank coefficient of 0.72. In addition, the correlations of 207 Pb/204 Pb and 208 Pb/204 Pb to
87
Sr/86 Sr are moderate, characterized by coefficients of 0.64 and 0.77, respectively.
4.9.4 Interpretation
The distribution of the Batu Hijau district data about 0.0005 to the high 87 Sr/86 Sr side of the
SNUM line in the Sr–Nd diagram (Figure 4.43) is consistent with other simple island arc suites
that overlap the MORB field. The moderate correlations of 87 Sr/86 Sr to 207 Pb/204 Pb (0.64) and
208
Pb/204 Pb (0.77) suggest a similar source for both the Sr and Pb isotopic signatures in the
magmas that comprise the Batu Hijau igneous rock suite. Potential isotopic sources include:
1) modification of a MORB-like mantle wedge by dehydration and partial melting of
subducting oceanic slab (DePaolo and Johnson, 1979)
2) incorporation of Australian craton-derived terrigenous sediments into the mantle wedge
(White and Patchett, 1984; Varne and Foden, 1986; van Bergen et al., 1993),
3) crustal-level contamination of the ascending magma (Gill, 1981), or
4) a mantle wedge that had an enriched composition relative to MORB prior to subduction
(e.g. I-OIB; Wilson, 1989).
The high Pb isotope ratios for the Batu Hijau suite with respect to I-MORB (Figure
4.44) suggest the involvement of a sediment component in arc petrogenesis (Woodhead and
Fraser, 1985; Wilson, 1989). The interpretation of a mantle source modified by sediment-
derived Pb is favored over the introduction of radiogenic Pb into the ascending magma at upper
crustal-levels. This is because the thin, young oceanic crust that comprises the Sumbawa
portion of the Banda arc minimizes the possibility for contamination of mantle -derived magmas
(van Bergen et al., 1993). The low-K calc -alkaline characteristics and low U contents of the
majority of the Batu Hijau district rock units (Sections 4.1 to 4.7) further demonstrate the lack
of thick continental crust in this portion of the Banda arc (cf. Gill, 1981; Wilson, 1989).
The distribution of the Batu Hijau district data in the high 143 Nd/144 Nd and low 87 Sr/86 Sr portion
of the Sunda arc field and the proximity of the data to I-MORB (Figure 4.44), suggest that the
contribution of subducted sediments to magma petrogenesis may not have been large. In an
attempt to better quantify this sediment component, the Batu Hijau data are plotted on a
diagram that indicates the 143 Nd/144 Nd – 206 Pb/204 Pb bulk mixing model of van Bergen et al.
(1993) for the eastern Sunda and Banda arcs (Figure 4.45).
Van Bergen et al. (1993) defined several arc sectors in eastern Indonesia, on the basis of
varying tectonic setting and the age and composition of Recent volcanoes, with the exception of
the Alor-Romang sector, where volcanism ceased 3 m.y. ago (Abbot and Chamalaun, 1981,
refer to Section 2.3.1). The model is constructed by incorporating the Nd and Pb isotopic
compostions of the Recent volcanoes in each arc sector (Neogene in Alor-Romang sector),
sediments collected from the Indian Ocean, south of the Java Trench and Timor Trough, and an
estimate of the I-MORB mantle source.
The results of this model indicate a range in the percentages of sediment required to generate
the isotopic compositions of each arc sector, from about 1% for the active and young volcanoes
of Bali-Sumbawa to more than 5% for the Neogene volcanic rocks of Alor-Romang (Figure
4.45). The data for the Neogene Batu Hijau rock suite would lie along the subarc mantle –
oceanic sediment mixing lines for these arc sectors, proximal to the modeled I-MORB source,
and indicate a sediment component of ~0.1%. However, this estimate should be viewed
qualitatively, rather than quantitatively, due to the generalized nature of the assumptions made
in this mixing model and the limited number of Batu Hijau data. The relatively small
percentage of the sediment component modeled for the Neogene Batu Hijau portion of the
Banda arc, as compared to the sediment component modeled for the Recent volcanoes in Bali-
Sumbawa, may reflect the increasing proximity of the Australian craton to the Banda arc with
time. Hence, a greater amount of continent-derived sediments are subducted in the present than
were subducted in the Neogene.
Preliminary Re-Os isotopic results, for several samples from the same suite of rocks discussed
above, indicate γOs values that range from 75 to 330 (B.I.A. McInnes, written communication,
2000). The γOs is expressed as the percent difference between the initial 187 Os/188 Os time-
corrected values of the data and that of present-day mantle, which is characterized by an
187
Os/188 Os value of 0.1217 (McInnes et al., 1999b). These γOs values are similar to those
determined for select samples of relatively unaltered Young Tonalite and andesitic volcanic
lithic breccia, and mineralized intrusive rocks in the Batu Hijau deposit, the majority of which
contain γOs values less than 200 (B.I.A. McInnnes, written communication, 1999). The
similarity of the 187 Os/188 Os values of the Batu Hijau district samples to the present-day mantle
is consistent with a subarc mantle source (B.I.A McInnes written communication, 1999, 2000).
Finally, the relatively small isotopic differences described for samples within the Batu Hijau
district sample suite may indicate minor variations in the source and emplacement mode of the
associated magmas. The relatively high Nd and low Sr and Pb isotopic ratios for the Young
Tonalite are consistent with a least-contaminated mantle source for the progenitor magma, as
compared to the isotopic results for other rock samples. Alternatively, these differences may be
too minor to adequately differentia te between samples, given the precision of the analytical
techniques, the typical variation of isotopic results for igneous rock suites in volcanic arcs, and
the limited number of data.
4.10 Interpretation
The following interpretations are based on the data presented and discussed in the preceeding
sections of this chapter. The paleogeographic depositional setting of the volcano-sedimentary
sequence in the Batu Hijau district is discussed, as this rock succesion forms the local basement
and framework for subsequent intrusions and related hydrothermal events. The radiogenic
isotopic source and the degree of chemical modification of the ascending melts that led to the
development of the igneous rock suite are also discussed, because these apects may provide
insight as to the tectonic - and geologic-setting of the district. Particular emphasis is given to the
physical conditions of felsic pluton and stock emplacement, as the water contents and oxidation
states of magmas that crystallize at varying depths in the crust are inferred to exert a major
control on the style and intensity of intrusion-related mineralization in the district. The timing
and localization of felsic magmatism in the vicinity of Batu Hijau are related to the regional
tectonic events discussed in Chapters 2 and 3. Many of the inferences included in the following
section form a foundation for the discussion and interpretation of data in subsequent chapters.
4.10.1 Depositional History of Volcano-sedimentary Succession
4.10.1.1 Paleogeographic Depositional Setting
The resedimented crystal-rich volcaniclastic rock units in the Batu Hijau district are interpreted
to have been deposited in a fore-arc, predominantly submarine setting, coeval to, or shortly
after, Early to Middle Miocene andesitic island arc volcanism (Section 4.2.4). There is little
evidence to indicate a primary pyroclastic mode of deposition (e.g. pumice, thermal welding,
cooling joints, gas segregation pipes and vapor-phase alteration). However, it is conceivable
that subsequent hydrothermal effects have obscured these primary textures. The rarity of
intercalated lava flows within these sequences suggests that the eruptive source was located far
from the present site of the study area.
The lower, volcanic sandstone unit is inferred to have formed in a distal setting with respect to
the active volcanic arc, in a below-storm-wave-base submarine environment. The increased
abundance of bedded intervals in the upper part of the sequence is inferred to indicate
shallowing of the depositional setting with time. The foraminiferal assemblages of limestone
intercalations within the upper part of the volcanic sandstone unit suggest that this part of the
sequence was deposited in a mid-neritic setting (40 to 60 m below sea level), proximal to the
shore line. The ages of these foraminiferal assemblages indicate deposition over a 5 m.y. span
(20 to 15 Ma), during a quiescence in volcanism, or could indicate the preservation of
limestone horizons located in a setting that was protected from volcaniclastic deposition.
The upper, volcanic lithic breccia unit is interpreted to represent a relatively proximal setting,
characterized by coherent submarine mass flows and, potentially, subaerial debris flows (e.g.
lahars). The gradational contact between the lower fine-clastic unit and the upper coarse-clastic
unit indicates an increase in the energy of the flow regime and proximity to the active volcanic
arc with time. This change from distal to proximal facies is a natural progression of developing
arcs, where volcaniclastic material forms the prograding apron to the island arc igneous core
(cf. Sigurdsson et al., 1980). The development of crystal-rich volcaniclastic sequences in a
submarine environment, as discussed in Section 4.2.4, is inferred to be a result of: 1) the
transformation of subaerial gas-supported pyroclastic flows into water-supported mass flows
after explosive disintegration at the coast line, and/or 2) the activity of secondary mass flows
that transport previously-resedimented volcanic material (cf. Cas, 1983; Fisher, 1984; White
and McPhie, 1996). The local presence of discontinuous conglomeratic horizons in the volcanic
lithic breccia unit suggest a fluvial origin, or, alternatively, resedimentation of coastal stream
deposits in a near-shore marine setting.
The northwesterly trending distribution of coarser clasts in the volcanic lithic breccia unit that
extends across the Nangka−Batu Hijau−Tongoloka region is inferred to mark the
superimposition of debris flow channel deposits. The southeasterly directed widening of this
facies in the Batu Hijau area suggest a southeasterly flow direction and the down-current
fanning out of lobate mass flows. However, mesoscopic paleocurrent indicators, such as flute
marks and cross-stratification, are lacking. Shoreline-parallel syn-depositional faults may have
contributed to the break in slope that is typically associated with submarine mass flow deposits
in island arc settings (cf. Cas and Wright, 1987; White and McPhie; 1996). The
inferred paleogeographic setting for the Batu Hijau district volcano-sedimentary
succession is represented in Figure 4.46.
4.10.1.2 Quaternary Comparison
Syn-eruptive resedimented volcaniclastic sequences similar to that of the Batu Hijau district are
documented in the Lower Devonian Merrions Tuff, southeastern Australia (Cas, 1979), the
Cambrian Tyndall Group of the Mt Read Volcanics, western Tasmania (White and McPhie,
1996) and the Quaternary deposits in the Lesser Antilles (Sigurdsson et al., 1980; Fisher,
1984). The style and geometry of the Lesser Antilles deposits provide a modern-day
comparison for the volcaniclastic units in the Batu Hijau district.
The volcaniclastic mass flow deposits (<100 Ka) in the Grenada Basin, which lies about 30 km
to the west of the Lesser Antilles volcanic island arc, are predominantly derived from subaerial
pyroclastic flows sourced from andesitic to dacitic stratovolcanoes (Sigurdsson et al., 1980;
Fisher, 1984). The thickness of the sediments in the center of the basin ranges from 100 cm to
10 m, with a total volume of more than 150 km3 estimated for the volcaniclastic sediments
produced during the past 100 k.y. (Sigurdsson et al., 1980). In contrast, the syn-eruptive
volcaniclastic material in the Atlantic Ocean, to the east of the arc, consists almost exclusively
of dispersed ash and ash-fall deposits, typically less than 30 cm thick.
The relative distribution of both the western mass flow and eastern ash-fall volcaniclastic
deposits is largely controlled by arc slope and basin topography, oceanic currents and the
prevailing wind directions during plinian-style eruptions (Sigurdsson et al., 1980; Fisher,
1984). Steeper arc slopes (~9o ), which are characterized by offshore currents that are channeled
through the straits between volcanic isla nds, localize the distribution of the volcaniclastic mass
flows to the west of the arc, whereas gentler arc slopes (<2o ), which occur down-wind and to
the east of the stratovolcanoes, collect the ash-fall (Sigurdsson et al., 1980). By comparison, the
volcaniclastic sequence in the Batu Hijau district probably developed in a relatively near-shore,
predominantly submarine setting, characterized by steeper arc slopes and offshore currents
influenced by local variations in bathymetry.
4.10.2 Petrogenesis, Depth and Timing of Emplacement of Intrusions
4.10.2.1 Source and Ascent of Magmas–Radiogenic Isotopic and Chemical Constraints
The high 143 Nd/144 Nd and low 87 Sr/86 Sr isotopic ratios for the Batu Hijau intrusions, including
the phyric andesite and felsic phaneritic intrusions, are similar to those that characterize simple
orogenic island arcs in the circum-Pacific that overlap the MORB field (e.g Marianas, New
Britain and Aleutians; Section 4.9). Hence, the source of the magmas that led to the
emplacement of the Batu Hijau igneous suite was probably a MORB-like mantle wedge, which
was modified by dehydration and partial melting of subducted Indian Ocean crust. The
relatively low Pb isotope ratios of the Batu Hijau igneous rock suite are consistent with minor
contamination of the mantle wedge source by the involvement of subducted terrigenous
sediment (<0.5% sediment component), as indicated by the Nd-Pb mixing model of van Bergen
et al. (1993). The low γOs values of the Batu Hijau rock suite, typically less than 200, are
consistent with a relatively uncontaminated, subarc mantle source (B.I.A. McInnes, written
communication 1999).
The degree to which the ascending magmas were contaminated by the assimilation of the
overlying island arc crust is not well constrained. However, it is inferred to have been small, on
the basis of the near-MORB like Sr−Nd isotopic signature of the Batu Hijau igneous suite. The
low U concentrations of the samples analyzed, typically <0.5 ppm, are consistent with the thin
island arc crust, 14 to 16 km thick, estimated on the basis of gravity data (Barberi et al., 1987).
This inference is based on the positive correlation between crustal thickness and U abundance
commonly indicated by intermediate igneous rocks from orogenic arcs underlain by crust of
varying thickness elsewhere in the world (Gill, 1981). The relatively high Nd and low Sr and
Pb isotopic ratios for the Batu Hijau Young Tonalite, with respect to the other igneous rocks in
the district, may indicate that the source mantle to the Young Tonalite magma was the least-
modified by subduction-related process.
The trends of increased LILE (e.g. Ba), LREE (e.g. La) and LREE/HREE (e.g. La/Yb) of the
intrusions with higher SiO 2 and total alkali content (Na2O + K2O) are primarily a function of increasing
differentiation (cf. Gill, 1981). These trace-element differences are best expressed between the
Middle to Late Miocene andesite intrusions and latest Miocene to Pliocene felsic intrusions.
The calc -alkaline, felsic intrusive suites indicate at least three cycles of fractionation with time,
characterized by low- to medium-K, early quartz diorite and late tonalite-granodiorite at
Sekongkang (~5.9 Ma) and Katala (~4.5 Ma), and a later, low-K succession of porphyritic
dacites and tonalites at Batu Hijau (3.9 to 3.7 Ma). The occurrence of early medium-K and late
low-K calc -alkaline intrusions characterize porphyry copper districts in the island arcs of the
southwestern Pacific, such as in the vicinity of Panguna, Bougainville, and Koloula,

Guadalcanal (Mason and McDonald, 1978).
The low-K porphyritic tonalite stocks that occur at Arung Ara and Katala (5.0 to 4.7 Ma) are
more similar in composition to the Batu Hijau porphyritic intrusions than to the equigranular
quartz diorites, and are inferred to represent a separate discrete pulse of magmatism. The
chemical compositions of these porphyritic intrusions do not indicate any clear fractionation
trend, in contrast to the equigranular intrusions in the district. The late-stage porphyritic
andesite dykes (<3.7? Ma) indicate similar chemical compositions and contact age-relationships
to the Santong diatreme complex, and represent the final pulse of magmatism in the district.
The low-K Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry and porphyritic dacite intrusions contain lower
concentrations of LILE, REE and HFSE, and higher Na2 O, than the late-stage, medium-K
dykes at Sekongkang and Katala. In addition, the Batu Hijau tonalites display some of the
lowest Zr and U contents of all the felsic intrusions in the district, despite the highly
differentiated nature of the Batu Hijau intrusions. The systematic trace-element difference
between the Batu Hijau tonalite intrusions and the plutons and stocks in the older intrusive
centers in the district is consistent with minimal crustal interaction during the ascent and
fractionation of magma that originated from melts produced in the mantle wedge.
4.10.2.2 Crystallization Paths and Water Contents of Plutonic Rocks
The crystallization paths for the medium-K equigranular quartz diorite to granodiorite
intrusions at Sekongkang and Katala, and the low-K tonalite porphyry stocks at Batu Hijau may
be inferred on the basis of the mineral textures and relative crystallization sequences
documented in Section 4.6 and Figure 4.20 (Table 4.15). The inferred crystallization paths for
late-stage intrusions at Sekongkang-Katala and Batu Hijau are estimated with respect to
temperature, weight percent water and the intersection of the vapor saturation curve and the
solidus, as determined experimentally by Naney (1983) for synthetic granodiorite at 2 Kbar
(Figure 4.47). This provides a qualitative approach to understanding the relationships between
intrusion texture and composition to the vapor saturation of the crystallizing magma. A similar
approach was undertaken by Dilles (1987) with respect to the evolution of the Yerington batholith
in Nevada, USA. The vapor saturation and resultant oxidation of the melt early in the
crystallization process is considered to play a major role in the development of porphyry copper
deposits (cf. Burnham, 1967; Candela, 1989; Cline, 1995; Sillitoe and Thompson, 1998).
The applicability of the diagram of Naney (1983) to the crystallization paths for the Batu Hijau
district intrusions is limited, because the mineral stability fields, vapor saturation curve and
solidus are based upon a granodioritic melt that is more potassic (4.0 wt. % K2 O) than the Batu
Hijau district intrusions. The less K-rich nature of the Batu Hijau district intrusions would
probably act to reduce the stability fields of biotite and K-feldspar and increase the temperature
of the solidus (e.g. 700o C for wet tonalite, Schmidt and Thompson, 1996, vs. 675o C for
granodiorite, Naney, 1983). The exsolution of volatiles from a vapor-saturated magma is
controlled primarily by the solubility of water in the melt, which, in turn, is strongly pressure-
dependent and only weakly temperature-dependent (Burnham and Ohmoto, 1980). Hence,
magmas emplaced at depths that correspond to pressures less than 2 Kbar (< 7.5 km) will
become vapor-saturated at lower water contents than indicated in Figure 4.47.
Table 4.15 Comparative summary of characteristics of tonalite porphyry intrusions in the

Batu Hijau deposit and causative intrusions 1 in peripheral porphyry systems.
Characteristics Batu Hijau Deposit Peripheral Porphyry Systems
Age of Emplacement Mid-Pliocene (3.7 Ma) Late Miocene to Early Pliocene

(~5.9 to 4.4 Ma)
Level of Emplacement < 2 km below paleosurface 3 to 5 km below paleosurface
Comp osition Tonalite (>68% SiO2 , 5% Na 2 O) Quartz diorite-granodiorite

(up to 71% SiO2 , 2.5% K2 O)
Tonalite (66% SiO2 , 4%Na 2 O,
Arung Ara)
Texture Porphyritic, 40-60% phenocrysts Equigranular to subporphyritic,

in aplitic groundmass (0.05-0.3mm) 60-95% crystals, groundmass
<0.5mm
Porphyritic, 30-40% phenocrysts
(Arung Ara)
Phenocrysts Plagioclase, hornblende, quartz, biotite Plagioclase, hornblende + biotite

(quartz at Arung Ara)
Groundmass Quartz, plagioclase, biotite Quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar

(quartz, plagioclase+biotite
at Arung Ara)
Relative Timing of Early – during crystallization of biotite Late – after crystallization of

Vapor Saturation biotite
Note: 1 – causative intrusions include quartz diorite-granodiorite at Sekongkang (QD1) and Katala
(QD3) and porphyritic tonalite at Arung Ara. The porphyritic tonalite at Katala is pre-mineral, as
discussed in Chapter 6.
In the biotite-bearing, equigranular quartz diorite plutons and granodiorite dykes, early
crystallization consisted of plagioclase and pyroxene (point A, Figure 4.47 A). For melts that
contained more than 4 wt. % H 2 O, hornblende 2 crystallized before biotite, and for melts that
contained less than 4 wt. % H2 O, biotite crystallized before hornblende. Both timing
relationships are apparent in most quartz diorite samples studied, so the water component of the
melt is estimated to be close to 4 weight percent. In those samples of pyroxene-biotite quartz
diorite that lack hornblende, less than 3.5 wt. % H2 O can be inferred on the basis of the
topology of the stability field of hornblende. The initial replacement of pyroxene by hornblende
and biotite occurred between 30 and 50% crystallization of the melt (opx out line between
points B and C, Figure 4.47 A).
2
In this discussion, the term hornblende represents a general description of the magnesio-hornblende and
actinolitic hornblende in the felsic intrusions of the Batu Hijau district.
The development of interstital plagioclase, quartz and K-feldspar late in the crystallization
sequence is inferred to indicate vapor saturation of the melt at approximately 70-90%
crystallization (point D), prior to complete solidification (point E). Hence, only a limited
amount of vapor is generated in this case, due to the intersection of the vapor saturation curve
late in the history of the crystallizing melt. The presence of comb quartz layers along the
margins of late-stage dykes, and the graphic intergrowth of quartz and plagioclase in
granodiorite-tonalite at Sekongkang, provide further evidence for late-stage vapor saturation
and the exsolution of fluids (cf. Kirkham and Sinclair, 1988; Candela, 1989; Lowenstern and
Sinclair, 1996).
In contrast, vapor saturation may have occured relatively early in the crystallization sequence of the Batu
Hijau tonalite porphyry intrusions, as indicated by the mineral textures in the least-altered
Young Tonalite. Relict pyroxene grains in plagioclase phenocrysts indicate an early phenocryst
phase (point A) that has been largely consumed by subsequent hornblende and biotite
phenocryst development (point B, Figure 4.47 B). The development of magmatic biotite rims
around relict hornblende sites is consistent with the previous crystallization of hornblende from
a melt that contained more than 4 wt. % H2 O. The initial development of the 0.05 to 0.3 mm
aplitic groundmass, which consists of andesine-oligoclase, quartz and minor biotite, is
interpreted to indicate vapor saturation after about 40 to 50% crystallization (path C-D, Figure
4.47 B). The aplitic textures indicate quenching by either a rapid drop in temperature below the
solidus or, more likely, a rapid decrease in pressure (Jahns and Burnham, 1969; Candela, 1989).
Subsequent to the intersection of the crystallization path with the vapor saturation curve, the
remaining 50-60% of the crystals formed rapidly to solidification (point E, Figure 4.47 B), with
the stability of sodic plagioclase favored over that of K-feldspar, due to the low-K composition
and high water content of the tonalite melt. The presence of resorbed quartz phenocrysts, some
with quartz overgrowths, suggests disequilibrium between these phenocrysts and the melt
during the ascent of the magma and the rapid crystallization of the groundmass phases. The
occurrence of quartz rinds along the contact between the Intermediate and Old Tonalites
(Mitchell et al., 1998) provides evidence for the exsolution of fluids at near-solidus conditions
and proximity to the apex of a non-venting causal intrusion (cf. Kirkham and Sinclair, 1988;
Lowenstern and Sinclair, 1996).
The similarities between the mineralogy of phenocryst and groundmass phases of the Young
Tonalite and the porphyritic tonalites at Arung Ara and Katala suggest that all the porphyritic
tonalites may have experienced similar cystallization paths. However, the greater relative
abundance of biotite with respect to hornblende and pyroxene in the Young Tonalite indicates a
greater degree of fractionation than for the other tonalite intrusions. The presence of magmatic
biotite in the aplitic groundmass to the Young Tonalite at Batu Hijau and its general absence in
the interstitial groundmass to the equigranular quartz diorite and granodiorite at Sekongkang
and Katala is related to the varying oxidation states for each intrusion type. This is discussed in
light of redox trends in the following section.
4.10.2.3 Depth, Temperature and Oxidation Estimates of Intrusion
Depth and temperature of emplacement
The depth and temperature of emplacement of the middle - to late-Miocene andesite and
microquartz diorite intrusions in the district are difficult to quantify, given the inappropriate
composition of the amphiboles in these rock types for the application of the amphibole -
plagioclase thermobarometer discussed in Section 4.6.8. However, the strongly phyric nature of
andesite in the western part of the study area, and the magnetite-plagioclase reaction rims to
amphibole phenocrysts, suggest dehydration and oxidation late in the emplacement of a
hypabyssal subvolcanic intrusion (cf. Wones, 1981). The temperature of these amphibole -
bearing andesitic intrusions is inferred to exceed that of the wet quartz tholeiite solidus of
~1050o C at atmospheric pressure (Gill, 1981) This solidus temperature decreases with
increasing lithostatic pressure, from 1 atm to 10 Kbar. Hence, at 2 km depth (~0.5 Kbar
lithostatic), the solidus is ~970o C.
The depth and temperature of the emplacement of the felsic intrusions in the Batu Hijau district
are estimated on the basis of the results of the aluminum-in-amphibole barometer (Anderson
and Smith, 1995) and the amphibole -plagioclase thermometer (Holland and Blundy, 1994),
presented in Section 4.6.8 (Figure 4.42 and Table 4.13). These results indicate that the rims of
amphibole and plagioclase phenocrysts in porhyritic tonalites at Arung Ara and Katala (5.0-4.7
Ma) equilibrated at depths of about 6 to 9 km and temperatures of ~710o to 750o C, or about 10o
to 50o C above the wet tonalite solidus (Schmidt and Thompson, 1996). These estimates of
depth and temperature indicate the physical conditions of the melts that were quenched at the
time of phenocryst development. The local presence of andesine-oligoclase rim overgrowths to
more calcic plagioclase phenocrysts, and the resorbed margins of quartz phenocrysts in these
intrusions, are consistent with the rapid ascent (decreasing pressure) of the crystallizing magma
during vapor saturation and the development of the aplitic groundmass, prior to complete
solidification (cf. Candela, 1989). The final emplacement depths determined for these
intrusions range from about 3 to 5 km, as determined from amphibole -plagioclase
thermobarometry (Section 4.6.8). These depths compare favorably to the minimum depth of 3
km estimated from the stratigraphic reconstruction of the Late Miocene (~6.8 Ma) Teluk Puna
volcaniclastic rock sequence above the study area (Figure 1.2; Section 4.5.1).
The estimates of the development of the late porphyritic andesite dykes (<3.7 Ma) range from
~3 km and 800o C for amphibole and plagioclase phenocryst formation to a depth of slightly
less than 2 km at the solidus. The depth and temperature estimates of the amphibole and
plagioclase in equigranular quartz diorites at Katala and Brang Belu (QD3) indicate subsolidus
reequilibration (Section 4.6.8). However, the final emplacement (wet tonalite solidus)
conditions are inferred to be a minimum of 3 to 4 km depth and a maximum of 720o to 750o C.
The anomalously shallow depth (~ 1 km) determined for the actinolitic hornblende in quartz
diorite at Sekongkang (QD1), by the application of the Al-in-hornblende barometer (Anderson
and Smith, 1995), is not consistent with respect to other analytical data and the geological
setting inferred for this region. A more accurate estimate of the depth of final emplacement of
this pluton is ~3 km, on the basis of the stratigraphic reconstruction of the Late Miocene
paleosurface and the depth estimates discussed above.
The lack of preserved amphibole, which is unaltered by hydrothermal effects, in the Batu Hijau
tonalite porphyry complex precludes the estimate of depth and temperature of intrusion
emplacement by the application of the thermobarometer. However, the results of (U-Th)/He
apatite geochronometry, discussed in Chapter 5, and the geologic setting, indicate the final
emplacement depth for the upper portion of the Young Tonalite (~300 m RL) to have been < 2
km (+0.5 km) below the pale osurface at ~3.7 Ma, which is similar to the estimates for the post-
tonalite, porphyritic andesite dykes. The close temporal and spatial relationship of the tonalite
porphyry intrusions to earlier porphyritic dacite (~3.9 Ma) and equigranular quartz diorite
(3.9>x>3.7 Ma) in the Batu Hijau deposit, suggest that the depths of emplacment of these
earlier intrusions were similar to that inferred for the Young Tonalite.
The levels of emplacement of the felsic intrusions in the study area therefore ranged from as deep
as 3 to 5 km for the early porphyritic intrusions (5.0 to 4.7 Ma), to as shallow as < 2 km, for
inferred solidus conditions for the late tonalite porphyry stocks (~3.7 Ma) and porphyritic
andesite dykes (Figure 4.48). The depth to the parent magma chamber(s) ranges from 6 to 9
km, on the basis of the pressures estimated for the crystallization of phenocrysts (Figure 4.48).
The combined range for depths of intrusion and the causal magma chamber is similar to
that determined for the Yerington batholith in Nevada (1 to >8 km, Dilles, 1987; Dilles and
Einaudi, 1992; Dilles and Proffett, 1995) and the Wasatch Mountains in Utah (0.5 to 9 km,
John, 1989a). The emplacement of the top of the tonalite porphyry complex at Batu Hijau at a
depth of < 2 km is similar to the depths of emplacement estimated for causative intrusions in
Bajo de la Alumbrera, Chile (J.M. Proffett, personal communication, 1999) and Henderson,
Colorado (1.7 to 2.3 km, for the top and base of the ore zone, respectively, White et al., 1981).
Oxidation state estimates
The oxygen fugacity (fO2 ) and temperature conditions of crystallization of the Batu Hijau
district intrusions can be estimated by comparison to volcanic rocks that contain similar mineral
assemblages, the experimentally- and theoretically-determined stability fields of selected
oxides and silicate minerals, and reactions that buffer oxygen fugacity (Figure 4.49). This
estimation is qualitative only, because the composition of magnetite and ilmenite grains within
the intrusive rock samples analyzed by electron microprobe indicate disequilibrium or
reequilibration at subsolidus conditions, when plotted on a T-fO2 diagram, using the solution
model of Spencer and Lindsley (1981). This is commonly the case for iron-titanium oxides in
plutonic rocks (cf. Ague and Brimhall, 1988b; Candela, 1989), particularly in regions affected
by subsolidus hydrothermal alteration (e.g. Yerington, Nevada; Dilles, 1987). The magnetite
grains analyzed in the felsic intrusions in the study area are titanium-poor, typically consisting
of < 15 mole % ulvospinel, with the majority containing < 3 mole % ulvospinel (Figure 4.26).
The occurrence of hematite lamellae, 3 to 5 µm wide, within ilmenite in equigranular quartz
diorite at Sekongkang and Katala is also consistent with exsolution under subsolidus
conditions. These lamellae probably formed during the cooling of magmatic ilmenite through
the hematite-ilmenite solvus, which lies below 750o C (Spencer and Lindsley, 1981). The
occurrence of aggregates and lamellar blebs of titanite within ilmenite in most of the felsic
intrusion samples also indicates subsolidus alteration, on the basis of textural relationships.
Most intrusions in the study area contain 2-3% iron-titanium oxides, with magnetite dominant
over ilmenite, mafic mineral phases that contain ΣFe/(ΣFe+Mg)<0.35, and magnetic
susceptabilities of 2000 to 5000 x 10-5 SI units (Tables 4.4 and 4.5). These relationships are
consistent with the definition of magnetite-series granitoids, which are typic ally emplaced
under oxidizing conditions that exist above the Ni-NiO buffer (Ishihara, 1981, 1998). However,
many of the Batu Hijau district intrusions are characterized by a magnetite/ilmenite ratio of <9,
the ratio Ishihara (1981) cites for common magnetite-series granitoids in Japan. The
manganese-rich compositions of many of the ilmenites analyzed (up to 22% MnO) are also
consistent with crystallization at oxidation states above the Ni-NiO buffer (Czamanske and
Mihalik, 1972; Czamanske and Wones, 1973; Neumann, 1974). However, manganese-rich
ilmenites also occur in felsic intrusions that were emplaced in less oxidizing settings, below the
Ni-NiO buffer (e.g. portions of the Sierra Nevada batholith, California; Ague and Brimhall,
1988a).
The magnetite/ilmenite ratios of the equigranular quartz diorites ranges from <1:1 to ~3:1
(Table 4.4). Magnetite is only a minor constituent of the late-stage ilmenite-bearing
granodiorite dykes at Sekongkang and Katala, although this may, in part, reflect subsolidus
pyrite replacement of iron-titanium oxides. The magnetite/ilmenite ratios of the porphyritic
intrusions range from ~4:1 to >10:1, the latter ratio typical for the Young Tonalite at Batu Hijau
(Table 4.5). This increase in relative magnetite abundance from the equigranular- to the
porphyritc-intrusions probably indicates crystallization under more oxidizing conditions for the
latter group of intrusions, because iron is preferentially partitioned into magnetite as Fe 3+, as
opposed to Fe 2+ in ilmenite (Figure 4.49, Czamanske and Mihalik, 1972; Czamanske and
Wones, 1973). In the porphyritic intrusions, mineral textures indicate that, whereas both iron-
titanium oxides formed as early micro-phenocrysts, magnetite predominates in the late-stage
development of the aplitic groundmass. This relationship could indicate increasing oxidation
with respect to the Ni-NiO buffer with time, or reflect the compatible behavior of titanium and
its decreasing concentration in the residual magma during crystal fractionation. If the former
hypothesis is true, then the slope of the crystallization paths for the Batu Hijau district
intrusions in T-fO2 space should be less steep than that for the Ni-NiO buffer reaction (Figure
4.49).
The upper constraint to the T-fO2 conditions that affected the felsic intrusions in the study area
is provided by the ilmenite-titanite buffer, as determined by Dilles (1987) for Yerington quartz
monzodiorite at temperatures of ~750o to 850o C, where magnesian augite, ilmenite and titanite
coexist in a melt. This reaction is not well constrained thermodynamically and may not be
entirely applicable to the Batu Hijau district intrusions, due to differences in end-member
mineral activity to those of Yerington. However, the mineral activities that Dilles (1987)
assumed are similar to those indicated by electron microprobe analysis of the Batu Hijau
intrusions (e.g. a hedenbergite(augite) = 0.2 for Yerington versus a hedenbergite(augite) = 0.2 to 0.3 for Batu
Hijau district). In addition, this buffer approximates the upper T-fO2 limits of common
magnetite-series felsic igneous suites in orogenic arc settings determined by other workers (e.g.
Haggerty, 1976; Ague and Brimhall, 1988b). The lack of magmatic titanite in the Batu Hijau
intrusions suggests that the oxidation state of the melt was less than that of the ilmenite-titanite
buffer. However, the replacement of ilmenite by titanite at subsolidus conditions may indicate
an increase in oxidation-state with respect to this buffer, during the cooling of the intrusions.
This is consistent with the presence of subsolidus hematite exsolution-lamellae in ilmenite,
which indicate relatively oxidizing conditions (Spencer and Lindsley, 1981). The schematic
crystallization paths, or redox trends, indicated for both equigranular and porphyritic intrusions
in Figure 4.49 satisfy the constraints discussed above, and are similar to paths determined for
volcanic rocks with biotite-hornblende assemblages (Carmichael, 1967; Carmichael et al.,
1974).
The least-oxidized mineral assemblage in the Batu Hijau district intrusions is that of olivine-
two pyroxene-magnetite assemblage that is present in the most basic phases of the phyric
andesite to microgabbro intrusion in the western part of the study area (e.g. 98100301). The
overgrowth of olivine (chrysolite) rims by enstatite+magnetite in the microgabbro suggests T-
fO2 conditions above the fayalite-magnetite-quartz buffer, within the field of olivine- and/or
orthopyroxene-bearing basic lavas (Carmichael et al., 1974). The magnetite-plagioclase
reaction rims to amphibole phenocrysts in the phyric andesite intrusions (e.g. 98071101)
suggest the late-stage oxidation of the melt (Wones, 1981), as discussed above. Hence, a
general oxidation trend may be inferred through time for intrusions in the district. Early
gabbroic phases of the middle - to late-Miocene andesite composite intrusion are characterized
by the lowest oxidation states. The latest Miocene to Pliocene (~5.9 to 3.8 Ma), magnetite-
ilmenite-bearing equigranular quartz diorite intrusions indicate intermediate oxidizing
conditions and the Pliocene (5.0 to 3.7 Ma), magnetite-rich and ilmenite-poor porphyritic
tonalite and tonalite porphyry stocks and late andesite dykes (<3.7? Ma) record the highest
oxidation states. However, this is a general trend only, because the ages of the equigranular and
porphyritic felsic intrusions overlap.
Mafic silicates as indicaters of oxidation state and vapor saturation
The mafic silicate mineral assemblage of an intrusion provides an indication of the fO2 and
activity of water (fH2 O), in addition to the temperature and pressure of the magma from which
the minerals crystallized (Wones, 1981). The sequence of crystallization, combined with the
composition of minerals, may constrain the changing conditions of crystallizing magmas that
form intrusions. For example, the more magnesian amphiboles and biotites commonly are
characteristic of increased fractionation (higher SiO 2 content of residual magma) and oxidizing
conditions, where iron is preferentia lly partioned as Fe 3+ into magnetite (Czamanske and
Wones, 1973). In addition, the presence of amphibole indicates >3.5 wt. % H2 O in a synthetic
granodiorite melt, and the crystallization of amphibole before biotite indicates >4 wt. % H2 O
(Naney, 1983). This crystallization sequence is evident in the low-K porphyritic tonalite
stocks, and is due to the decrease in the activity of K-feldspar in the melt with increasing fH2 O
(Burnham, 1979). At lower fH2 O and increased K2 O contents, biotite crystallizes before
amphibole, as indicated in some of the medium-K equigranular quartz diorite plutons.
The determination of T-fO2 conditions for the crystallization of biotite in samples of magnetite-
and ilmenite-series granitoids from Japan, Australia, the Swiss-Italian Alps and north Portugal,
by Burkhard (1993), indicates that fH2O is a controlling mechanism for fO 2 in these samples.
This work involved: 1) the calculation of melt parameters from whole -rock major-oxide
compositions, 2) the determination of the total iron content of biotite, the activity of sanadine
and a pressure estimate by a hornblende geobarometer from microprobe analyses, and 3) the
determination of Fe 2+ and Fe 3+ for whole-rock and biotite by wet chemical methods. The
determined redox (T-fO2 ) paths indicate that ilmenite-series (lower oxidation states) and
magnetite-series (higher oxidation states) granitoids follow a simlar trend. Both types of
granitoids display a progressive increase in oxidation state with decreasing temperature, with
magnetite-series granitoid redox paths that increase ~ 3 log fO2 units with respect to the Ni-NiO
buffer from 800o to 600o C (Burkhard, 1993).
The early crystallization of biotite (and amphibole) leaves the residual magma more oxidized,
due to the typically low Fe 3+/Fe 2+ ratios in these mafic silicates (Wones and Eugster, 1965;
Czamanske and Wones, 1973; Ishihara, 1981; Burkhard, 1993). Burkhard (1993) found that the
relative timing of the crystallization of biotite with respect to vapor saturation of the
crystallizing magma is particularly useful in determining the oxidation state of the intrusion. In
the porphyritic tonalite stocks of the Batu Hijau district that contain biotite in an aplitic
groundmass (e.g. Young Tonalite), vapor saturation is inferred to have been approximately
coeval with biotite crystallization, assuming that the quenched groundmass formed as a
response to volatile exsolution (cf. Jahns and Burnham, 1969; Candela, 1989). This would
probably be the case for magmas that contain a high amount of water and are emplaced at high
crustal-levels, where vapor saturation occurs relatively early in the crystallization sequence.
Burkhard (1993) contended that the vapor saturation of the magma causes the oxidation of the
crystallizing biotite, which, in turn, leads to the crystallization of magnetite. Hence, biotite and
magnetite occur in the absence of ilmenite in the aplitic groundmass to the Young Tonalite in
Batu Hijau.
In contrast, employing the same logic, vapor saturation occurred after the crystallization of
biotite in the equigranular quartz diorite plutons, as indicated by the absence of biotite in the
interstitial groundmass. The crystallizing magmas that formed these intrusions probably
contained lower amounts of water and/or were emplaced at greater depth, compared to the
Young Tonalite. Hence, the oxidation of the magma caused by the exsolved volatiles affected
only late-stage interstitial quartz and feldspar and not biotite, with little production, if any, of
iron-titanium oxide minerals. Burkhard (1993) showed that highly oxidized magnetite-series
granitoids in the Oslo Graben underwent vapor saturation coeval with biotite crystallization (cf.
Czamanske and Wones, 1973), whereas the less-oxidized magnetite- and ilmenite-series
granitoids in Japan and the Alps exsolved volatiles after the crystallization of biotite.
Physical implications of vapor saturation at varying crustal-levels
One of the most plausible mechanisms for the vapor saturation of a crystallizing melt involves
the rapid ascent of partially crystalline magma to high crustal-levels, where a decrease in
lithostatic pressure and the temperature of the magma results in volatile exsolution and
quenching of the melt (Burnham 1979). In general, the higher the level of emplacement (lower
lithostatic pressure), the greater the potential for the early vapor saturation of the crystallizing
magma.
The high levels of emplacement (≤ 2 + 0.5 km) and oxidizing conditions inferred for the Young
Tonalite are consistent with its strongly porphyritic texture and the presence of
biotite+magnetite in the aplitic quartzo-feldspathic groundmass. The tonalite porphyry complex
that comprises the Batu Hijau deposit is inferred to have been emplaced rapidly, characterized
by at least three distinct pulses within a ~ 100 k.y. span, into colder and more brittle pre-
mineral volcaniclastic and plutonic wall-rock. The rapid ascent of these pulses of magma led to
the episodic reduction in lithostatic pressure and temperature of the crystallizing melts, which
in turn facilitated the exsolution of volatiles (second boiling; Burnham and Ohmoto, 1980). As
second boiling proceeded, the volume of the system expanded and the mechanical (P∆V)
energy increased to the point where the tensile strength of the wall-rock+lithostatic pressure
was exceeded and hydraulic fracturing occurred (Burnham, 1979). At least one major episode
of hydraulic fracturing is inferred for each phase of tonalite porphyry intrusion. The increased
fluid pressures leading up to these fracture events would have lowered the confining pressure
from lithostatic to a point near hydrostatic. This reduced state of deviatoric stress would have
created highly permeable fracture networks and channelways for the migration of ore-forming
hydrothermal fluids (Burnham and Ohmoto, 1980).
The greater depths of emplacement estimated for the porphyritic tonalite stocks at Arung Ara
and Katala, and the equigranular quartz diorites in the district (~ 3 to 5 km), suggest that the
exsolution of volatiles from these magmas would have released less P∆V energy than the Batu
Hijau tonalite porphyry complex. In addition, the wall-rock would have been less brittle than at
higher levels, due to increased confining pressure and temperature. Vapor saturation in the
equigranular plutons is inferred to have occurred late in the crystallization sequence, which
would further limit the amount of exsolved volatiles and the consequent lesser development of
hydraulic fractures in the wall-rocks to these intrusions.
4.10.2.4 Timing and Localization of Felsic Magmatism with Respect to Tectonic Events
The Late Miocene to mid-Pliocene timing of felsic magmatism in the Batu Hijau district is
probably related, in part, to collisional events of similar age in the eastern Banda arc. The U-Pb
SHRIMP ages of the igneous rock samples range from ~ 6.8 Ma, for dacitic volcaniclastic rock
that unconformably overlies Miocene andesitic volcanic breccia at Teluk Puna, to ~3.7 Ma for
the emplacement of the tonalite porphyry complex and related copper-gold mineralization at
Batu Hijau. This age range compares favorably to the inferred accretion of a continental
fragment with the Banda arc, at ~ 8 Ma (Richardson and Blundell, 1996), and the subsequent
collision of the Australian continental margin, in the vicinity of Timor, at ~ 4 to 2.5 Ma

(Audley-Charles, 1986; Hall, 1996). The ~ 2.7 Ma age indicated for a syn-mineral tonalite
porphyry at the Elang porphyry copper-gold prospect, 60 km east of Batu Hijau (unpublished
Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company data), supports the contemporaneous association between
intrusion-related mineralization and regional tectonic events.
The Trans-Sumbawa fault system coincides with the northeasterly projection of the margin of
the Roo Rise Plateau beneath the Banda arc and an inferred linear disruption, or kink, in the
topology of the subducting slab beneath western Sumbawa (Chapters 2 and 3). The Batu Hijau
district lies about 30 km to the west of the Trans-Sumbawa Fault, in the southern part of the
western block of Sumbawa. This region is inferred to be an uplifted portion of the geologic
basement of the island, on the basis of gravity data and the distribution of exposed rock types
and hydrothermal alteration styles (Chapter 3).
The Late Miocene to mid-Pliocene collision of continental crust with the subduction zone
beneath the eastern Banda arc is inferred to have led to arc-parallel extension and resultant
dilation of northeasterly trending, sinistral oblique-slip faults (e.g. Trans-Sumbawa fault system
and related faults, Section 2.5). Hence, discrete pulses of felsic magmatism in the district are
probably controlled, in part, by the rapid ascent of melts guided by fault channelways that
connect the subarc mantle to the upper levels of the island arc crust. The preference of these
high-level intrusions for the Batu Hijau region probably reflects the intersection of second- and
third-order, arc-transverse faults of the Trans-Sumbawa fault system with the axis of the
Neogene magmatic arc in a dynamic setting, which was characterized by anomalous block
uplift with respect to the adjacent crustal blocks. The structural controls on intrusion
emplacement and related mineralization are discussed further in Chapter 5.
Rapid intrusion emplacement is supported by the primitive, mantle-like isotopic signature

of the intrusive rocks in the district and the lack of chemical evidence for assimilation
of island arc crust by the ascending melts. The progressive emplacement of porphyritic
intrusions at higher crustal-levels through geologic time suggests that the amount of extension
along arc-transverse oblique-slip faults increased from the early- to mid-Pliocene, as the
Australian Craton approached and collided with the Banda arc. Present-day, arc-parallel
extension rates of 3 mm/yr are estimated by McCaffrey (1988), on the basis of fault plane
solutions (Chapter 2). Pliocene arc-parallel extension rates may have been similar, or greater, in
magnitude.
4.11 Summary
The Batu Hijau district consists of a gently dipping, Early to Middle Miocene andesitic
volcaniclastic succession, which locally contains thin intercalations of limestone. The
volcaniclastic succession has been cut by several phases of intrusion, which include: 1) at least
three types of hypabyssal andesite, 2) more than three equigranular quartz diorite plutons (QD1
to QD3) and related late-stage tonalite to granodiorite dykes, and 3) a series of porphyritic
tonalite stocks and dykes. The ages of the intrusions range from Middle to Late Miocene for the
hypabyssal andesites to Late Miocene to mid-Pliocene (5.9 to 3.7 Ma) for the equigranular and
porphyritic felsic intrusions. The youngest intrusive events are recorded within the tonalite
stock and dyke complex (3.7 Ma) that is centered within the Batu Hijau porphyry deposit. The
andesitic diatreme-dyke breccia in the Santong Valley, situated in the center of the area, is of
comparable age, or younger than, the Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry complex, and post-dates all
other felsic intrusions in the district. Both the volcaniclastic rocks and intrusions are of calc -
alkaline affinity and comprise part of the Sunda-Banda magmatic arc, which is underlain by
oceanic crust in the vicinity of Sumbawa.
At Teluk Puna, immediately south of the study area, a Late Miocene (~6.8 Ma) andesitic to
dacitic volcaniclastic sequence unconformably overlies the upper part of the Early to Middle
Miocene andesitic volcano-sedimentary succession and phyric andesitic intrusions. In the
coastal regions to the northwest, west and south of the map area, a Plio-Pleistocene epiclastic
sequence unconformably overlies older volcaniclastic and intrusive rocks.
The resedimented crystal-rich volcaniclastic rock units in the Batu Hijau district are interpreted
to have been deposited in a fore-arc, predominantly submarine setting, coeval to, or shortly
after, Early to Middle Miocene andesitic island arc volcanism. The rarity of intercalated lava
flows within these sequences suggests that the eruptive source was located far from the present
site of the study area. The foraminiferal assemblages of limestone interbeds within the lower
volcanic sandstone unit suggest that this portion of the sequence was deposited in a mid-neritic
setting (40 to 60 m below sea level). The style and geometry of the syn-eruptive resedimented
volcaniclastic sequences in the Lesser Antilles (Sigurdsson et al., 1980; Fisher, 1984) provide a
modern-day analogue of the volcano-sedimentary succession in the Batu Hijau district.
The high 143 Nd/144 Nd and low 87 Sr/86 Sr isotopic ratios for the Batu Hijau volcaniclastic rocks
and intermediate to felsic intrusions are similar to those that characterize simple orogenic island
arcs in the circum-Pacific that overlap the MORB field (e.g. Marianas, New Britain and
Aleutians). Hence, the source of the magmas that led to the emplacement of the Batu Hijau
igneous suite was probably a MORB-like mantle wedge, which was modified by dehydration
and partial melting of subducted Indian Ocean crust. The relatively low Pb-isotope ratios of the
district samples are consistent with only minor contamination of the mantle wedge source by
subducted terrigenous sediments (<0.5% sediment component), on the basis of the
143
Nd/144 Nd−206 Pb/204 Pb mixing model of van Bergen et al. (1993).
The estimated emplacement levels of the felsic intrusions in the study area range from 3 to 5
km for the porphyritic tonalites of Arung Ara and Katala (5.0 to 4.7 Ma) to ≤ 2 km for the
inferred solidus conditions for the tonalite porphyry stocks at Batu Hijau (3.7 Ma) and late-
stage, porphyritic andesite dykes. The equigranular quartz diorite plutons and late-stage
granodiorite to tonalite dykes at Sekongkang (5.9 Ma) and Katala (4.4 Ma) were probably
emplaced at depths of ~3 to 4 km. The depth to the parent magma chamber(s) ranges from 6 to
9 km, on the basis of the pressures estimated for the crystallization of phenocrysts in porphyrtic
tonalites. The combined depth range for intrusion emplacement and causal magma chamber is
consistent with that determined for the Yerington batholith in Nevada (1 to >8 km, Dilles,
1987; Dilles and Einaudi, 1992; Dilles and Proffett, 1995) and the Wasatch Mountains in Utah
(0.5 to 9 km, John, 1989a).
Vapor saturation occurred late in the crystallization sequence of the low- to medium-K calc -
alkaline tonalite and granodiorite dykes associated with equigranular quartz diorite plutons at
Sekongkang and Katala. In contrast, vapor saturation occurred relatively early in the
crystallization sequence of the low-K Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry intrusions and the
porphyritic tonalite stocks at Arung Ara and Katala. The relatively early exsolution of volatiles
from the crystallizing melts that formed the porphyritic intrusions probably contributed to the
increased oxidation of these magmas, particularly for the high-level tonalite porphyry complex
that comprises the center of the Batu Hijau deposit (cf. Burnham, 1967; Candela, 1989; Sillitoe
and Thompson, 1998). The emplacement of this tonalite porphyry complex was rapid,
characterized by at least three distinct pulses within a 90 + 160 k.y. (2σ) time span (3.76 + 0.12
Ma to 3.67 + 0.10 Ma), which falls within the range of precision of the U-Pb SHRIMP dating
technique.
The timing and localization of felsic magmatism in the Batu Hijau district is inferred to be
related to regional uplift and oblique movements on crustal-scale, arc-transverse fault systems,
due to Late Miocene to mid-Pliocene collisional events in the eastern Banda arc. The
mesoscopic - and map-scale structural elements in the district suggest that brittle deformation
and associated intrusion-related mineralization were influenced by both regional- and local-
stress fields. The description and interpretation of these structural elements represent the
subject of the following chapter.
CHAPTER 5 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY 153
CHAPTER 5 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF THE BATU HIJAU

DISTRICT AND VICINITY
5.1 Introduction
This chapter documents the geometric - and timing-relationships between mesoscopic - and map-
scale structural elements in the Batu Hijau district and vicinity. The structural evolution of the
region is put into the context of the volcano-sedimentary- and intrusive-settings described in the
preceding chapter. The thermochronology and exhumation history of the causative intrusions
and host rocks in several of the porphyry centers in the area are estimated, on the basis of
radiometric (U-Th)/He apatite ages, and the U-Pb SHRIMP ages and intrusion emplacement
(solidus) depths estimated in Chapter 4. Regional- and deposit vicinity-scale structural models
are generated and discussed on the basis of the data presented. Three-dimensional, numerical
stress models are constructed to test: 1) the extent to which the geometry of pre-mineral plutons
control the localization of tonalite porphyry intrusions and related quartz veins in the Batu Hija u
deposit, and 2) the regional fault-control to the zones of comb quartz veins that locally post-date
the development of these earlier vein types.
Mesoscopic structural elements mapped in the Batu Hijau district and vicinity include bedding
in the volcano-sedimentary rock sequence, igneous dykes and intrusive margins, fractures, and
quartz veins and veinlets. The inferred chronology and relative intensity of structural elements
are illustrated in Figure 5.1. All these structures are brittle, with no evidence recorded for ductile
deformation in the area.
In the Batu Hijau district, bedding within the andesitic volcaniclastic succession dips gently.
Intrusive contacts, which include the margins of hypabyssal phyric andesite intrusions,
equigranular quartz diorite plutons, porphyritic tonalite stocks and dykes of varying texture and
composition, strike easterly, northwesterly and northeasterly, and dip moderately to steeply. In
the vicinity of the Batu Hijau deposit, early intrusions commonly trend easterly to
northwesterly, whereas the later, Young Tonalite dykes (~3.7 Ma) that comprise the core of the
deposit trend northeasterly.
The orientation, distribution and abundance of faults, fractures and quartz veins indicate that the
margins of the equigranular quartz diorite plutons were a focus of brittle deformation
throughout time. The strikes of moderately to steeply dipping faults, fractures and quartz veins
typically coincide with the local trend of quartz diorite plutons and dykes. There are two major
zones of mesoscopic - and map-scale faults: 1) the northeasterly- to east-northeasterly-trending
Bambu−Santong fault zone and 2) the northwesterly- to west-northwesterly-trending
Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault corridor, which includes the Tongoloka−Puna, Tongoloka and
Katala fault zones (Figure 4.1). The offsets on these faults are typically minor, with the
exception of the maximum throws of 100 to 150 m determined for northwesterly striking faults
in the Brang Pede and Brang Katala regions. No significant fault offset of the Batu Hijau
deposit has been determined by drill core logging and mapping of open-pit exposures. Fracture
154 CHAPTER 5 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
abundance increases proximal to intrusive contacts, and commonly is highest within andesitic
wall-rock in the vicinity of the major porphyry centers.
Quartz veins and veinlets occur throughout the district, but are localized within, and adjacent to,
the porphyry centers and, particularly, the Batu Hijau deposit. Two major populations are
recognized and include “A” and “B” quartz veins and veinlets, and comb to massive types. The
latter style of quartz vein displays wall-rock alteration styles and timing relationships that are
similar to pyritic “D” veins that typically occur late in the development of porphyry systems
(Gustafson and Hunt, 1975). However, “D” veins are typically pyrite-dominant, whereas the
comb quartz veins commonly contain less than 3 vol. % pyrite. Steeply to moderately dipping
“A” and “B” veins form the center of the Batu Hijau deposit and have a preferred northeasterly
strike. Steeply dipping comb to massive quartz veins are distributed along the flanks of the
deposit, and indicate a preferred northwesterly strike. The geometry and spatial- and timing-
relationships of both vein types are inferred to indicate emplacement under the physical
conditions imposed by regional, far-field (comb quartz veins) and local, near-field (“A” and “B”
veins) stress-states.
Peripheral quartz vein systems at Bambu, 2 to 4 km west-southwest of Batu Hijau, and Teluk
Puna, 4 to 9 km south-southeast of Batu Hijau, display characteristics different to those of the
“A” and “B” veins and comb quartz veins. The strike lengths of these vein systems range from 2
km for Bambu to 5 km for Teluk Puna. The geometry of these vein arrays is consistent with
development under the same stress-state inferred for the formation of the Batu Hijau deposit and
several of the other porphyry centers in the district. However, the timing of emplacement of
these peripheral quartz vein systems is not well constrained.
5.2 Bedding in Volcaniclastic Rocks
5.2.1 Batu Hijau District
Bedding within the andesitic volcaniclastic sequence in the Batu Hijau district typically dips
gently (~ 10o to 30o ; Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 5.2 A). Southerly dips are most common, particularly
at Katala and the eastern portion of the Batu Hijau vicinity. Local variations in bedding dip-
direction occur along the western flank of the Batu Hijau deposit, where dips that range from
16o NW through 35o W to 45o SW characterize beds in volcanic lithic breccia that lies to the
northwest, west and southwest of the deposit. This spatial relationship of bedding with respect
to the deposit is consistent with the doming of andesitic wall-rock adjacent to the syn-mineral
tonalite porphyry intrusions. The increase in dip of bedding with increasing proximity to the
western margin of the tonalite intrusive complex is also indicated in the schematic cross-section
(section line C-D; Figure 4.2).
The strike-directions of bedding in volcaniclastic rocks are locally subparallel to the trend of
nearby faults and fault zones (Figure 4.1). North-northeasterly striking beds are more common
in the vicinity of the northeasterly trending Bambu−Santong fault zone, whereas north-
northwesterly- to northwesterly-trending beds are more abundant in volcaniclastic rocks along
the Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault corridor. Elsewhere, typical strike-directions are more easterly.
This spatial relationship between the trend of bedding and local faults within fault zones may
indicate the local rotation of beds by drag along faults. However, the dip-directions of the beds
measured are not consistent in a given region, so it is unlikely that any significant block rotation
occurred for the volcaniclastic sequence in the study area. No mesoscopic folds are recorded,
but easterly trending gentle folds are inferred locally, on the basis of reversals in dip-direction
on the outcrop-scale (e.g. 6o NE to 10o SW in the Nangka area). However, such gentle
undulations in bedding may, in part, reflect volcano-sedimentary processes and syn-depositional
topography, as opposed to a subsequent folding event.
5.2.2 Coastal Volcaniclastic Rock Sequence
Bedding in the coastal volcano-sedimentary rock succession, which locally includes uplifted
coral reefs, typically dips gently (10o to 20o ; Figures 1.2 and 5.2 B). The beds dip towards the
northwest, west and less commonly, southwest, away from the Batu Hijau district. Bedding in
the volcanic conglomerate and sandstone exposed near the river mouth of the Brang Tongoloka
along the south coast of Sumbawa, dips 14o to 20o S. This general spatial relationship of the dip-
direction of bedding within the Plio-Pleistocene volcaniclastic rock sequence is consistent with
the Pleistocene to Recent uplift of the Batu Hijau district with respect to the coastal rock
successions and a gentle doming of the region. The presence of raised ?Quaternary coral reefs at
elevations of up to ~ 75 m in the coastal bluffs at Sekongkang Bay (Section 4.7.1) is consistent
with this inferred uplift.
5.3 Intrusive Contacts and Dykes
Intrusive contacts, which include the margins of hypabyssal phyric andesite intrusions,
equigranular quartz diorite plutons, porphyritic tonalite stocks and dykes of variable texture and
composition, typically dip steeply in the vicinity of the study area. In the Batu Hijau district,
intrusive contacts and dykes commonly strike easterly, northeasterly and northwesterly (Figures
4.1 and 4.2). In the coastal region, west of the Batu Hijau district, Pleistocene basaltic andesite
dykes indicate a pseudo-radial pattern (Figure 1.2).
5.3.1 Andesite Intrusions
Dykes and intrusive margins of mid- to late-Miocene, hypabyssal phyric andesite and micro-
quartz diorite intrusions in the Batu Hijau district indicate variable strike-directions and dips
commonly >70o (Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 5.3 A). The general trends of the margins of these
composite intrusions vary from northwesterly and northeasterly, for the phyric andesite in the
western part of the area to northeasterly and easterly for the micro-quartz diorite-andesite
intrusion in the northeastern part of the district. Measured contacts and dykes commonly
indicate northeasterly strikes, particularly in the vicinity of the Bambu−Santong fault zone.
Northwesterly strike directions characterize andesitic intrusions in the Tongoloka−Batu Hijau
fault corridor.
5.3.2 Felsic Plutonic Rocks
Late Miocene to mid-Pliocene phaneritic dykes are oriented subparallel to the margins of
proximal felsic intrusions and fault zones (Figure 4.1). The distributions of felsic dykes define
major easterly-, northeasterly- and northwesterly-trending belts through the study area, which
correspond approximately to the distribution of quartz diorite plutons, the Bambu−Santong fault
zone and the Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault corridor, respectively. The Santong diatreme marks
the site of the intersection of these three intrusive trends. North-northeasterly strikes are typical
for late-stage tonalitic dykes or stocks in the porphyry centers at Sekongkang, Arung Ara, Batu
Hijau, and, to a lesser extent, for the granodiorite dykes at Katala.
Equigranular quartz diorite plutons and dykes display a general easterly strike. However,
significant populations that strike northeasterly occur in the western part of the area and
populations that strike northwesterly are distributed in the Brang Pede, Batu Hijau and
Tongoloka areas (Figures 4.1 and 5.3 B). The intrusive contacts typically dip >70o , with
southeasterly and southwesterly dip-directions most common. The overall trend of the
composite quartz diorite pluton in the Batu Hijau vicinity is northerly to north-northwesterly,
which represents a major departure from the general easterly trend defined by the distribution of
equigranular quartz diorite bodies elsewhere in the district. Late-stage granodiorite-tonalite
dykes at Sekongkang strike northeasterly to north-northeasterly and dip steeply towards the
southeast, whereas late granodiorite dykes at Katala strike easterly to east-northeasterly and dip
steeply towards both the north and south.
Porphyritic tonalite stocks and dykes strike northeasterly and dip steeply at Arung Ara, and
strike easterly and dip > 70o S at Katala. In the eastern portion of Batu Hijau, along Brang
Katala, the trend of porphyritic tonalite dykes swings towards the northwest, which is
subparallel to the strike of the equigranular quartz diorite dykes in the Batu Hijau vicinity. The
mid-Pliocene (~3.7 Ma) tonalite porphyry intrusions in the Batu Hijau deposit (Young and
Intermediate Tonalites) have north-northeasterly- to east-northeasterly-strikes and > 75o dips
(Figure 5.3 C). Three-point analyses by Proffett (1998) for the Young Tonalite dykes logged in
drill core indicate a secondary population that strikes northwesterly and dips > 60o towards both
the northeast and southwest. However, these dykes are not reflected in the lower hemisphere
equal-area plots illustrated in Figure 5.3.
Steeply dipping late-stage porphyritic andesite to dacite dykes vary in orientation, with local
strike-directions dependent on location with respect to the northeasterly, easterly and
northwesterly structural trends discussed above. Northeasterly strikes are most common in the
vicinity of the Santong diatreme and Bambu−Santong fault zone, whereas northwesterly strikes
are typical for the dykes that occur along the eastern flank of the Batu Hijau area, in the vicinity
of Brang Katala and Brang Petung.
5.3.3 Coastal Basaltic Andesite Dykes
In contrast to the intrusive dykes in the Batu Hijau district, which indicate three major structural
trends, the basaltic andesite dykes to the west of the district display a pseudo-radial distribution
(Figures 1.2 and 5.3 D). The strike-directions of these steeply dipping (> 75o ) tabular-planar
dykes range from north-northeasterly through easterly to southwesterly, and indicate a
progressive change of more than 180o from north to south through the coastal area of
southwestern Sumbawa. The extensions of the strike-directions of these Pleistocene dykes
intersect at a site located approximately 2 km northwest of the Concentrator site, adjacent to the
western boundary of the map area.
5.3.4 Dykes as Paleostress-Direction Indicators
The geometry of an intrusive dyke is, in part, determined by the path followed by the tip of the
dyke as it propagates through the surrounding wall-rock (Pollard, 1987). It is generally accepted
that dykes are typically emplaced perpendicular to the minimum compressive stress (σ3) (e.g.
Anderson, 1938, 1951; Pollard, 1987). The same relationship has been demonstrated in the field
of fracture mechanics, where tension fractures form perpendicular to σ3 and propagate in the
direction of the maximum compressive stress (σ1) as a Mode I, or opening displacement, elastic
crack (Lawn and Wilshire, 1975). Hence, the geometry of a tabular-planar dyke provides a good
indication of the σ3-direction during dyke emplacement. If the minimum compressive stress
varies in orientation through a given region, then the attitude of an individual dyke should vary
accordingly. Delaney et al. (1986) and Pollard (1987) conclude that in certain environments,
dykes may occupy pre-existing joint sets, if the minimum compressive stress is small compared
to the magmatic driving pressure and/or σ3 is nearly the same magnitude as one or both of the
other principal stresses. However, this case proves to be the exception, rather than the rule.
5.3.4.1 Batu Hijau District
The planar and regular geometries of the phyric andesite and felsic intrusive dykes in the Batu
Hijau district are interpreted to have developed as tension mode cracks, oriented perpendicular
to the minimum compressive stress-direction. The common northeasterly- and northwesterly-
orientation of the majority of the dykes and elongate stocks in the distric t, suggest two, nearly
orthogonal orientations for σ3 during dyke emplacement throughout the intrusive history of the
district. Given that the steeply-dippping late-stage granodiorite-tonalite dykes at Sekongkang,
porphyritic tonalite at Arung Ara and Young Tonalite at Batu Hijau all strike northeasterly, it is
probable that σ3 was northwesterly and subhorizontal during the intrusion of these bodies. The
orientation of equigranular quartz diorite dykes and the late porphyritic andesite dykes seems to
be more dependent on location, rather than related to particular ages of intrusion. This may
indicate: 1) fluctuations in the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses, such as
experienced during arc-orthogonal compression and subsequent relaxation, or 2) the reactivation
of pre-existing faults and fractures, where magma pressure exceeded the normal compressive
stress resolved on to the fracture surface (cf. Delaney et al., 1986; Pollard, 1987; Tokarski,
1990).
5.3.4.2 Coastal Dykes
The pseudo-radial distribution of subvertical dykes in the coastal volcaniclastic rock sequence is
consistent with dyke propagation outwards from an igneous center. The dykes occupy tension
fractures that form in response to a minimum compressive stress that is oriented tangentially to
the margin of the igneous center. Radial dyke patterns are typical of near-surface igneous
centers, such as that documented for the Spanish Peaks dyke complex in Colorado, where
subvertical rhyolite to lamprophyre dykes emanate more than 15 km from the intrusive stock
centers (Smith, 1987). The igneous center for the coastal dyke complex in Sumbawa is inferred
to lie at depth, beneath the site indicated by the intersection of the extensions to the dyke strike-
directions, which is located adjacent to the western boundary of the map area. These dykes
could have formed part of a basaltic-andesite stratovolcano complex during the Pleistocene.
Other surface manifestations of such a causative igneous center, such as a plug-like intrusion or
stock, have yet to be identified in this region. However, dome-like andesitic intrusions crop out
approximately 5 km towards the west (Section 4.8 and Figure 1.2).
5.4 Faults and Fault Zones
Mesoscopic - and map-scale faults offset the gently dipping volcaniclastic stratigraphy, steeply
dipping intrusive contacts and the margin of the Santong diatreme. Mapped faults are commonly
subparallel to the trend of local intrusions. The strike of bedding in volcaniclastic rocks locally
parallels the trend of proximal fault zones, which is inferred to indicate local drag and minor
rotation along these faults (Section 5.1). Mesoscopic faults are moderately to steeply dipping,
typically >50o , and commonly strike northwesterly, northeasterly and easterly (Figure 5.4).
These faults are typically defined by angular to subangular wall-rock fragments, up to several
centimeters in mean diameter, set in a matrix of scaly gray clay gouge (Figure 5.5). The widths
of these gouge zones typically range up to 50 cm, and locally exceed 3 m. A maximum width of
8 m is indicated for northwesterly striking faults in the Tongoloka vicinity. Zones of feldspar-
destructive hydrothermal clay/mica-pyrite alteration occur locally as envelopes, up to several
meters wide, adjacent to the fault surfaces.
Slickensides, which are defined locally by striations in clay gouge and on the polished wall-rock
surfaces to the faults, indicate dominant north-northeasterly trends (Figure 5.4). A north-
northeasterly slip-direction for the most recent movements on those mesoscopic faults where
slickensides are recorded, is consistent with strike-slip to oblique-slip displacements on
northeasterly trending faults and dip-slip to oblique-slip offsets on northwesterly trending faults.
The faults typically do not display la rge apparent offsets, which are commonly on the order of
meters, where the apparent displacement of planar marker units (e.g. beds or dykes) can be
determined. However, maximum throws of ~ 100 to 150 m are estimated from the apparent
offset of the gently dipping volcanic sandstone-volcanic lithic breccia contact by northwesterly
trending faults that occur to the west and east of Batu Hijau (Figures 4.1 and 4.2). No significant
offset of the Batu Hijau deposit by post-mineralization faults has been documented in drill core
logging or open-pit mapping to date (Ali, 1997; Mitchell et al., 1998; Clode et al., 1999).
Two major fault zones transect the study area, the northeasterly trending, Bambu−Santong fault
zone and the northwesterly trending, Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault corridor. These two fault
trends intersect in the vicinity of the Santong diatreme. The Brang Nangka stream valley
coincides with the northwestern extension of the southwestern margin of the Tongoloka−Batu
Hijau fault corridor. However, the la ck of abundant outcrop in Brang Nangka does not facilitate
the definition of a major zone of northwesterly striking faults in this area. Alternatively, the
Bambu−Santong fault zone may define a terminal boundary to the Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault
corridor. The Batu Hijau deposit occurs in a north-northwesterly- to northwesterly-oriented
segment along the Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault corridor, where the local faults strike slightly
more northerly (10o to 30o ) than elsewhere along the trend (Figure 4.1).
Both these fault zones locally coincide with variations in volcano-sedimentary facies. The
northwesterly axis of the coarser-grained clastic facies that characterizes the volcanic lithic
breccia unit at Nangka, Batu Hijau and Tongoloka lies along the Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault
corridor. The width of this facies increases to the southeast, across a notheasterly trending zone,
which is situated on the southeast-side of the Bambu−Santong fault zone, in the vicinity of Batu
Hijau (Section 4.2.4). These spatial relationships probably reflect, in part, the deposition of the
volcaniclastic succession in a growth-fault setting (cf. Figure 4.47).
The relative timing of movements on the northeasterly and northwesterly fault sets are not well
constrained, as offset relationships are ambiguous on the mesoscopic-scale. On the map-
scale, the faults that define the Bambu−Santong fault zone and Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault
corridor indicate similar offset relationships with respect to map units. On the regional-scale,
both northeasterly- and northwesterly-trending faults and topographic lineaments are well
expressed in the vicinity of the Batu Hijau district, with no clear evidence for offset of one trend
by the other (Figures 1.2 and 3.5). Hence, it is probable that the movements along the faults
within these two fault zones were coeval and occurred throughout the Neogene to the present.
5.4.1 Bambu−Santong Fault Zone
The northeasterly- to east-northeasterly-trending Bambu−Santong fault zone is 300 to 600 m

wide and extends more than 7 km from Bambu through the Santong Valley and Air Merah. The
faults within this zone strike north-northeasterly to northeasterly and, less commonly,
northwesterly (Figures 4.1 and 5.4 B). The northeasterly faults typically dip > 60o NW and, to a
lesser extent, 50o to 80o SE. The main faults in this zone commonly dip 60o to 80o NW and have
traces that coincide with the alignment of ridgecrests, valleys and breaks in topographic slope.
Northwesterly striking mesoscopic faults within the Bambu−Santong fault zone are most
abundant in the Brang Pede, Santong diatreme and Air Merah vicinities, which lie proximal to
the intersection of the fault zone with the Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault corridor.
In the Bambu area, a series of north-northeasterly striking and ~70o to 80o NW-dipping faults
form a splay-structure to the main fault for this portion of the Bambu−Santong trend (Figures
4.1 and 5.12). This geometric relationship and the north-northeasterly- to east-northeasterly-
trends of local slickensides are consistent with the development of the main fault and splay
faults in response to a north-northeasterly-directed, subhorizontal maximum compressive stress
(σ1 ).
5.4.2 Tongoloka−Batu Hijau Fault Corridor
This northwesterly trending fault corridor is ~ 1.3 km to 1.8 km wide and extends more than 8
km from the Santong Valley through Batu Hijau to the Tongoloka Valley in the southeast
(Figure 4.1). Three major fault zones occur within this belt, and include, from west to east, the
Tongoloka−Puna, Tongoloka and Katala fault zones. The mesoscopic faults in the
Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault corridor strike northwesterly and dip from 40o to 80o NE to 60o to
85o SW (Figure 5.4 C). Most faults that comprise the Tongoloka−Puna, Tongoloka and Katala
fault zones in the Batu Hijau vic inity dip towards the southwest, whereas northeasterly dip-
directions are more common in the Tongoloka Valley, to the southeast. Northeasterly trending
faults are not common in the Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault corridor. However, local occurrences
of northeasterly striking faults do occur along the southern flank of Batu Hijau, where the Brang
Tongoloka deviates from its northwesterly course to a westerly direction, and in the vicinity of a
cluster of quartz diorite plutons and dykes in the Tongoloka Valley, about 1.5 km to the
southeast (Figure 4.1).
Fault zones exposed along the water diversion ditches, which are located on the western and
eastern flanks of the Tongoloka Valley, are up to 8 m wide, and consist of hydrothermal
clay/mica-pyrite alteration, scaly clay gouge and massive to comb quartz veins. The quartz
veins occur both as through-going structures, localized adjacent to the faults and as angular and
brecciated fragments within clay gouge. This timing relationship is consistent with: 1) the
emplacement of quartz veins prior, and subsequent, to fault movement, 2) coeval fault and vein
development, or most probably, 3) periodic fault movement and quartz vein emplacement in the
same structural zone throughout time.
The nearly down-dip orientation of slickensides and undulose ribs along these fault surfaces is
consistent with the imposition of either a north-northeasterly-directed, subhorizontal maximum
compressive stress (σ1 ) or a north-northeasterly-oriented, subhorizontal minimum compressive
stress (σ3 ) during the last movement recorded on these fault surfaces. The presence of steeply
dipping northwesterly trending comb quartz veins within the fault zones favors the latter
hypothesis (that of NNE-directed σ3 ), if the veins formed in response to dila tion experienced
during dip-slip fault movement. The inferred stress-state active during brittle deformation in the
Batu Hijau district is further discussed, in light of quartz vein style and orientation, in Sections
4.6 and 4.8.
5.5 Fractures
The orientation and abundance of mesoscopic fracture, or joint, surfaces were measured
throughout the study area. The fractures are typically smooth-surfaced, planar and continuous.
The measurements include fracture surfaces that are coated by silicate, sulfide and oxide
minerals in the absence of significant quartz, and those fracture surfaces lacking mineral
coatings. The width of either type of fracture is typically < 1 mm. These fractures are considered
separately from measurements of faults, “A” and “B” quartz veins and veinlets, comb quartz
veins, epidote veins and pyritic “D” veins, which are described elsewhere in this chapter and in
Chapter 6. The fracture surfaces are of varying orientation and typically subvertical (> 75o dip).
Zones of increased fracture abundance are invariably associated with the margins of
equigranular quartz diorite plutons, and tonalitic stocks and dykes, in each of the major
porphyry centers in the district and, less commonly, localized along faults. Fracture formation is
inferred to be coeval to porphyry center development, given the increase in fracture abundance
with proximity to each center and the contained hydrothermal minerals (e.g. biotite, actinolite,
chlorite, epidote, magnetite, chalcopyrite and pyrite; refer to Chapter 6 for relative timing of
hydrothermal alteration).
If more than one significant population of fractures was recorded in a given exposure, primary
and secondary populations were designated. The fracture abundance was estimated by counting
the number of fractures per linear meter of outcrop, as measured across the trend of the
dominant fracture set in each field locality. This method is not as rigorous as that employed by
Titley (1978), where the abundance is determined by summing the length of all fractures within
a 25 cm by 25 cm outcrop surface. However, given the sheeted nature of many of the fracture
sets in most of the sample sites, and the general predominance of the primary set over any
secondary sets present, this estimate of abundance is considered to be adequate for the
objectives of this study.
5.5.1 Fracture Orientation
The orientations of the steeply dipping fractures are similar to the general trends of intrusions
and fault zones in the study area. Figure 5.6 illustrates the average strike- and dip-directions of
the fractures in the district, as determined by averaging all primary fracture populations
measured over a 500 m by 500 m grid. In addition, eight structural domains are defined on the
basis of the location of prospect areas and streams, and average fracture orientation. The strike-
directions of the primary fractures are plotted on a strike-direction histogram, or rose diagram,
for each domain. In the medial and northern portion of the study area, the general strikes of the
fractures vary from northeasterly at Sekongkang, through easterly to northwesterly at West and
East Nangka, to east-northeasterly at Gold Ridge−Air Merah, and easterly at Katala. Subsidiary
populations indicate strikes that are northwesterly at Sekongkang, north-northwesterly and west-
northwesterly at Gold Ridge−Air Merah, and northwesterly at Katala. The common easterly
trend of fracture strike-directions through the medial portion of the district is best expressed by
the fracture populations at Barakebo, the southern portions of West and East Nangka, the
northern part of Batu Hijau, and Katala. This easterly trend coincides with the general trend of
QD2 and QD3 quartz diorite plutons (Figure 4.1). In this region, steep fractures dip more
commonly towards the south, than to the north.
East-northeasterly- to northeasterly-striking fractures are most common in the Bambu area, with
west-northwesterly trending fractures becoming more abundant in the Brang Pede region, to the
east. This zone of northeasterly striking fractures narrows to the northeast, where it continues
along the Bambu−Santong fault zone through the Gold Ridge−Air Merah region. Most fractures
in the Bambu area dip steeply towards the northwest, consistent with the dip-direction of the
northeasterly striking faults in this region.
The zone of west-northwesterly- to northwesterly-striking fractures that extends from the

Tongoloka Valley through Batu Hijau coincides with the axis of Brang Nangka, which contains
northwesterly fracture trends. In the vicinity of Batu Hijau, fractures dip more commonly to the
southwest, than to the northeast, which coincides with the southwesterly dip-direction of the
faults in this area. A zone of northeasterly striking fractures is localized over the similarly
oriented Young Tonalite dykes that occur in the center of the Batu Hijau deposit. A minor, but
significant, population of northerly to north-northwesterly striking fractures occurs in Brang
Tembaga, along the western margin of the composite quartz diorite pluton, and in the
headwaters of Brang Tongoloka, directly south of the Batu Hijau deposit. Similar northerly
trends characterize the vicinity of the Santong diatreme, which is elongate along a north-south
axis and situated along a belt defined by a series of northerly trending tributaries to Brang
Santong. Northerly- to north-northwesterly-trending topographic lineaments interpreted from
satellite radar imagery (Figures 1.2 and 3.5), coincide with similarly oriented fracture trends in
the Batu Hijau and Santong diatreme vicinities.
There is a broad zone defined by the intersection of easterly-, northeasterly- and northwesterly-
fracture trends in the vicinity of the Santong diatreme, similar to the pattern defined by intrusive
margins, dykes and faults in the study area. There does not appear to be any systematic
difference in fracture orientation as a function of host rock type, rather the orientation of
fractures appears to be parallel to major structural elements, such as the margins of felsic
intrusions and fault corridors.
5.5.2 Fracture Abundance
Zones of elevated fracture abundance characterize andesitic volcaniclastic rocks, hypabyssal

andesite intrusions, quartz diorite and tonalite adjacent to felsic intrusive contacts. Empirically,
an abundance of more than 15 fractures per meter outlines discrete zones, which are associated
with porphyry centers at Sekongkang, Batu Hijau and Katala (Figure 5.6). At West Nangka, an
abundance of more than 10 fractures per meter outlines a weak porphyry occurrence. The
geometry of these zones approximates the configuration of local equigranular quartz diorite
intrusive contacts, and at some localities, porphyritic tonalite and tonalite porphyry intrusions.
The shape and size of these highly fractured zones vary throughout the area, as summarized in
Table 5.1.
At Sekongkang, fractures are localized within a septum of andesitic rocks within an embayment
of quartz diorite. In the Agang area, the northeasterly trend of this zone is subparallel to the
strike of late-stage granodiorite and tonalite dykes. At West Nangka, a zone of elevated fracture
abundance surrounds a small exposure of quartz diorite. The narrow zone of high fracture
abundance in Brang Belu is localized along the margin of a quartz diorite pluton. In the Batu
Hijau area, fracture abundance of up to 50 per meter characterize the deposit and the western
margin of the quartz diorite composite pluton exposed in Brang Tembaga, towards the north. At
Katala, easterly trending zones are localized within, and adjacent to, porphyritic tonalite, and, to
a lesser extent, equigranular quartz diorite. In the western portion of the prospect, the zone of
high fracture abundance swings towards the northwest, proximal to the eastern margin of the
Batu Hijau deposit. In the eastern part of Katala, the distribution of highly fractured rock swings
to the southeast and extends out of the map area.
The orientations of steeply dipping fracture sets that exceed an abundance of 15 fractures per
meter (> 10/m at West Nangka) have strike-directions that parallel the trend of the zones of
high fracture abundance, with the exception of the fractures recorded in the Batu Hijau region.
The strike-directions of fractures in highly fractured rock indicate northeasterly-trends at Agang,
western Sekongkang and easterly- to northwesterly-trends at West Nangka and Katala (Figure
5.7). In contrast, the predominantly west-northwesterly- to northwesterly-trends of the fractures
at Batu Hijau are oblique to the northerly-trend of the zone defined by high fracture abundance.
This may reflect the influence of northwesterly striking faults in this area. North-northeasterly-
and east-northeasterly-strikes characterize highly fractured rocks adjacent to tonalite porphyry
dykes of similar orientation in the center of the deposit.
Table 5.1 Geometry of zones of high fracture- and quartz vein-abundance in the Batu Hijau district.
Zone Sekongkang West Nangka Arung Ara Brang Belu Batu Hijau Katala
High Fracture Near-circular (plan): WNW-elongate: Not highly WNW-trend: NNW-elongate: E&NW-trends:
Abundance 1 300 m diameter 800x400m fractured <50m wide 2kmx400-700m 2kmx50-300m
Elevated Quartz NE-elongate: E-elongate: NE-elongate: WNW-trend: N-elongate: NE-elongate:

Vein Abundance 2 500x350m 600x300m 150x75m 50-75m wide 900x700m 300x100-150m
Definitions:
1) High fracture abundance defined by > 15 fractures per meter, with the exception of West Nangka (> 10/ m).
2) Elevated quartz veinlet and vein abundance, typically > 1%, with the exception of West Nangka (> 0.5%).
5.6 Quartz Veins and Veinlets
Two major populations of quartz veins and veinlets occur in the area (Figure 5.8). These include
“A” and “B” quartz veins and veinlets (cf. Gustafson and Hunt, 1975), which are associated
with porphyry-style mineralization and commonly range up to ~ 5 cm wide. This style of quartz
vein is ubiquitous in the Batu Hijau deposit and occurs, to a much lesser extent, at
Sekongkang−West Nangka, Arung Ara and Katala. Narrow “B” quartz veinlets, less than 5mm
wide, occur in Brang Belu. The second style of quartz vein is characterized by medium- to
coarse-grained comb, massive and locally banded quartz veins, which are typically 1 to 10 cm,
and locally up to 1.5 m wide. For the sake of brevity, this collective class of veins is termed
comb quartz veins in the following descriptions. Comb quartz veins are localized along a
northwesterly trending corridor that extends from the Tongoloka Valley through the
southwestern flank of the Batu Hijau deposit to the Santong diatreme, and is inferred to continue
to East Nangka. Quartz veins of similar style occur to a lesser extent along the northeastern
flank of Batu Hijau, in western Katala, South Katala, Brang Pede, Air Merah and elsewhere in
the study area. Where there are both types of quartz vein in the same outcrop, as at Batu Hijau
and Brang Belu, comb quartz veins clearly post-date “A” and “B” quartz veins. Evidence of this
cross-cutting relationship occurs in the upper benches (above 500 m RL) of the northwestern
part of the developing open pit, and along the Air Merah−Batu Hijau mine access road, west of
Brang Belu (Figure 5.8). Comb quartz veins are pyrite-bearing, characterized by halos of
feldspar-destructive, clay/mica-pyrite wall-rock alteration, and coeval with late-stage, pyritic
“D” veins at Batu Hijau, Katala, Arung Ara and Brang Belu, as inferred from mutually cross-
cutting contact age-relationships.
Puna, 4 to 9 km south-southeast of Batu Hijau, display characteristics different from those of the
“A” and “B” veins and comb quartz veins, as discussed below and described in Chapter 6. The
strike lengths of these vein systems range from 2 km for Bambu to 5 km for Teluk Puna
(Figures 1.2, 5.8, 5.12 and 5.13). The widths of individual veins in these systems typically range
from 10 to 50 cm, with zones of veins up to 10 m wide locally. The relative timing relationships
of the Bambu and Teluk Puna vein systems to the emplacement of “A” and “B” veins, and comb
quartz veins are not constrained. The mineralogy of all these quartz vein types and the
relationship to hydrothermal wall-rock alteration and sulfide mineralization are discussed in
Chapter 6.
5.6.1 “A” and “B” Quartz Veins and Veinlets
“A” and “B” quartz veins and veinlets occur predominantly at Batu Hijau and, to a lesser extent,
at Sekongkang, West Nangka, Brang Belu and Katala (Figure 5.8). The dimensions of each
occurrence, as indicated by the 1 and 5 vol. % contours of vein abundance, are shown in Table
5.1 and Figures 5.8 through 5.10. Comb quartz veins are spatially and temporally related to
early-stage hydrothermal alteration and copper-sulfide mineralization in each of the porphyry
centers in the district (Chapter 6).
5.6.1.1 Quartz Vein Orientation
Batu Hijau deposit
“A” and “B” quartz veins are ubiquitous in the Batu Hijau deposit. Their orientations
were measured in drill pad walls and stream exposures, and compiled from Newmont
Nusa Tenggara Company mapping of the uppermost benches (500 m RL and above) in the
developing open-pit. These quartz veins and veinlets indicate a strong preferred northeasterly
trend and dip moderately to steeply (Figures 5.8 and 5.10).
Three domains are defined on the basis of vein population dip-direction and location with
respect to the surface exposure of Young Tonalite dykes and the northernmost outcrops of
Intermediate Tonalite, which coincide approximately with the center of the deposit near-surface
(Figures 4.1 and 5.10). Domain 1, along the northwestern margin of the deposit, includes veins
that dip 40o to 70o SE and subsidiary populations that dip moderately towards the southwest and,
to a lesser extent, northeast. Domain 2, inclusive of the deposit center, contains veins that
display a preferred east-northeasterly- to northeasterly-strike, with subvertical to steep
southeasterly dips (> 60o ). These vein orientations are similar to those of Young and
Intermediate Tonalite dykes and intrusive contacts in the deposit. Domain 3, along the
southwestern margin of Batu Hijau, is characterized by veins that show a preferred west-
northwesterly- to northwesterly-dip (> 60o ) and subsidiary populations that dip towards both the
northeast and southwest.
Hence, the “A” and “B” veins and veinlets share the same preferred strike-directions as syn- to
late-mineral tonalite porphyry dykes and dip towards the tonalite porphyry complex that
comprises the center of the deposit. Northwesterly striking veins, which dip towards both the
southwest and northeast, represent secondary vein sets in all domains, but are poorly expressed
in the central domain (Domain 2). The orientation of these subsidiary vein populations is
parallel to the strike and dip of Young Tonalite dykes that emanate from the main northeasterly
trending dyke that forms the center of the deposit (Figure 4.2).
Other porphyry centers
The “B” quartz veins and veinlets at western Sekongkang dip steeply (>65o ) and display both
northeasterly- and northwesterly-strikes (Figure 5.8). The northeasterly trending veins are
oriented similarly to the quartz diorite intrusive contacts, late-stage granodiorite-tonalite dykes
and dominant fractures in this area (Figures 4.1 and 5.6). The northwesterly trending veins are
oriented subparallel to the trend of a subsidiary fracture population (Figure 5.6). At West
Nangka, to the east, sparsely distributed “B” veins and veinlets strike northeasterly and
northwesterly, and dip moderately to steeply. At Arung Ara, “B” veins strike east-northeasterly
to northeasterly and dip steeply (> 75o ) towards both the northwest and southeast. At Katala,
very few “B” veins and veinlets were measured in outcrop. However, the veins display
northwesterly and easterly strikes and dip steeply. The “B” veinlets at Brang Belu strike
northeasterly and are subvertical, oriented subparallel to the adjacent quartz diorite pluton
margin that localizes this occurrence.
5.6.1.2 Quartz Vein Abundance
The abundance of “A” and “B” quartz veins and veinlets were measured at the majority of
outcrop mapping sites that contain this style of quartz veins. The methodology utilized to
determine volume percent quartz vein abundance is illustrated schematically in Figure 5.11.
Vein abundance was determined by either of the following two methods for a given vein set: 1)
by dividing the cumulative thickness of the veins measured in the cross-strike direction by the
length of the traverse, or 2) by dividing the average vein width by the average vein spacing. In
the case of multiple vein sets, the total abundance is determined by the cumulative addition of
the volume percent abundance of each vein set. In practice, both techniques yield similar results
(+ 20%); method 2 is less time consuming, but has the potential to be less precise than method 1.
In the case of Batu Hijau, the contours of vein abundance represent data collected at ~ 40 drill
pads and stream outcrops by the author and Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company geologists. The
outlines of quartz vein abundance in the other porphyry prospects in the district were
determined from outcrop exposures by the author.
Vein abundance in drill core was determined visually by the author using the method described
for surface exposures. In the case of Batu Hijau, the contours in the schematic section (Figure
5.9) were drawn on the basis of the quartz vein abundance recorded by Newmont Nusa
Tenggara Company geologists, subsequent to the plotting of 15 m down-hole composite
averages for the data.
Batu Hijau deposit
The greatest abundance of “A” and “B” quartz veins in the study area is in the Batu Hijau
deposit. The deposit is characterized by a one volume percent vein outline that is more than five
times larger in surface area than the outlines for the other porphyry occurrences in the district
(Table 5.1 and Figure 5.8). The abundance of veins in the core of the deposit, adjacent to the
Young Tonalite and Intermediate Tonalite intrusions, exceeds 10 vol. % and locally attains 50
vol. % over tens of meters in drill core (Figure 5.9). The tonalite porphyry intrusions are
localized along the margins of a pre-mineral quartz diorite pluton and porphyritic dacite stock
(Chapter 4). The contact age-relationships in drill core indicate that most of the “A” and “B”
quartz veins and veinlets in the deposit formed coeval to the emplacement of these two phases
of tonalite porphyry intrusions (Mitchell et al., 1998; Clode et al., 1999). Further details on the
timing of quartz vein emplacement and the relationship to copper-sulfide mineralization in the
deposit are discussed in Chapter 6.
Other porphyry centers
Elsewhere in the district, vein abundances typically range from ~1 to 5 vol. %, as recorded at
Sekongkang, Arung Ara, Katala and, to a lesser extent, at Brang Belu. The abundance of quartz
veins increases with depth at Katala to exceed 5 vol. % locally (e.g. SKD 01; Figure 5.9) The
abundance of quartz veins at West Nangka is limited to a range of ~ 0.5 to 1 vol. %. All of these
occurrences of elevated quartz vein abundance are localized adjacent to the margins of quartz
diorite plutons, and, in the case of Katala, within a porphyritic tonalite stock.
5.6.2 Comb Quartz Veins
Comb quartz veins occur throughout the study area, but are localized along a more than 8 km
long, northwesterly trending corridor that extends from the Tongoloka Valley through the
southwestern flank of the Batu Hijau deposit, Brang Pede and the Santong diatreme (Figure
5.8). This corridor of veins ranges from 500 m to 1200 m wide and lies between the
Tongoloka−Puna and Tongoloka fault zones. Parallel corridors of quartz veins, up to ~ 150 m
wide, follow northwesterly trending faults that extend across the northeastern flank of Batu
Hijau (e.g. Katala fault zone) and at South Katala. Comb quartz veins also occur at Nangka,
Arung Ara, and to a lesser extent, Katala and Sekongkang. However, the abundance of quartz
veins in these areas is relatively low.
In contrast to the “A” and “B” veins, which are typically localized along the margins of quartz
diorite and tonalitic intrusions, comb quartz veins are more abundant adjacent to fault zones,
and are inferred to be largely structurally-controlled.
5.6.2.1 Quartz Vein Orientation
Most comb quartz veins occur in the vicinity of Batu Hijau, where these veins have a preferred
west-northwesterly strike and typically dip more than 70o NE and greater than 50o SW (Figure
5.8). Southwesterly dips are more common, coinciding with the common dip-direction of the
mesoscopic faults in the area. In the northern portion of the area, proximal to the
Bambu−Santong fault zone, a secondary vein set strikes east-northeasterly and dips more than
50o SE. In the Tongoloka Valley, along trend to the southeast of Batu Hijau, quartz veins dip
greater than 60o towards the northeast and north. The northeasterly dips coincide with the
general dip-direction for the majority of the mesoscopic faults in this area. Northwesterly
striking comb quartz veins extend through the Brang Pede region, where the veins typically dip
more than 60o SW, and the Gold Ridge−East Nangka region, where the veins dip moderately to
steeply towards both the southwest and northeast.
Subsidiary comb and banded quartz vein populations strike northeasterly and dip steeply (>70o )
towards the southeast in the northern part of Bambu and in the Gold Ridge−East Nangka areas,
particularly in areas located proximal to the Bambu−Santong fault zone.
5.6.2.2 Quartz Vein Abundance
The general abundance of comb quartz veins in the study area is low and commonly
characterized by the sparse distribution of narrow and isolated veins. Hence, any estimate of
vein abundance over zones more than 50 m in width commonly indicates less than one volume
percent veins. The greatest abundance of comb quartz veins recorded occurs in the corridor that
extends northwest from Tongoloka through Batu Hijau. In this zone, vein abundance locally
exceeds 1 vol. % as measured over a 200 m cross-strike interval in the Brang Belu region. The
maximum vein abundance in this area is ~ 5% per 10 m interval of road cut exposed west of
Brang Belu, near the junction between the primary access road and the old Air Merah−Batu
Hijau mine road (Figure 5.8).
5.6.3 Bambu Vein System
Two major north-northeasterly- to northeasterly-trending arrays of quartz veins are spaced about
300 m apart and extend from 1 to 2 km in the Bambu area (Figure 5.8). Each array consists of a
1 to 7 m wide zone of 50 to 80 vol. % quartz veins, which are typically 10 to 50 cm, and locally
up to 1.2 m, wide. The veins contain prismatic quartz, with cockade, banded and sheeted
textures. The quartz is medium- to coarse-grained, transparent to white and locally amethystine.
Breccia fragments of chloritized wall-rock are angular and locally derived. No feldspar-
destructive hydrothermal wall-rock alteration is associated with the quartz veins. The geometry
of the vein system was determined through stream mapping by the author and the compilation
of previous Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company mapping results.
The Bambu veins are hosted by Early to Middle Miocene volcanic sandstone and limestone, and
a mid- to late-Miocene phyric andesite intrusion(s) (Figure 5.12). Approximately 70% of the 30
veins measured strike from N10o E to N50o E. The veins commonly dip from 70o NW to
subvertical. This common orientation is similar to the northwesterly dip of the mesoscopic faults
in the region, but the strike of the veins is about 20o to 30o north of the east-northeasterly-trend
of the Bambu-Santong fault zone. In contrast, the strike-directions of the Bambu veins are
subparallel to the strike-directions of the fault splays that diverge from the main fault trend.
A zone of en-echelon veins forms a northwesterly array that is localized by the margin of the
andesite intrusion in the northeastern part of the area. Minor vein splays also occur proximal to
the septum of volcano-sedimentary rock that lies within the andesite intrusion in the central part
of Bambu. Timing relationships between the Bambu vein array and the other quartz vein
systems in the district lack constraint, due to the spatial isolation of the Bambu vein system.
5.6.4 Teluk Puna Vein System
The Teluk Puna vein array consists of a series of comb quartz veins and subordinate
chalcedonic quartz veins that extend ~ 5 km from within 2 km of the south coast towards Batu
Hijau (Figures 1.2 and 5.13). The general outline of the vein system approximates that of a
northerly-elongate rhomb, composed of north-northwesterly and north-northeasterly structural
elements. The vein array consists of at least three en-echelon north-northwesterly trending vein
zones, spaced ~ 800 m apart. Northerly- and north-northeasterly-trending vein splays occur in
the northern and southern portions of the area, respectively. North-northwesterly- and north-
northeasterly-trending topographic - and satellite imagery-lineaments coincide with the traces of
the vein zones locally. The quartz veins at Teluk Puna typically are more banded and less
brecciated than quartz veins at Bambu (Chapter 6). The following description of the geometry
of the vein array reflects field mapping by the author and the compilation of Newmont Nusa
Tenggara Company data.
The host rocks to the Teluk Puna veins include Miocene andesitic volcanic lithic breccia and
sandstone, phyric andesite and diorite intrusions, and an overlying Late Miocene (~ 6.8 Ma)
sequence of dacitic-andesitic volcaniclastic rocks. The vein array is covered to the south by
post-mineral cover, which consists of Plio-Pliestocene, andesitic volcanic siltstone, sandstone
and minor conglomerate. Hence, the Teluk Puna veins are younger than ~ 6.8 Ma and older than
the Plio-Pleistocene. Individual veins are commonly 15 to 50 cm, and range up to 1.5 m, wide
within zones of veins that reach up to 10 m in width. Feldspar-destructive, clay+silica+pyrite
wall-rock alteration forms haloes to veins, typically 1.5 to 3.0 m wide. More than 50% of the
veins measured by the author have strikes that range between N20oW and N40oW, and dip more
steeply than 65o. However, several of the north-northeasterly- and northerly-trending veins that
were mapped by previous workers in the relatively remote, southern part of the area were not
measured in this study, due to the increased walking times in accessing this area from the north.
Hence, this vein population is under-represented in the lower hemisphere equal-area plot
included in Figure 5.13.
The relative timing relationship between the Teluk Puna veins and the other vein types in the
study area is not clear. Northwesterly striking and steeply dipping comb quartz veins that are
associated with feldspar-destructive, clay/mica-pyrite wall-rock alteration along the
Tongoloka−Puna fault zone, lie ~ 300 m northeast of the northernmost vein recorded at Teluk
Puna. The Tongoloka comb quartz veins are up to 50 cm wide, contain textures similar to those
recorded in the quartz veins at Teluk Puna, and form breccia fragments within fault gouge. This
may suggest the broadly coeval development of both vein types, or simply indicate that the
deposition of the Tongoloka and Teluk Puna quartz veins occurred under similar conditions.
5.7 Apatite (U-Th)/He Thermochronometry and the Timing and Rate of Exhumation
5.7.1 Introduction to the Method
Apatite (U-Th)/He thermochronometry is a radiometric method that has recently been used to
determine the cooling history of rocks and minerals between ~ 45o to 90oC (Wolf et al., 1996,
1997; McInnes et al., 1999a). The thermochronometer is based on the production of radiogenic
4
He from U- and Th-series decay (Zeitler et al., 1987). Helium diffusion experiments indicate
that the closure temperature of apatite ranges from ~ 75oC, for a cooling rate of 10oC/m.y., to
~90oC, for a cooling rate of 100oC/m.y. or more (Wolf et al., 1996). The precision of this
method is about 10% (e.g. closure temperature of 75 + 7oC; Wolf et al., 1996). The estimated
uncertainty for He ages is also ~ 10% (2σ; McInnes et al., 1999a). The closure temperature for
the (U-Th)/He apatite method is lower than for fission-track dating of apatite (~75oC vs. ~125oC
for cooling rates of ~10oC/m.y.; McDowell and Keizer, 1977; McInnes et al., 1999a). This
allows for a better determination of the low-temperature cooling history of a given sample than
can be obtained by fission-track dating methods. The analytical details of this method, as
applied to the Batu Hijau district samples, are discussed in Section 1.3.2.8 and Appendix 8.
The application of the (U-Th)/He apatite thermochronometer permits the dating of the final
cooling of a hydrothermal system and/or the exhumation, or uplift, of a mineralized region, as
conducted by McInnes et al. (1999) in the Chiquicamata porphyry deposit in Chile. McInnes et
al. (1999a) estimate a cooling rate of ~100o C/m.y. for the deposit, following emplacement at ~
35 Ma at depths of < 4 km, and the minimum vertical post-mineral fault displacement of the ore
body to be 600 + 100 m.
5.7.2 Application to Batu Hijau District Samples
The primary purpose of the application of the (U-Th)/He apatite thermochronometer to Batu
Hijau district samples is to better understand the low-temperature cooling history of the region.
Specifically, the aim of this work is to determine the cooling rates and depth of emplacement of
the intrusions in the major porphyry centers. Towards this end, four samples were collected
from Batu Hijau, Sekongkang, Katala and Arung Ara, and a fifth sample was taken from a late
porphyritic andesite dyke that intrudes the Santong diatreme at Gold Ridge (Table 5.2). The
samples originate from sites located on different sides of the major fault zones in the area, so as
to determine if significant differential exhumation occurred. The analysis of a limited number of
samples over a large area represents a preliminary approach. The detailed study of differential
exhumation in the district would involve the analysis of additional samples collected over a
large vertical extent (e.g. 1000 m) in drill holes that lie on different sides of the faults in
question, as performed by McInnes et al. (1999a) at Chiquicamata, Chile.
All five samples are from intrusions that were dated by the U-Pb SHRIMP method. In fact,
the apatite grains analyzed were produced as a by-product of the zircon separation process. The
intrusion samples range from biotite-magnetite altered (e.g. Katala) to relatively unaltered, with
minor amounts of hydrothermal biotite or chlorite (e.g. Batu Hijau, Arung Ara and
Sekongkang). The dyke sample from Gold Ridge is moderately- to strongly-altered to
carbonate-chlorite. The extent of hydrothermal alteration does not affect the closure temperature
of apatite, as the alteration mineral assemblages indicate temperatures in excess of 90o C, the
maximum apatite closure temperature (Wolf et al., 1996).
The average dimensions of the apatite grains in the aliquots analyzed range from ~250 to 350
µm long by 150 to 200 µm wide. The grains are euhedral for the samples from Batu Hijau,
Arung Ara and Gold Ridge, and anhedral for the sample from Katala. Good quality apatite
grains were not obtained from the Sekongkang sample, where the small grain size of apatite and
composite grains of K-feldspar-plagioclase-quartz made the separation and hand-picking of
apatite impossible. The morphology of the apatite grains analyzed are illustrated as a series of
photographs in Appendix 8. Analysis by the (U-Th)/He method was performed on three aliquots
for each sample. The hand-picking of the apatite grains and the analyses were performed by Dr.
Brent McInnes in the CSIRO (U-Th)/He laboratory in Sydney, Australia. The details and results
of these analyses are included in Appendix 8.
Table 5.2 Summary of (U-Th)/He apatite thermochronometry results.
Analysis Area Sample Host Rock Type Elevation No. of Age 2sigma U-Pb SHRIMP Results
1 2
No. (m RL) analyses (Ma) (Ma) 3 Age(Ma) 2sigma(Ma)
1 Gold Ridge SGD01 276m porphyritic andesite dyke -20 3 2.25 0.16 4.76 0.10
2 Batu Hijau SBD41 414m Young Tonalite porphyry stock 155 3 2.23 0.09 3.74 0.14
3 Arung Ara SRD02 305m porphyritic hornblende tonalite stock -135 3 1.13 0.23 4.99 0.16
4 Katala SKD01 276m porphyritic hornblende tonalite stock 135 2 0.82 0.06 4.70 0.16
5 Sekongkang 971713A equigranular granodiorite dyke 230 a a a 5.88 0.14
Notes:
1
Number of analyzed aliquots from which the reported mean age is determined.
2
Weighted mean age.
3
Two standard errors from the mean, based on reproducibility of 2 to 3 analyses.
a No acceptable apatite, due to small apatite grain size and the abundance of composite mineral aggregates
Analytical results for each aliquot, which include apatite grain dimensions, calculated Ft (alpha ejection correction),
and He, U and Th concentrations, are indicated in Appendix 8.
Table 5.3 Significant differences for (U-Th)/He apatite age data.

Age (Ma) Sample Age Difference Significance Level
2.25 SGD 01 276 ------ *** >99% confidence interval
2.23 SBD41 414 10 ------ ** 95-99%
1.13 SRD02 305 *** *** ------ * 90-95
0.82 SKD01 276 *** *** 87 ------ 24 All significant levels below 90 are labelled
SGD 01 276 SBD41 414 SRD02 305 SKD01 276
po andesite Young Tonalite po tonalite po tonalite
Gold Ridge Batu Hijau Arung Ara Katala
Notes:
The statistical significance of the difference between the mean ages of the sample populations, each with an analytical uncertainty, is determined for each pair of ages by employing the
P-value test (Cox and Snell, 1981; Moore and McCabe, 1989).
The values expressed for the age difference significance levels are equivalent to (1.0 - P) x 100.
The age difference significance levels correspond to the following levels of certainty:
levels below 90 indicate a reasonable consistency between mean age date pairs (ie. not significantly different)
Abbreviations: po- porphyritic

5.7.3 Results
The (U-Th)/He ages of the analyzed Batu Hijau district samples are provided in Table 5.2 and
plotted in Figure 5.14. There is a good agreement between the ages for the Young Tonalite
sample from Batu Hijau and the porphyritic andesite dyke sample from Gold Ridge. These ages
are indistinguishable, given the 2 σ uncertainty of the results (p-value of 0.9; Table 5.3). The
ages of the porphyritic tonalite from Arung Ara and Katala are not significantly different in a
statistical sense (p-value of 0.13; Table 5.3).
The (U-Th)/He ages indicate the approximate time at which the rock samples cooled through the
apatite closure temperature of 90o C, as a cooling rate in excess of 100o C/m.y. is estimated, by
comparing the (U-Th)/He ages to the U-Pb SHRIMP ages for each sample. This assumes that
the U-Pb SHRIMP age represents the crystallization and isotopic equilibration of zircon at
temperatures in excess or equal to the solidus for wet tonalite (e.g. ~730o C at 1.0 Kbar; Schmidt
and Thompson, 1996). The cooling rates estimated range from ~ 430o C/m.y. for the Young
Tonalite emplaced at ~3.7 Ma at Batu Hijau to ~ 170o C/m.y. for the porphyritic tonalite stocks
emplaced at ~5.0 Ma at Arung Ara and ~ 4.7 Ma at Katala. The cooling rate of the late
porphyritic andesite dyke at Gold Ridge is estimated to be similar to that of the Young Tonalite,
on the basis of the ~3.7 Ma emplacement age inferred for this intrusion type (refer to Chapter 4).
However, this emplacement age lacks the support of a U-Pb SHRIMP zircon age, due to the
lack of indigenous zircons in the rock sample analyzed. Hence, the younger intrusions appear to
have cooled more quickly than the older intrusions. Expressed in another manner, there exists an
inverse relationship between the (U-Th)/He apatite and U-Pb SHRIMP zircon ages. Further
details of the cooling history of each intrusion, which include the 40 Ar/39 Ar ages of
hydrothermal minerals, are given in Chapter 7.
The relationship of the (U-Th)/He apatite age to the depth (lithostatic pressure) of emplacement
for each intrusive rock sample is illustrated in Figure 5.15 A, as estimated from the results of the
aluminum-in-hornblende barometer of Anderson and Smith (1995). There is a strong inverse
relationship between these two data sets, which is characterized by a Spearman correlation
coefficient rank of –1.0. This trend supports the inverse correlation described between (U-
Th)/He apatite and a U-Pb SHRIMP zircon ages, and suggests that those intrusions emplaced at
higher crustal-levels cooled more quickly below the apatite closure temperature of 90o C. Hence,
the age difference between the U-Pb SHRIMP and (U-Th)/He age results provides an estimate
as to the duration between emplacement at near-solidus conditions and the cooling of the
intrusion below 90o C. The relationship of this age difference to the depth (lithostatic pressure)
of intrusion emplacement is depicted for each rock sample in Figure 5.15 B. This diagram
illustrates nearly identical age-depth relationships for the porphyritic tonalite stocks at Arung
Ara and Katala, which took ~ 3.8 m.y. to cool through 90o C, following emplacement at
estimated solidus depths of 3 km or deeper. In contrast, a 1.5 m.y. period is estimated for the
cooling below 90o C of the Young Tonalite at Batu Hijau and the late porphyritic andesite dyke
at Gold Ridge, subsequent to emplacement at a solidus depth of ≤ 2 + 0.5 km (Section 4.6.8).
5.7.4 Discussion
The (U-Th)/He ages indicate when the host intrusion cooled through the closure temperature of
apatite (90o C), as discussed. The cause of such cooling could reflect: 1) conduction and
convection of heat away from the intrusion, due to emplacement into cooler wall-rock, or 2)
exhumation of the intrusion and adjacent wall-rock through the 90o C isotherm, in the case
where the temperature of the wall-rock exceeded 90o C. The inverse relationship between
emplacement depth and the difference between the U-Pb SHRIMP and the (U-Th)/He ages
indicates that cooling time is related to depth of intrusion emplacement. The 1.5 and 3.8 m.y.
age differences for cooling from ~730o C (wet tonalite solidus at 1.0 Kbar; Schmidt and
Thompson, 1996) through 90o C are too long to be explained by simple cooling. This is
illustrated by the results of the thermal modeling of a 500 m wide dyke-like intrusion, using the
numerical integrations of Lovering (1935) and Peacock (1990), which indicates a maximum
cooling period of ~ 300 k.y. from the solidus through 90o C (refer to Chapter 7 for the details of
this model). Hence, it is assumed that the wall-rock temperatures were in excess of 90o C at the
time of intrusion emplacement, and remained above this threshold until the intrusion and
adjacent wall-rock were exhumed through the 90o C isotherm. The depth that corresponds to this
temperature is estimated below.
5.7.4.1 Style, Timing and Rate of Exhumation for the Batu Hijau District
In this section, the definitions of exhumation and uplift (of rocks) correspond to those of
England and Molnar (1990). Exhumation refers to the displacement of rocks with respect to the
Earth’s surface and the rate of exhumation is the rate of erosion or rate of removal of overburden
by tectonic processes. Uplift refers to the displacement of rocks with respect to the geoid or
mean sea-level. Many authors use these two terms interchangeably, but in mountainous areas
that rise high above sea-level, the difference between exhumation and uplift (of rocks) can be
considerable. In the Batu Hijau district, the deposition of the Early to Middle Miocene
volcaniclastic succession, and limestone, is inferred to have occurred near sea-level, which
constrains the location of the paleogeoid. However, the surface elevation during the time of Late
Miocene to mid-Pliocene felsic intrusion emplacement is not constrained, which necessitates the
use of the term exhumation, rather than uplift, when estimating the displacement of rocks in the
study area.
In the district, exhumation is inferred to have been relatively uniform, as indicated by the lack of
significant offset of the gently dipping contact between the volcanic sandstone and volcanic
lithic breccia by faults. These faults indicate maximum throws of 100 to 150 m, with no major
vertical offset of the contact (e.g. > 250 m) from one porphyry center to another. The
similarities in the (U-Th)/He ages of Batu Hijau and Gold Ridge samples, which were collected
from similar elevations across the Bambu−Santong fault zone, suggest that there has been little
differential exhumation (e.g. > 500 m) across this structural zone. The similarities in the (U-
Th)/He ages of the Arung Ara and Katala samples, which lie on opposite sides of the
Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault corridor and the Bambu−Santong fault zone, further support the
relatively uniform exhumation of the district since the Pliocene emplacement of porphyritic intrusions
The major controlling factors in this model are therefore, the progressive emplacement
of intrusions at higher crustal-levels with time and the exhumation of the study area
as a whole.
The depth of the 90o C isotherm is estimated to be ~ 1.5 km during the 1.5 m.y. period (2.3 Ma
to 0.8 Ma) indicated by the (U-Th)/He ages. This depth is determined by assuming an ambient
tropical temperature of 30o C and a 40o C/km geothermal gradient for this time period, which is
consistent with the heat-flow values cited by Hamilton (1979) and Pollack et al. (1993) for
present-day volcanic arcs in Indonesia. The uncertainty of this 1.5 km depth estimate is + 0.5
km, given an uncertainty of + 10o C/km for the geothermal gradient. Hence, the (U-Th)/He age
records the time at which the relevant intrusion passed through a depth of 1.5 + 0.5 km. The
construction of a realistic exhumation model would require the collection of many samples distributed
over a significant vertical and horizontal extent, knowledge of the geothermal gradient through
time, and modeling of the cooling rate and emplacement depths of intrusions, in order to
separate thermal cooling events from exhumation events. In addition, this model might benefit
from better understanding of the diffusion characteristics of 4 He from apatite under a range of
conditions (c.f. Wolf et al., 1996, 1998). Hence, a rigorous estimate of exhumation rate of the
Batu Hijau district over time is beyond the scope of this study, given the limited number and
distribution of data.
However, some basic exhumation rates can be determined, given the data at hand. The ~1.0 Ma
(U-Th)/He age for porphyritic tonalite samples from Arung Ara and Katala suggests that 1.5 +
0.5 km exhumation of the entire study area has occurred in the past 1.0 Ma. This equates to a
rate of 1.5 + 1 mm/yr, given the 0.5 km depth uncertainty of the 90o C isotherm and 2σ (U-
Th)/He age uncertainty. This relatively rapid Pleistocene to Recent exhumation rate is consistent
with the uplift of the Batu Hijau district and gentle tilting of the Plio-Pleistocene volcaniclastic
rock sequence that comprises the southwestern coast of Sumbawa, as inferred in Section 5.2.2.
Given the ~ 2 km estimate for the depth of emplacement of the Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry
complex and the porphyritic andesite dyke in Gold Ridge at ~ 3.7 Ma (Chapter 4), then the
exhumation rate from ~ 3.7 to 2.3 Ma is 0.3 + 0.5 mm/yr. The uncertainty includes the 90o C
isotherm depth and 2σ for both U-Pb SHRIMP and (U-Th)/He ages. It appears, therefore, that
the exhumation rate has increased from Pliocene to Recent times.
However, given the uncertainties of the data, it is more meaningful to express exhumation rates
as the average values determined from the late-Pliocene (2.3 Ma) to present, 0.7 + 0.3 mm/yr, or
from the mid-Pliocene (3.7 Ma) to present, 0.5 + 0.2 mm/yr In light of these average
exhumation rates, the emplacement depths of the Arung Ara and Katala porphyritic tonalites
were probably closer to 3 km than to 5 km. To exhume these intrusions from a depth of ~ 3 km
over a period of 5.0 to 4.7 m.y. requires an average exhumation rate of ~0.6 mm/yr from the
early Pliocene to present, which is similar to the exhumation rates estimated from the late- and
mid-Pliocene.
5.7.4.2 Comparison to Orogenic Settings Elsewhere in Indonesia and the World
The preferred exhumation rates of 0.5 + 0.2 mm/yr and 0.7 + 0.3 mm/yr for the Batu Hijau
district are similar to those estimated by apatite fission-track and K/Ar dating methods for the
Grasberg district, located in the Central Ranges of Irian Jaya (<0.7 mm/yr since 3.0 Ma;
Weiland and Cloos, 1996). The central portion of Atauro Island, in the eastern Banda arc, is
estimated to have been uplifted at a rate of at least 0.3 mm/yr since 3 Ma, on the basis of K/Ar
dating of volcanic rocks that have been raised from sea-level to elevations of ~ 1000 m
(Nishimura and Suparka, 1986). Similar exhumation rates have been estimated for the Central
Swiss Alps, 0.3 to 0.6 mm/yr since the late-Miocene (Schaer et al., 1975), and the Northern
Apennines in the Italian Alps, 0.7 to 1.7 mm/yr since 5 Ma (Abbate et al., 1994), on the basis of
apatite fission-track results. In contrast, greater exhumation rates are estimated for the southern
flank of the Central Range in Irian Jaya, 1.7 mm/yr since 2.3 Ma (Weiland and Cloos, 1996).
The exhumation rates estimated for the Batu Hijau district are also similar to the late-
Pleistocene to Recent uplift rates, determined by 230 Th/234 U dating of raised coral reefs in
eastern Indonesia, which range from 0.2 to 1.5 mm/yr (Merritts et al., 1998; Jouannic et al.,
1988). The relationships of the exhumation rates determined for the Batu Hijau district from the
Pliocene to Recent with respect to the exhumation and uplift rates estimated by other
researchers in orogenic belts and active island arcs elsewhere in eastern Indonesia and the
world, are illustrated in Figure 5.16.
5.8 Interpretation and Structural Models
This section synthesizes the results of the descriptive sections and places all structural events
into the context of relative and absolute geologic time, and the emplacement of pre-, syn- and
post-mineral felsic intrusions. Structural models are developed for the structural evolution of the
district on the regional- and deposit vicinity-scales. Numerical stress models are presented for
the distribution of stress adjacent to the composite, quartz diorite pluton margin that localizes
the Batu Hijau porphyry-gold deposit.
5.8.1 Structural Evolution of the Batu Hijau Region
5.8.1.1 Regional Events
The major structural elements and the distribution of intrusions in the region are compiled in
Figure 5.17, which includes an interpretation of the principal-stresses associated with brittle
deformation and the development of the porphyry centers and peripheral quartz vein systems
described in this chapter. The geometry and age-relationships of the structural elements
recorded in the region indicate development under stress-states imposed by nearly arc-
orthogonal compression, characterized by a north-northeasterly-directed maximum compressive
stress (σ1), and subsequent relaxation events, which indicate a north-northeasterly-oriented
minimum compressive stress (σ3). The spatial coincidence of zones of increased fracture
abundance, “A” and “B” quartz veins, and causative intrusions with the margins of quartz
diorite plutons indicates that these pre-mineral intrusive contacts localized brittle deformation
and porphyry mineralization throughout the structural evolution of the Batu Hijau district.
North-northeasterly-directed compression
The general easterly trend to the distribution of intrusions, faults and fractures in the Batu Hijau
region coincides with the axis of the Neogene Banda arc through southwestern Sumbawa
(Figures 3.1 and 5.17). The north-northeasterly-directed subduction of the Indian Ocean Plate
beneath the Banda arc, in the vicinity of Sumbawa (N15o E to N20o E, DeMets et al., 1994;
McCaffrey, 1996), is inferred to impose a similarly oriented, subhorizontal maximum
compressive stress (σ1) throughout the Batu Hijau region (Figure 5.17). The common north-
northeasterly- to northeasterly-strikes of dykes that comprise porphyry centers of varying ages
at Sekongkang, Arung Ara and Batu Hijau, and the late-stage porphyritic dykes that intrude the
Santong diatreme, coincide broadly with this regional σ1-direction. These dykes are inferred to
have followed tension fractures developed during intrusion (Section 5.2.4). The general trend of
these dykes lies slightly (up to 30o ) to the east of the regional subduction-direction, and may
indicate that the effective σ1 imposed on the district was partly affected by the reactivation of
pre-existing faults or fractures, or another style of structural anisotropy in the geological
basement. The preferred north-northeasterly trends of slickensides along the mesoscopic faults
in the area are consistent with the proposed σ1-direction.
The steep dip of the dykes in the porphyry centers and elswhere in the district suggests that the
minimum compressive stress (σ3) was probably subhorizontal and oriented west-northwesterly (~
N70o W to N75o W), perpendicular to the dykes. As several pulses of magmatism are indicated
by contact age-relationships and the results of U-Pb SHRIMP dating, this stress-state is inferred
to have been active from at least 5.9 Ma (Sekongkang) to 3.7 Ma (Batu Hijau and Santong
diatreme?).
The development of zones of “A” and “B” quartz veins and high fracture abundance was
associated with each major porphyry center, as indicated schematically in Figure 5.1. The
deposition of these early quartz veins was nearly coeval with the emplacement of the late phases
of intrusion in each center, as indicated by contact age-relationships and the 40 Ar/39 Ar ages for
the hydrothermal biotite selvages to these veins (Chapter 6). The preferred northeasterly-strike-
direction of steeply dipping “A” and “B” quartz veins at Batu Hijau, Sekongkang and Arung
Ara, which are inferred to have developed as tension fractures, supports the principal stress-
directions inferred for the emplacement of the late dykes associated with mineralization in each
of these areas.
A north-northeasterly trending, subhorizontal σ1 is consistent with the development of the

nearly conjugate vein systems at Bambu (N30o E to N40o E) and Teluk Puna (N20o W and
N20o E), which are inferred to have formed in the dilational portions of east-northeasterly- and
northwesterly-trending fault zones, respectively. Hence, minor strike-slip movement on the
faults in the Bambu−Santong fault zone and Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault could have served
to localize dilational zones and quartz vein emplacement at Bambu and Teluk Puna. The
geometry of the horse tail-like fault splay to the main fault zone in the Bambu area is consistent
with this model.
North-northeasterly-directed relaxation
Several generations of comb quartz veins were emplaced during the structural evolution of the
region, as inferred from cross-cutting age relationships between these veins, which are
surrounded by feldspar-destructive alteration haloes, and the “A” and “B” quartz veins in the
porphyry centers. The 40 Ar/39 Ar ages for sericite from these late-stage quartz veins, and
pervasively altered wall-rock, are consistent with recorded field relationships and confirm
multiple generations of comb quartz vein emplacement (Chapter 6). The largest zone of comb
veins recorded in the district cuts across the southwestern flank of the Batu Hijau deposit, and
consists of steeply dipping veins with a preferred west-northwesterly-strike-direction. The
orientation of this zone, and the contained comb quartz veins, suggest a north-northeasterly-
directed, subhorizontal minimum compressive stress (σ3).
The presence of northwesterly- to west-northwesterly-striking and steeply dipping dykes in the

district indicate a similar σ3 orientation during dyke emplacement. The northwesterly trending
comb quartz veins and dykes are inferred to indicate relaxation events, the most significant of
which occurred late in the development of the Batu Hijau porphyry deposit. During these
relaxation events, σ1 is inferred to have been near-vertical. This is consistent with the steep
southwesterly- and northeasterly-dips of most comb quartz veins recorded, as σ1 is inferred to
have bisected the acute angle of the intersection of these vein sets, provided that they are coeval.
However, mesoscopic -scale evidence of conjugate quartz veins is not conclusive.
Discussion
The preferred model of north-northeasterly-directed compression and relaxation presented is

supported by the northeasterly trending slickensides that occur on northeasterly- and
northwesterly-striking mesoscopic faults. The more than 2 m.y. age range (5.9 to 3.7 Ma) of the
intrusions that form easterly-, northeasterly- and northwesterly-trending dykes suggests that
more than one compression-relaxation cycle may have occurred during this period. The
preference of intrusive dykes, faults and different styles of quartz veins for these three structural
trends probably indicates the reactivation of deep-seated faults and fracture zones throughout
the Neogene development of the Batu Hijau region.
The faults and fault zones are inferred to have been active from the Early Miocene to Recent
time and may have affected the deposition of the volcano-sedimentary sequence. The
relationship between facies within the volcanic lithic breccia unit and the distribution of map-
scale faults in the vicinity of Batu Hijau (Section 5.3), supports this hypothesis. The
Bambu−Santong fault zone may represent the reactivation of a basement fault that coincided
with a break-in-slope of the offshore portion of the Banda arc during the Early to Middle
Miocene deposition of the volcaniclastic rock sequence (e.g. syn-depositional fault depicted in
Figure 4.47). This model is supported by the distribution of volcano-sedimentary units in the
western and central blocks of Sumbawa, which are controlled by northeasterly trending fault zones,
typified by the Trans-Sumbawa Fault, which shows more than 10 km of cumulative sinistral
offset of the southern coastline of the island (Figure 3.2). The Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault
corridor may have been localized by a pre-existing zone of crustal weakness that created a
channel for the deposition of submarine volcaniclastic mass flows, as indicated by the
northwesterly trend of the coarser clastic facies in the volcanic lithic breccia unit in this area.
The exhumation of the district is estimated to have occurred as a block, with no significant
differential movement (Section 5.7), commencing in the late Miocene to early Pliocene.
Subsequent to the ~ 5.9 to 4.7 Ma emplacement of quartz diorite plutons in the western part of
the district (QD1 and QD2), and porphyritic tonalite stocks at Arung Ara and Katala, at depths
of ~ 3 to 4 km, the area was exhumed at a rate of ~ 0.3 mm/yr. This rate of exhumation
continued through to the ~ 3.7 Ma intrusion of the tonalite porphyry complex in Batu Hijau and
the late porphyritic andesite dykes in the vicinity of the Santong diatreme, at depths of ~ 2 km
or less, through to the Pleistocene. The exhumation rate for the past one million years has
averaged ~ 1.5 mm/yr, which led to the unroofing of the district, and the doming and tilting of
the coastal volcaniclastic rock and reefal limestone sequences. The average exhumation of the
district since the emplacement of the Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry complex is ~ 0.5 mm/yr. The
nearly arc-orthogonal regional stress-fields characteristic of depths of > 2 km, which are
recorded by Neogene deformation and felsic dyke orientation, were supplanted by near-surface
stress fields and radial dyke development about individual mafic intrusive domes in the younger
cover sequences west of the Batu Hijau district.
5.8.1.2 Local Events
In the Batu Hijau deposit, the distribution and orientation of the early “A” and “B” quartz veins
that formed coeval to the intrusion of the tonalite porphyry complex are, in part, controlled by
the geometry of these intrusions. This is demonstrated by the progressive change in the dip of
the near-surface quartz veins with respect to the location of the highest levels of the Young
Tonalite dykes, as indicated in Figure 5.10 and discussed in Section 5.6.1. The quartz veins dip
inwards towards the deposit core and probably represent mineralized tension fractures. These
fractures are inferred to have developed in response to high magma and hydrothermal fluid
pressures and mechanical (P∆V) energy related to volatile exsolution, or resurgent boiling, in
the upper levels of the intrusive complex (c.f. Burnham, 1967, 1979; Heidrick and Titley, 1982;
Section 4.10). The late-stage collapse of the carapace, during and subsequent to volatile release,
may enhance the development of these inward-dipping quartz veins (cf. concentric tension
fractures of Koide and Bhattacharji, 1975; Corbett and Leach, 1998). The thermal contraction of
the causative intrusion(s) due to cooling, and the coeval expansion of the wall-rock due to
heating, would promote such a collapse and focus tension fractures near the top of the intrusive
complex (Knapp and Norton, 1981; Heidrick and Titley, 1982).
The early quartz veins at Batu Hijau therefore, are inferred to have developed in response to the
local stress-state determined by the emplacement of the tonalite porphyry complex. Heidrick
and Titley (1982) postulate that the stresses in the apical region of a stock are related to the
kinetics and thermal history of intrusion at high crustal-levels, and controlled by a near-vertical
maximum compressive stress (σ1). A similar near-field stress-state is inferred for the
development of the Batu Hijau deposit, with σ2 and σ3 oriented subhorizontally towards the
northeast and northwest, respectively.
5.8.2 Three-Dimensional Stress Model for the Batu Hijau Deposit Vicinity
5.8.2.1 Introduction and Aims
The spatial coincidence of zones of late dykes, high fracture abundance and elevated quartz vein
abundance, particularly “A” and “B” quartz veins, with the margins of quartz diorite plutons,
indicates that these contacts were a focus for brittle deformation throughout the Pliocene
development of the district. The Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry complex is localized along the
southwestern margin of an equigranular quartz diorite-porphyritic dacite composite pluton
(Chapter 4). The trend of the composite pluton in this area is nearly north-south, which
represents a significant departure from the general easterly-trend defined by the distribution of
quartz diorite plutons in this part of the study area (Figure 5.17). The northerly trending margin
of the pre-mineral composite pluton coincides with a zone of high fracture abundance and a
north-northwesterly- to northwesterly-oriented deviation in the trend of the Tongoloka−Batu
Hijau fault corridor (Figures 4.1 and 5.6). The geometry and emplacement of the tonalite
porphyry complex in this setting is influenced by the imposed far-field stress-configuration
during north-northeasterly-directed regional compression and the distribution of stress about the
composite pluton, which creates a major rheological contrast with the volcaniclastic host rocks.
The geometry of the composite pluton is constrained through open-pit mapping and drill core
logging in the Batu Hijau deposit and by stream mapping elsewhere. The lithological contact
between this composite intrusion and the volcaniclastic wall-rock is steeply dipping to vertical.
In the Air Merah region, equigranular quartz diorite occurs at vertical depths of ~ 50 m beneath
a carapace of volcanic sandstone (e.g. SMD02 in section-line G-H, Figure 4.2), which indicates
that the two exposures of QD3 depicted in Figure 4.1 are connected at depth to form a
continuous intrusion. The hornfelsed andesite to micro-quartz diorite that forms a pendant
between equigranular quartz diorite and porphyritic tonalite intrusions at Katala is less than 50
m deep. Hence, the overall geometry of the composite pluton, defined by pre-tonalite porphyry
intrusions older than ~ 3.7 Ma in this part of the district, can be simplified to approximate one
vertically dipping rock mass, as indicated in Figure 5.18. The purpose of this simplification is to
generate the basic geometry of a three-dimensional computer model.
The primary aim of the model is to test if the Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry complex, and related
mineralization, were localized adjacent to the pre-mineral composite pluton as a result of the
interaction of the far-field principal stress with this rheological contact. In addition, the
numerical model seeks to determine the correlation between simulated stress lows and the
location of the Batu Hijau deposit, during north-northeasterly-directed regional compression
(e.g. Interpretation A, Figure 5.17). This model does not attempt to simulate the local, or near-
field, stress-state about the top of the tonalite porphyry complex that led to the emplacement of
the mineralized quartz veins, as discussed in Section 5.8.1.2. Rather, the goal of the model is to
determine if the location of the deposit can be predicted on the basis of the simulated stress
distribution about the margin of the pre-mineral composite pluton.
Zones of comb quartz veins and associated feldspar-destructive wall-rock alteration, which post-
date early “A” and “B” quartz vein development at Batu Hijau, are localized adjacent to
predominantly southwesterly dipping fault zones within the Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault
corridor. Therefore, a second computor model was constructed, to test the correlation between
comb quartz vein distribution and the variation in the simulated stress field adjacent to these
fault zones and the composite pluton during the inferred regional north-northeasterly-directed
relaxation event (e.g. Interpretation B, Figure 5.17).
The underlying assumptions in these models include: 1) emplacement of the tonalite porphyry
intrusions was late in the deformational history of the region, 2) stress orientations and relative
magnitudes are known, and 3) material properties of rock types and faults can be approximated.
The hypothesis is that zones of least minimum stress (σ3), or least mean stress, will act as
loci for tension fracture propagation, dyke and vein emplacement, and related mineralization.
5.8.2.2 Numerical Modeling Software
Map3D version 1.39 software was utilized in the three-dimensional stress simulations,
following digitization and construction of three-dimensional geologic models utilizing
AUTOCAD software. Dr. Juhani Ojala, formerly a consulting geoscientist for Georeality Pty.
Ltd. in Bentley, Western Australia, assisted the author in the preparation of these stress
simulation models. The details of the software code are described in Ojala (1995). The results
of the simulations may be viewed as a series of principal stress, displacement and strain maps in
specified plan and sectional views. The simulated stress and strain distributions are best viewed
in the 300 m RL plane, which approximates the surface elevation in the region. The Windows-
based Surfer contour program was used to generate the contours of minimum compressive stress
(σ3) presented for each model in Figures 5.18 and 5.19.
5.8.2.3 Input Parameters
The geological model for the pre-mineral composite pluton prior to the development of the Batu
Hijau deposit was constructed on the basis of the geologic relationships and assumptions
described in Section 5.8.2.1. The intrusive contact is assumed to be vertical, on the basis of the
steep dip of contacts recorded in outcrop and drill core. The wall-rock was assumed to consist
exclusively of andesitic volcaniclastic rock, to maintain the simplicity of the model. The
relatively narrow dykes external to the pluton were discounted, as these dykes are not
considered to be an integral part of the models, given the scale of the simulations. The Batu
Hijau tonalite porphyry intrusions were not included, as the model simulates the rheological
conditions prior to the emplacement of this intrusive complex. In the case of the faults and fault
zones in the Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault corridor, these were approximated as northwesterly
trending, continuous-planar and curviplanar discontinuities that dip moderately to steeply
towards the southwest, with one exception. The northeasterly dipping faults that occur along the
Tongoloka Valley, southeast of Batu Hijau, were not modeled, to maintain simplicity and
reduce the potential for stress anomalies generated by fault intersections. The fault
discontinuities were included in the relaxation model, but were designated inactive in the
compression model. This was undertaken on the basis that the orie ntation and distribution of the
Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry dykes, and related mineralized quartz veins, indicate development
independent of the movement on these faults. In contrast, the late comb quartz veins and
hydrothermal alteration zones, which post-date dyke and early “A” and “B” quartz vein
emplacement, are localized along these same faults.
The rock mass properties employed in the model simulations are shown in Table 5.4. These
material properties are based approximately on the physical properties determined through
geotechnical testwork undertaken for Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company and the data compiled
by Handin (1966). The relative strengths of the rock materials modeled indicate that the
composite pluton is stronger than the surrounding volcaniclastic rocks, charaterized by Young’s
moduli of 80 x 109 Pa and 60 x 109 Pa, respectively. The lithologic contact between these two
masses was modeled as a very thin unit (0.01 m thick), and assumed to be weaker than the
adjacent rocks. The fault discontinuities were also modeled as thin units, and assigned strengths
lower than those estimated for the other rock masses. The rock units were assumed to be
homogeneous and isotropic, and characterized by constant material properties.
The initial stress-states imposed on these geological models are indicated schematically in
Figure 5.17. These include: 1) a N15o E-directed, horizontal maximum principal-stress (σ1) and
a N75o W-oriented, horizontal minimum principal-stress (σ3), as illustrated in Figure 5.17 A, and
2) a vertical σ1 and a N15o E-directed, horizontal σ3, as indicated in Figure 5.17 B. These are
based on the geometry of the dykes, faults and quartz veins described in the preceding sections.
The magnitudes of σ1, σ2 and σ3 are assumed to be 50 MPa (0.5 Kb), 35 MPa (0.35 Kb) and 20
MPa (0.2 Kb), respectively. These values are approximate and equate to lithostatic depths of ~
1.5 to 2 km, which are in the range of those estimated for the emplacement of the intrusions in
the tonalite porphyry complex.
The model is ~ 6 km east-west by 4.5 km north-south and 400 m deep, centered on the 300 m
RL plane. The stress model is sensitive to the field point grid and boundary element sizes, in
that the scale and time of the computer numerical analysis is dependent on these parameters
(Ojala, 1995). The MAP3D software includes a sub-routine that uses assigned values for
element side-length and grid side-length to sub-divide blocks and grids into elements and field
points. The side-length dimensions assigned are 500 m, which approximate the diameter of the
Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry complex at a depth of 300 m RL. The software sub-routine reduces
the grid point interval to ~ 150 m near the lithologic and fault contacts, and utilizes a larger grid
interval further away from these discontinuities.
Table 5.4 Summary of material properties for the numerical stress modeling of a felsic composite pluton and faults
hosted in a volcaniclastic rock sequence.
Material Type Young’s Poisson’s Compressive Tensile Cohesion Friction Angle Initial Stress State
Modulus Ratio Strength Strength
(GPa)
Volcaniclastic rock 60 0.250 60 9 12 30 50, 35, 20
Composite pluton 80 0.250 80 12 16 30 50, 35, 20
Intrusive contact 60 0.250 20 3 4 30 50, 35, 20
Fault contacts 60 0.125 10 1 2 10 50, 35, 20
Notes:
The values are based approximately on the material properties determined through geotechnical testwork undertaken for Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company
and the data compiled by Handin (1966). The intrusive and fault contacts are modeled as very thin units, (0.01 m thick) and hence have been assigned
rock mass properties.
5.8.2.4 Results
The distributions of minimum compressive stress (σ3), produced after ~ 15 load steps, for the
N15o E-directed compression (Model 1) and N15o E-directed relaxation (Model 2) stress
simulations, are illustrated in Figure 5.18 and Figure 5.19, respectively. The mean stress
patterns for both models are similar to the σ3 patterns, and, hence are not shown. The model
results are not significantly sensitive to minor changes in the material properties of the
composite pluton and surrounding volcaniclastic rock, as determined by the results of
preliminary models in which these parameters were varied. Hence, in Model 1, the geometry of
the intrusive contact exerts a greater control on the distribution of stress than variations in the
relative strengths of the rock units.
In general, the results of the stress simulations indicate that: 1) the location of the Batu Hijau
porphyry deposit is influenced by the shape of the pre-mineral composite pluton, and 2) comb
quartz veins and related feldspar-destructive alteration are controlled, in part, by zones of
structurally-enhanced permeability localized along the Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault corridor.
Model 1: N15o E-directed maximum principal stress (compression)
The modeled σ3 distribution in Figure 5.18 shows several zones of relatively low and high σ3
localized along the margin of the composite pluton. This is consistent with the focus of brittle
deformation along this contact through time, as inferred from the general increase in the
abundance of fractures adjacent to this intrusive margin (Figure 5.6). The zone of lowest σ3 in
the model occurs in the site of the present-day Batu Hijau deposit, which is depicted by the
outlines of 1 and 5 vol. % “A” and “B” quartz veins and veinlets at surface. For reference, the
surface projections of the tonalite porphyry complex and 0.5% copper outline at ~300 m RL
nearly coincide with the 5 vol. % quartz vein outline at surface. A secondary zone of low σ3
marks the Brang Belu−Air Merah region, which is characterized by the minor surface
occurrence of “B” quartz veinlets and low copper grades in surface outcrop and drill core (e.g.
average of ~500 ppm Cu for the upper 100 m of SMD01). The low σ3 zone, that is located
along the intrusive margin ~ 500 m northeast of the Batu Hijau stress anomaly, coincides with
the occurrence of porphyritic andesite dykes, which post-date the composite pluton and splay in
proximity to the intrusive contact (Figure 4.1). This region is also characterized by increased
fracture abundance (Figure 5.6). The σ3 anomalies that occur along the western and eastern
extremities of the composite pluton are probably, in part, related to edge effects in the model
and may represent false anomalies. However, the location of the recently discovered Naga Emas
porphyry system, adjacent to the southern margin of the Santong diatreme, coincides with the
western stress anomaly.
Model 2: N15o E-directed minimum principal stress (relaxation)
The σ3 distribution in Figure 5.19 indicates a locus of high and low σ3 adjacent to the faults
modeled in the Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault corridor, with large stress gradients characterizing
the cross-strike direction. This suggests that, during relaxation, these normal dip-slip to oblique-
slip faults localized brittle deformation. Linear zones of high σ3 occur along the trace of the
Togoloka−Puna and Tongoloka faults at 300 m RL. Zones of relatively low σ3 occur in zones
of intervening wall-rock and along the southwestern margin of the composite pluton. Low σ3
characterizes regions where faults diverge and the intersections between faults and the margin
of the composite pluton (e.g. Batu Hijau and Brang Belu−Air Merah).
The distribution of late comb quartz veins in the vicinity of Batu Hijau locally coincides with
zones of low σ3 adjacent to modeled faults and the intrusive contact, but this correlation is not
as clear as that indicated for the stress distribution for early mineralization in Model 1. The
subvertical orientation of these veins is consistent with development as tension fractures in the
hangingwall to more gently southwesterly dipping fault zones. Hence, any hydrothermal fluid
that may have been channeled along the fault corridor during periods of north-northeasterly-
directed relaxation, would flow towards sites of low σ3, resulting in wall-rock alteration, quartz
vein deposition and the precipitation of metals. The latent heat, produced from the waning
stages of the Batu Hijau hydrothermal system, probably served to channel fluid flow during the
deposition of the comb quartz veins, by enhancing the convection of fluid along the relatively
permeable structural corridor. This concept and other relationships between mineralization,
intrusion emplacement and brittle deformation are further discussed in Chapter 7.
The regional-scale zones of low modeled σ3 that occur external to the fault corridor would have
favored quartz vein deposition and wall-rock alteration, had hydrothermal fluids passed through
these areas. However, given the lack of structurally controlled, feldspar-destructive alteration in
these regions, no such localized hydrothermal activity is inferred.
5.9 Summary
The margins of easterly elongate, equigranular quartz diorite plutons have localized brittle
deformation, intrusive dyke emplacement and quartz vein development throughout the Neogene
to Recent structural evolution of the Batu Hijau district. The reactivation of pre-existing faults
and zones of crustal weakness is inferred to have influenced the distribution of volcano-
sedimentary facies and localized the emplacement of felsic intrusions. There are two major
types of quartz vein: 1) “A” and “B” veins and veinlets, which define the major porphyry
centers, and 2) comb- to massive- and, less commonly, banded-types, which are typically
structurally controlled. Several generations are recorded for each vein style from the late-
Miocene to the mid-Pliocene. However, where both vein sets coexist, as in the Batu Hijau
deposit area, the development of comb quartz veins post-dates that of the “A” and “B” quartz
veins and veinlets.
The intersection of fault and fracture zones with the margins of quartz diorite intrusions is
inferred to partly control the distribution of porphyry centers in the district. The Batu Hijau
deposit occurs adjacent to a pre-mineral quartz diorite pluton within a northwesterly flexure in
the trend of local fault and fracture patterns. The localization of the deposit in this setting is a
function of the interaction of regional, far-field stress with the margin of the pluton and the local
tensional zones developed, which created a favorable site for the high-level emplacement of the
causative tonalite porphyry intrusions. The geometry, energetics and thermal effects of this
intrusive complex generated near-field stresses that contributed to the orientation and
distribution of the mineralized “A” and “B” quartz veins that comprise the deposit.
The majority of the porphyry centers, including Batu Hijau, and the peripheral vein systems at
Bambu and Teluk Puna probably developed under stress-states imposed by nearly arc-
orthogonal compression, characterized by a north-northeasterly-directed maximum compressive
stress (σ1) related to subduction beneath the Banda arc. In contrast, the west-northwesterly
trending zones of comb to massive quartz veins, and related feldspar-destructive alteration, in
the vicinity of Batu Hijau are inferred to be related to subsequent relaxation events, which
indicate a north-northeasterly-oriented minimum compressive stress (σ3). The results of
computer-based stress simulations suggest that: 1) the location of the Batu Hijau deposit is
influenced by the shape of the pre-mineral composite pluton, and 2) concentrations of comb
quartz veins are controlled, in part, by zones of structurally-enhanced permeability localized
along the Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault corridor.
(U-Th)/He apatite thermochronometry results confirm the trend of progressive emplacement of

porphyritic intrusions at higher crustal-levels through time. The youngest intrusions (e.g. Batu
Hijau tonalite porphyry complex at ~ 3.7 Ma) are emplaced at < 2 km depth, or 1 to 2 km higher
in the crust than the older stocks and plutons. The exhumation of the Batu Hijau district is
estimated to have been relatively uniform across the study area. The average calculated
exhumation rates range from 0.5 + 0.2 mm/yr, for the mid-Pliocene (3.7 Ma) to present, to 1.5 +
1.0 mm/yr, for the mid-Pleistocene (~1.0 Ma) to present.
The style, geometry and timing of the hydrothermal systems and related copper-gold
mineralization, which developed in response to the high-level emplacement of felsic intrusions
in structurally favorable settings, are described in the following chapter.
CHAPTER 6 STYLE, GEOMETRY AND TIMING OF HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS 187
CHAPTER 6 STYLE, GEOMETRY AND TIMING OF THE

HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS IN THE BATU HIJAU
DISTRICT
6.1 Introduction
This chapter documents the styles and geometric relationships of hydrothermal alteration and
mineralization in the Batu Hijau district. The localization and relative- and absolute-timing of
hydrothermal events, as determined by contact age-relationships and 40 Ar/39 Ar ages, are put into
the context of high-level intrusion emplacement and structural setting, which are described in
the preceding chapters. The metasomatic changes affecting common rock types are discussed
qualitatively, and related to alteration mineral assemblages diagnostic of the early- and late-
stage hydrothermal alteration styles. Estimates are made of the composition and cooling paths of
the hydrothermal fluids responsible for alteration and mineralization, on the basis of stable
mineral assemblages and time-space relationships for early- and late-alteration styles. The
zoning of metals (Cu, Au, Ag, Mo, Pb, Zn and As) is documented and related to magmatic -
hydrothermal conditions and possible mechanisms of deposition.
The conditions of the development of the Batu Hijau magmatic -hydrothermal system are further
constrained by estimates of the pressure and temperature of phase separation and trapping in
fluid inclusions contained within copper-sulfide-bearing quartz veins from the central part of the
deposit. These conditions are compared to the pressure (depth) and temperature estimates
presented in Chapters 4 and 5, which are determined on the basis of petrologic observations,
amphibole-plagioclase thermobarometry and (U-Th)/He apatite ages.
Hydrothermal alteration in the Batu Hijau district is characterized by early-stage alteration

zones that are related to the emplacement of equigranular quartz diorite plutons and late-stage
tonalite to granodiorite dykes at Sekongkang−West Nangka and Katala, porphyritic tonalite at
Arung Ara, and tonalite porphyry intrusions at Batu Hijau. Each of the four centers indicates a
similar progression of alteration from central biotite-magnetite (+secondary oligoclase) through
proximal actinolite (+chlorite) to distal epidote-chlorite. Background chlorite alteration occurs
in the northeastern and southwestern extremes of the study area. The timing of secondary biotite
(potassic -sodic) alteration in each of these magmatic -hydrothermal systems typically coincides
with intrusion emplacement, and ranges from about 5.9 to 5.5 Ma at Sekongkang to 3.7 Ma at
Batu Hijau (Figure 6.1). The development of proximal, inner propylitic and distal, outer
propylitic alteration is inferred to have been approximately coeval to that of secondary biotite,
with the outer zones collapsing in on the central biotite zone during the waning stages of early
alteration.
Late structurally controlled, feldspar-destructive alteration zones extend for over 15 km through
the area and overprint all three types of early alteration in each of the porphyry systems. This
style of alteration is typically characterized by the variable replacement of feldspar and mafic
minerals by mica and/or clay, and includes intermediate argillic, sericitic (illitic) and advanced
argillic types. The diagnostic mineral assemblages of these alteration types are consistent with
188 CHAPTER 6 STYLE, GEOMETRY AND TIMING OF HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS
those described by Meyer and Hemley (1967). Steeply dipping, feldspar-destructive alteration
zones trend easterly and northwesterly, following the structural fabric expressed by fracture
patterns, late-stage comb quartz veins and equigranular quartz diorite intrusions. In the Batu
Hijau area, steeply dipping and northwesterly striking feldspar-destructive alteration zones
coalesce to form wide areas that wrap around the margins of the deposit. Several generations of
late feldspar-destructive alteration are inferred, on the basis of cross-cutting field relationships
and 40 Ar/39 Ar sericite ages, which range from about 7.1 Ma in the Tongoloka Valley to 3.7 Ma
at Batu Hijau (Figure 6.1). Hence, the designation of “early” for potassic -sodic and propylitic
alteration styles and “late” for feldspar-destructive alteration types, is relative to each porphyry
system and should not be construed to indicate an absolute timing relationship.
Late carbonate-clay-chlorite alteration affects large portions of the Santong diatreme, and
probably post-dates feldspar-destructive alteration elsewhere in the district. Very late zeolite-
smectite alteration is recorded along fracture zones and andesite dyke margins in distal settings
to the porphyry centers, such as in the vicinity of the Concentrator and towards the west, and as
the last stage of alteration in the Batu Hijau deposit (Clode et al., 1999).
Copper and Au are contained within “A” and “B” quartz veins at Batu Hijau, and, to a much
lesser extent, in the three peripheral porphyry centers. Anomalous Au, Ag, base-metal, Mo and
As concentrations occur in pyritic “D” veins, comb quartz veins, and fault zones that occur
within late, structurally controlled alteration zones. This style of mineralization post-dates early-
stage porphyry mineralization and has remobilized copper on the local-scale. Zones of
auriferous quartz veins extend for over 5 km from the flank of Batu Hijau into peripheral base-
metal sulfide-bearing quartz vein occurrences at East Nangka and the Tongoloka Valley.
District-scale metal distribution indicates a concentric zoning of metals about the porphyry
centers, typified by central Fe, Cu and Au, proximal Mo, and distal Pb-Zn. Linear belts of
anomalous Au and As in soil and outcrop correspond to the distribution of “D” veins, comb
quartz veins and faults.
Peripheral quartz vein systems at Bambu, 2 to 4 km west-southwest of Batu Hijau and Teluk
Puna, 4 to 9 km south-southeast of Batu Hijau, display characteristics different to those of “A”
and “B” veins and comb quartz veins (Chapter 5). These areas are characterized by background
chlorite and/or calcite alteration and lack widespread, feldspar-destruction in the wall-rock to
the quartz veins. The Teluk Puna, and, to a lesser extent, Bambu, vein systems indicate a zoning
of metals, which is chacterized by an increased abundance of base-metals with proximity to the
Batu Hijau deposit.
6.2 Early Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization
6.2.1 Geometry and Scale of Early Hydrothermal Alteration
Early hydrothermal alteration is characterized by a concentric distribution of alteration mineral

zones about intrusions in the Sekongkang−West Nangka, Arung Ara, Batu Hijau and Katala
areas. These consist of central secondary biotite+oligoclase (potassic -sodic), proximal actinolite
(inner propylitic) and distal epidote-chlorite (outer propylitic) alteration zones. Quartz is
ubiquitous in the alteration mineral assemblages that define each of these zones. Chlorite and
calcite are common constituents of regional (background) alteration in the extreme portions of
the study area, relatively distant from the porphyry centers. Chlorite is ubiquitous in the distal
zone, less common in the proximal zone and a minor constituent of the central zone. Chlorite
commonly overprints both biotite and actinolite, where these minerals occur together. The
general distribution, geometry and size of these early alteration zones are indicated in Figures
6.2, 6.4, 6.5, and Tables 6.1 and 6.2.
Both “A” and “B” quartz veins and contained copper-gold are associated with potassic-sodic
alteration. Actinolite veins and rare diopside veins occur within the inner propylitic zone.
Epidote veins and moderate epidote replacement of plagioclase characterizes the transition from
inner propylitic to the outer propylitic assemblage of epidote-chlorite.
6.2.2 Secondary Biotite (Potassic -Sodic) Alteration
6.2.2.1 Distribution and Conditions of Formation
Secondary biotite alteration of magmatic amphibole (termed “hornblende” in this chapter)

characterizes the central zone of hydrothermal alteration in the porphyry centers. The intensity
of alteration varies throughout the area with the greatest extent of biotite alteration localized at
Batu Hijau, followed by Katala and West Nangka, and the weakest alteration at Sekongkang,
Arung Ara and Brang Belu. At Sekongkang and Brang Belu, the secondary biotite zones include
decussate biotite in hornfelsic andesitic rocks adjacent to quartz diorite plutons. Secondary
oligoclase+albite replaces magmatic plagioclase at Batu Hijau and, to a much lesser extent, in
the other porphyry centers. Secondary K-feldspar locally replaces plagioclase adjacent to early
quartz veins at Katala (e.g. SKD01 and SKD02).
The term potassic -sodic alteration is preferred as a descriptor for biotite-oligoclase alteration in
the district, in contrast to the standard terms of potassic or K-silicate. The lack of pervasive K-
feldspar alteration in the central biotite zones of the porphyry systems is ascribed, in part, to the
low-K calc -alkaline nature of the magmas that led to the development of these systems. The
limited occurrence of secondary K-feldspar at Katala, may reflect the increased activity of K in
the hydrothermal fluids associated with late-stage granodiorite dykes of medium-K calc -alkaline
affinity (Chapter 4).
The biotite zones typically contain a central region of strong biotite replacement of hornblende
(>90% complete) and an outer limit of relict secondary biotite, which is characterized by weak
biotite replacement of hornblende and/or the overprinting of secondary biotite by chlorite,
sericite or actinolite. The central biotite zone at Batu Hijau is nearly circular and centered about
the ~3.7 Ma tonalite porphyry complex, whereas the biotite zones in the other porphyry centers
are elongate parallel to the local distribution of equigranular quartz diorite plutons and
porphyritic tonalite stocks (Figures 6.2 and 6.5, Table 6.1). In cross-section, strong biotite
alteration extends below the deepest drill holes at Batu Hijau (>1000 m), Katala (>500 m),
Tatuk, Sekongkang (>300 m) and West Nangka (>100 m) (Figure 6.4). Biotite alteration is less
well-developed in the remaining prospect areas.
The biotite+oligoclase alteration described in this section includes the early, biotite-oligoclase
alteration and transitional, biotite-oligoclase+chlorite-sericite-albite alteration assemblages
defined by Mitchell et al. (1998) and Clode et al. (1999) in the Batu Hijau deposit.
The stability of hydrothermal biotite in active hydrothermal systems is favored by near-neutral

pH fluids and high chlorine concentrations at temperatures in excess of 300o C (Elders et al.,
1981; Bird et al., 1984). The temperatures of homogenization for hypersaline liquid-rich fluid
inclusions from quartz veins in equilibrium with biotite-oligoclase-altered wall-rock in the Batu
Hijau deposit yield maximum temperatures of ~510o C, as discussed below. These temperatures
are consistent with the high temperatures typically ascribed to early K-silicate alteration in many
well-studied porphyry systems elswehere (e.g. 500o to >700o C, Beane and Titley, 1981; Bodnar,
1995; Hedenquist and Richards, 1998). Secondary sodic plagioclase (e.g. albite) is stable in
fluids characterized by near-neutral pH, high Na activity and high chlorine concentrations over a
wide range of temperatures (e.g. 150o to > 300o C) in active hydrothermal sytems (Browne and
Ellis, 1970; Browne, 1978; Kristmannsdottir, 1979).
6.2.2.2 “A” and “B” Quartz Veins and Veinlets
Distribution
Porphyry-related “Am”, “Ab”, “A”, “Af”, “AB” and “B” quartz veins and veinlets are common
within the Batu Hijau deposit and occur, to a much lesser extent, in the other porphyry centers
(Figures 5.8 and 5.9, Table 6.3). This vein type nomenclature follows that of Gustafson and
Hunt (1975), but has been expanded by Mitchell et al. (1998) to better describe the style of
veins at Batu Hijau. The descriptions of quartz veins and veinlets in the Batu Hijau deposit
presented in this section are based largely on the work of Mitchell et al. (1998), which is
summarized by Clode et al. (1999). In the text that follows, the term “A” class veins or veinlets
represents the aggregate of all vein types that begin with the descriptor “A”, excluding “AB”
veins (i.e. “Am”, “Ab”, “A” and “Af”).
Quartz vein abundance ranges from about 0.5 vol. % at West Nangka to more than 10 vol. %
(locally > vol. 50%) at Batu Hijau (Table 5.1). In the latter area, the outer limit of significant
“A” class veinlets lies about 200 m beyond the Intermediate Tonalite contact with adjacent wall-
rock (J. M. Proffett, personal communication, 1997), which coincides approximately with the
0.5% copper ore shell. Early aplite and lesser pegmatite veins, typically less than 1 cm wide,
contain minor copper-sulfide minerals at Batu Hijau, Katala and Sekongkang−West Nangka.
“A” class veinlets are wispy and discontinuous and characterized by wavy and diffuse wall-rock
contacts, whereas later “B” veins and veinlets are continuous over several meters and
characterized by sharp and regular wall-rock contacts.
Table 6.1 Surface geometry of early hydrothermal alteration zones.
Zone Sekongkang - West Nangka Arung Ara Brang Belu Batu Hijau Katala
Central 3 zones define an E-elongate NNE-elongate zone: 600m x WNW-elongate zone: >300m nearly circular zone: 1.5km E-elongate zone: 1.3km x
Biotite belt: 2.9km x 300-600m, 150m x 50-75m (N-S) x 1.3km (E-W) 300-400m
centered on Tatuk
Proximal E-elongate zone: nearly circular zone?: ~900m not present nearly circular zone?: ~2km E-elongate zone:
Actinolite >4.5km x 300-1000m diameter diameter, merges with >2.0km x 600-800m wide
actinolite at Katala, to east
Moderate E-elongate zones to south and E-elongate zones to north not significant, no epidote NW-elongate annulus: minor occurrence of E-
Epidote northeast: >500m wide, 100- and south: 200-500m wide, inside biotite zone 2.0-3.0km inner diameter elongate zone, ~100m wide,
700m, outboard of actinolite zone located from 100-600m and 200-1200m wide along northern margin of
outboard of actinolite zone actinolite zone
Definitions: 1) Biotite = outer limit of the zone of weak or relict hydrothermal biotite replacement of mafic minerals, predominantly hornblende.
2) Actinolite = outer limit and width of zones of actinolite replacement of mafic minerals, predominantly hornblende (based on field mapping and thin-section
petrography); actinolitic alteration overprints the outer margins of the biotite zones in the porphyry centers in the district.
3) Epidote = inner limit (first significant occurrence) of moderate epidote replacement of plagioclase (>20% replacement), includes epidote veins / veinlets locally.
This style of alteration occurs within a broad zone of epidote replacement of plagioclase, described in the text and indicated in Figure 6.2.
Background chlorite alteration is recorded in the northeastern (Idul Fitri) and southwestern (Bambu) portions of the study area.
Table 6.2 Summary of early hydrothermal alteration and mineralization sequences.
Magmatic Central Biotite 1 Proximal Actinolite Distal Epidote-Chlorite Background Chlorite
Hornblende biotite 2 + rutile actinolite + chlorite + rutile chlorite + calcite + epidote chlorite + calcite
Plagioclase stable or oligoclase3 (rims>cores) stable or oligoclase/albite + epidote + albite + calcite + illite stable or calcite-albite + smectite
(An 95 -An 30 ) + biotite + calcite (after anhydrite?) actinolite + calcite + epidote + smectite
Ti-magnetite & 2 o magnetite + rutile stable + 2o magnetite stable + 2o magnetite + pyrite stable + pyrite
Mn-ilmenite titanite (after ilmenite) titanite (after ilmenite) titanite (after ilmenite)
Sulfide/Oxide Minerals chalcopyrite - magnetite pyrite - magnetite + pyrite - magnetite + chalcopyrite pyrite
+ bornite / digenite (Batu Hijau) chalcopyrite
Veins and Veinlets quartz and magnetite veinlets actinolite -magnetite + chlorite + epidote + chlorite veinlets chlorite veinlets
(“A” & “B” veins / veinlets) oligoclase + epidote veinlets quartz-epidote veinlets quartz-chlorite veinlets
quartz and magnetite veinlets
Notes: Quartz is ubiquitous; Hornblende, biotite, actinolite and chlorite are magnesium-rich and epidote is iron-rich.
1) Transitional-Central assemblages occur at Batu Hijau; for more details refer to text and Clode et al. (1999).
2) Bold font indicates high abundance; regular font indicates moderate abundance; italics font indicates minor abundance.
3) Secondary oligoclase after magmatic plagioclase rims and cores typify the central biotite zone at Batu Hijau.
However, it is less abundant in the other porphyry centers. Secondary K-feldspar locally replaces magmatic plagioclase at Katala.
Table 6.3 Vein types, nomenclature, characteristics and associated hydrothermal alteration for the major porphyry systems in the Batu Hijau district.
Area Stage Width Vein Filling Contact Mean Grain Internal Center- Texture Selvage Minerals Stable WR1 Veins
(cm) Size (mm) Banding line Assemblage Post-date
Batu Hijau Ap/Pg <1/<5 plg+qz+bi+bn aplite/peg I-R 0.1-0.5/<5 N N Ap/Pg bi+mt+plg +A
(simplified) Am <0.2 mt+qz+(anh) I 0.2 N N Gr +fsp “
Ab <0.5 bi+qz+mt+(anh) I 0.2 N N Gr +bi “ Am
A 1 qz+bn(dg)+fsp+mt+(anh) I-R 0.4 Wk N Gr +bi+fsp “ Ab, Af
Af <2 qz+bn(dg)+fsp+mt+(anh) I-R 0.4 Wk N Gr +fsp “ Ab, A
A* <1 mt+ac+ch// mt+px+ap+qz I-R 1 Y Y Gr +fsp ac+mt+plg Am
AB <2 qz+bn+cp+fsp+mt+(anh) I-R 1 Y N Dr +fsp bi+mt+plg A, Af
B <2 qz+cp+bn+bi+hm+(anh) R 1 Y Y Dr +fsp+ch (after bi) “ A
C <0.5 cp+qz+bn R 1 N N Dr ch+se+ab+ca bi+ch+se+ab B
D <2? py/cp+qz+bn+sl+gn+mo R 0.5 N Y Dr se+qz+py//
pgm/sm+qz+py// se+qz+py B, +C
sm+ca +sm+ca
late <5? sl+gn+tn+py+cp R variable Y N? Dr se+sulf// sm+qz sm+ch+ca B
Katala Ap <1 qz+kf+plg+bi+mt+cp I-R 0.2-1.0 N N Ap-Fg bi+mt +plg
aplite (graphic texture)
Am <0.2 mt+bi+qz I 0.2 N N Gr +bi+fsp “ A
A <1 qz+mt +rare bi+(anh) I-R 0.2 Wk N Gr +bi+kf bi+mt+fsp +Am
B <1.5 qz+cp+mt+fsp+py R 0.2 Y Wk Gr-Dr ch+fsp “ A, Am
B* <0.3 mt+ch+ac+qz+cp I-R 0.5 N N Gr fsp+ch+ep bi(or ch)+mt+fsp A, Am
D <2 py+cp+qz+tour R 0.5 N Y Dr se/il+qz+py+tour// se+qz+py B
ch+se+il/sm+qz+py// di +il/sm+cc
late <1 ca R 0.5 N N Gr sm sm? D
Sekongkang Ap/Pg <1 qz+kf+plg+bi+mt aplite I-R 0.1-0.5/<4 N N Ap/Pg peg (graphic texture)
-West Nangka Am <0.2 mt I 0.2 N N Gr +bi (or ac)+fsp bi+mt +plg A
A <1 qz+bi+mt+cp+py I 0.2 N N Gr +fsp “ +Am
AB <0.5 qz+kf+mt+cp+py I-R 0.4 Wk N Gr +fsp “ A, Am
B <0.5 qz+mt +py R 0.5 Y Y Gr-Dr +ch+fsp bi+mt+fsp A, AB
D <2 py+cp (cp with se-ch) R 0.5 N Y Dr se/il+qz+py+tour// se/il+qz+py B
ch+se+il/sm+py+ab// +sm+cc
pyp+di+and// ka+di
late <1 ca R 0.5 N N Gr sm sm? D
Notes for Table 6.3:
1 – typical, stable wall-rock (WR) mineral assemblage external to vein selvage.
Batu Hijau – Most of the Cu (dg-bn) is contained in early “A” and “Af” veins. “A” class veins form with the stable wall-rock assemblage of bi+mt+plg. Proximal “B” veins
contain cp-bn with secondary bi, whereas distal “B” veins contain this assemblage plus specular hematite. “A*” veins are inferred to be the distal equivalents of “A” class veins
(refer to the text for definition). “C” veinlets contain cp+bn and are associated with the replacement of bi by ch-se. “D” veins contain py and/or cp, are stable with se, ch and
il/sm, and destroy dg, bn, bi and plg. At high temperatures, “D” veins are stable with pyrophyllite (300o to 360o C) or andalusite (>360o C) (Bowers et al., 1984 and SUPCRT
database). Batu Hijau vein data are compiled and simplified from Mitchell et al. (1998) and incorporate observations of the author.
Katala – Most of the Cu (cp) is contained in “A” and “B” veins that have been reopened by “D” veins, which are stable with se, ch, il/sm. Transitional “AB” veins, which are
characterized by selvages of kf, occur locally. “B*” veins are distal equivalents of B veins.
Sekongkang – The limited Cu in this area is contained in “A” and “AB” veins, which have locally been re-opened by “D” veins and contain mt and cp; late py occurs along
fractures in these quartz veins (indicated by bold print for both Sekongkang-West Nangka and Katala vein sequences).
Abbreviations:
ab albite ac actinolite and andalusite anh anhydrite bi biotite

bn bornite cp chalcopyrite ca calcite ch chlorite dg digenite
di dickite ep epidote fsp secondary feldspar (typically secondary oligoclase-albite)
gn galena hm specular hematite il illite ka kaolinite kf K-feldspar
mo molybdenite mt magnetite plg plagioclase (typically secondary oligoclase) py pyrite
px diopside pyp pyrophyllite qz quartz sl sphalerite se sericite or paragonite
sm smectite (typically montromillonite) tour tourmaline tn tennantite
Ap aplitic Y yes I irregular Gr granular

Fg fine-grained N no R regular Dr drusy
Pg pegmatitic Wk weak
peg pegmatite
Similar types of quartz veins are documented in porphyry deposits elsewhere (e.g. El Salvador,
Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; southwestern USA, Beane and Titley, 1981; Yerington, Dilles and
Einaudi, 1992). The texture, wall-rock contacts and fluid inclusion characteristics of “A” and
“B” quartz veins have led previous workers to infer early “A” vein emplacement under hot
(>500o C), quasi-ductile conditions and later “B” vein development under a cooler, more brittle
regime (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; Dilles and Einaudi, 1992; Hedenquist and Richards, 1998).
Texture, Mineralogy and Paragenesis
The characteristic ore- and gangue-mineral assemblages, contact relationships, grain size,
quartz textures, vein selvage minerals and stable wall-rock mineral assemblage for each of the
major vein types in the porphyry centers are summarized in Table 6.3. Relative timing
relationships are also indicated. The textures, mineral assemblages and cross-cutting
relationships of some of the “A” class and “B” veins and veinlets described in Table 6.3 are
illustrated in Figures 6.6 to 6.8. In general, the quartz veins become wider, more planar and
continuous, and increase in quartz grain size with time. Early “A” class veins are typically
granular and lack centerlines, whereas later “B” veins are more drusy and commonly contain
centerlines, which are defined by oxide- and sulfide-minerals. The veins contain quartz,
variable amounts of magnetite, copper-sulfide minerals and locally biotite. The abundance of
void space in the early “A” class veins at Batu Hijau is inferred to represent anhydrite, which
was subsequently leached from the veins by supergene processes (Clode et al., 1999). Minor
anhydrite is still present at Batu Hijau and also occurs in limited proportions at Sekongkang and
Katala. In the Batu Hijau deposit, planar “C” veinlets post-date “A” class and “B” veins, and
are related to transitional chlorite-sericite-albite alteration (Clode et al., 1999).
In the Batu Hijau deposit, Mitchell et al. (1998) document the variation in quartz veinlet
mineralogy and wall-rock alteration during progressive emplacement from very early, barren
“Am” and “Ab” magnetite-quartz veinlets through early, digenite- and bornite-bearing “A” and
“Af” quartz+magnetite veinlets to late chalcopyrite+bornite-bearing “B” quartz veins.
Examples of digenite-bornite in early “A” veinlets, and chalcopyrite in a “B” vein at Batu Hijau
are shown in Figures 6.6 and 6.8, respectively. The “A” and “Af” veinlets contain the bulk of
the copper sulfide minerals in the Batu Hijau deposit, typically averaging 0.25 to 3 vol. % and 2
to 5 vol. %, respectively (Mitchell et al., 1998). These “A” and “Af” veinlets are estimated to
comprise about 80% of the total volume of quartz veins in the Batu Hijau deposit and contain a
similar proportion of the copper (Mitchell et al., 1998). The remainder of the copper occurs
within later vein types and as disseminated grains and aggregates (clots) of copper-sulfide
minerals (Mitchell et al., 1998). In the peripheral portions of the deposit, “B” veins contain
specular hematite in addition to chalcopyrite and bornite (this study, Table 6.3). At Batu Hijau,
sparse “C” veinlets contain chalcopyrite+bornite (Clode et al., 1999). Hence, the early “A”
family and transitional “B” and “C” veins at Batu Hijau indicate an increase in sulfidation-state
with time, from early digenite-bornite (Cu/S>2.5) to later chalcopyrite (Cu/S~1.0).
The majority of the copper in the other porphyry systems occurs as chalcopyrite, which is
associated with “A”, “AB” and “B” veins that have been re-opened by late pyritic “D” veins
(Figure 6.7). This is discussed further in Section 6.3.2.
Early and transtional vein mineral selvages are typically 1 to 10 mm wide and thinner than the
veins or veinlets that the selvages enclose. Vein selvages commonly consist of secondary
oligoclase and locally biotite, with K-feldspar forming selvages to “A” veinlets at Katala. In
contrast, “C” veinlets at Batu Hijau include selvages of chlorite-sericite-albite (Clode et al.,
1999). The stable wall-rock assemblage to this relatively uncommon veinlet type is biotite-
chlorite-sericite-albite (Mitchell et al., 1998), which probably represents a transitional alteration
type from early, biotite-oligoclase alteration to the late, feldspar-destructive intermediate
argillic alteration documented in Section 6.3.3.
Fluid Inclusion Characteristics
A fluid inclusion study of copper-sulfide-bearing quartz veins in the Batu Hijau deposit was
undertaken by Turner (1995), on the basis of 36 samples analyzed by Chartered Mineral
Services (CMS) in Auckland, New Zealand (Coote, 1992; CMS, 1993). The sampling was
performed by Newmont Nusa Tenggara geologists and includes 16 vertical drill holes, which
cover a ~1000 m dia meter surface area that extends beyond the 0.5% Cu boundary (at 307.5 m
RL). Samples of quartz veins were collected from near-surface to a maximum depth of 550 m
(0 m RL). However, this sampling was undertaken prior to the delineation of the vein
paragenesis summarized in the preceding section and in Table 6.3. Review of the quartz vein
descriptions of Coote (1992), CMS (1993) and Turner (1995) indicate that the sampling was
biased towards regular veins that contain chalcopyrite-bornite and biotite-oligoclase altered
wall-rock, or “AB” and “B” quartz veins, using the terminology of Mitchell et al. (1998) and
Clode et al. (1999). Turner (1995) notes that some of the samples were of “C” veinlets, on the
basis of quartz textures, the lack of bornite and selvages of chlorite-sericite. The bornite-
digenite-bearing, wavy and diffuse “A” class veinlets were not sampled, probably due to the
intention of the company geologists to collect the wider “AB” and “B” veins that have sharp
wall-rock contacts and relatively coarse-grained quartz.
Petrographic work (Coote, 1992; CMS, 1993) was directed towards: 1) the identification,
description and classification of fluid inclusions in quartz and 2) measurement of fluid
inclusion homogenization temperatures, and the determination of salinity by measuring the
melting temperature of halite daughter crystals and using the experimental data of Souririjan
and Kennedy (1962). A total of 422 liquid-vapor homogenization temperatures and 172 halite
melting temperatures were recorded.
Mitchell et al. (1998) describe fluid inclusions within quartz in “A” class veinlets and “AB”
and “B” veins, and in andalusite from feldspar-destructive, advanced argillic alteration in the
eastern part of the Batu Hijau deposit. The author of this study collected two samples from drill
core from the central part of deposit (SBD86 392 m and SBD91 547 m) and two samples from
outcrop along the western flanks of the deposit (Brang Tongoloka), and examined fluid
inclusions within quartz from “A”, “Af”, “AB” and “B” veins and veinlets.
On the basis of the studies discussed above and the study of the author, three major types of
inclusions are defined in the “A”, “Af”, “AB” and “B” veins and veinlets in the Batu Hijau
deposit (Table 6.4). These include: 1) Type 1 liquid-rich, liquid-vapor (5 to 20 vol. % vapor)
inclusions of secondary origin, 2) Type 2 vapor-rich, liquid-vapor + 1 or more daughter crystal
(60 to 90 vol. % vapor), with daughters in inclusions where liquid is abundant, and 3) Type 3
liquid-rich, liquid-vapor + more than 1 daughter crystals. This terminology follows that of
Roedder (1971) and Nash (1976), which is based on the phase relations in fluid inclusions from
porphyry copper deposits, as recorded at room temperature. Type I inclusions lie along planes
that extend across grain boundaries (Coote, 1992; Turner, 1995; this study), and are probably
secondary in origin. Inclusion Types II and III are irregularly distributed or follow planes that
terminate at quartz crystal boundaries, and could be primary or pseudo-secondary. However,
the origins of these inclusions are unknown. Common daughter minerals in Type III inclusions
consist of halite, sylvite, anhydrite, hematite, chalcopyrite and possibly magnetite or a sulfide
mineral (Table 6.5). PIXE (Proton Induced X-ray Emission) analysis of fluid inclusions in a
chalcopyrite-bearing “B” vein at Batu Hijau confirms the presence of these daughter crystals,
with the exception of magnetite (B.I. McInnes, written communication, 1999). PIXE imaging
also identified chalcopyrite in vapor-rich, Type II inclusions.
Table 6.4 Classification of fluid inclusion types (predominantly in quartz) 1 .
Type I: Liquid-rich, equidimensional and branching forms, typically to 60 µm in length and 5-20 µm in
mean dimension; vapor phase ~5-20 volume %; no daughter minerals; secondary – localized along annealed
fracture planes
Type II: Vapor-rich, perfect negative crystal form, equidimensional to elongate, typically 20-60 µm in
length and 10-30 µm in width; vapor = 60-90 volume %; local daughter minerals present in inclusions in
which liquid is abundant; primary or pseudosecondary
Type III: Liquid-rich, negative crystal and local branching forms, equidimensional to slightly elongate,
typically 10-50 µm in mean dimension; abundant daughter minerals, which include halite, sylvite, hematite,
chalcopyrite and other phases; pseudosecondary or unknown origin
Notes: 1- Classification scheme follows that of Roedder (1971) and Nash (1976) .
Fluid inclusion descriptions are summarized from Coote (1992), CMS (1993), Mitchell et al. (1998)
and observations by the author.
Type II and III fluid inclusions are typical of inclusions in “A” and “B” type quartz veins from
porphyry systems elsewhere, as described by Beane and Titley (1981), Bodnar (1995), Beane
and Bodnar (1995), and Hedenquist et al. (1998). At Batu Hijau, Mitchell et al. (1998) note that
andalusite also contains Type II and III inclusions with daughter crystals similar to those within
the early quartz veinlets.
Chartered Mineral Services (Coote, 1992; CMS, 1993) measured the temperature of
homogenization to liquid for inclusion Types I and III, but typically did not measure Type II
inclusions as it was difficult to determine homogenization to vapor. The temperature range for
liquid-vapor homogenization in Type III inclusions is 265o to 513oC, whereas liquid-vapor
homogenization temperatures for Type I inclusions range from 164o to 355oC (Turner, 1995).
Halite melting temperatures measured from Type III inclusions range from 263o to 462oC
(Coote, 1992; CMS, 1993). The mean weight percent NaCl equivalent ranges from 34 to 54 in
the 35 samples analyzed. No determinations were made on sylvite.
These results indicate a gradient in homogenization temperature and salinity for Type III fluid
inclusions in the quartz vein samples analyzed from the Batu Hijau deposit. Inclusions with the
highest temperatures and salinities occur in the center of the deposit, in the vicinity of SBD03
at ~100 to 350 m RL, which coincides with the apical portion of the syn-mineral Intermediate
Tonalite and wide zones of 5 to 10 vol. % and >10 vol. % quartz veins (cf. Figures 4.2 and 5.9).
Mean temperatures generally increase from ~ 350o to >475oC and mean salinities increase from
~35 to >50 wt. % NaCl equivalent, from the margin to the center of the deposit (Turner, 1995).
Table 6.5 Characteristics of daughter minerals.
Physical and optical characteristics Phase
Translucent, cubic, nonbirefrigent, high relief Halite
Translucent, cubic, nonbirefrigent, low relief Sylvite
Translucent, tabular to partly resorbed, birefrigent Anhydrite
Opaque to translucent, platy hexagonal, deep red Hematite
Opaque, triangular to sphenoidal, brassy yellow (reflected light) Chalcopyrite
Opaque, octahedral Magnetite?

(or sulfide)
Notes: Fluid inclusion descriptions are summarized from Coote (1992), CMS (1993),
Mitchell et al. (1998) and observations by the author.
After a review of the database by the author, four quartz vein samples were selected to be the
most representative of the earliest quartz veins analyzed by Chartered Mineral Services. These
veins are probably “AB” veins, as indicated by the chalcopyrite-bornite assemblage and the
stable wall-rock assemblage of biotite-magnetite-oligoclase (Table 6.6). Three of these samples
are from the Intermediate Tonalite (SBD03 245 m and 345 m, SBD10 370m), while the fourth
is from andesitic wall-rock within 100 m of this intrusion (SBD06 522 m). All four samples lie
within the 0.5% Cu ore shell, and are characterized by inclusions in which halite melts at
temperatures lower than those of liquid-vapor homogenization. In the quartz vein sample with
the highest homogenization temperatures (SBD03 345 m), Type III inclusions homogenize by
disappearance of the vapor bubble at about 500oC, following dissolution of halite at ~380o to
390o C, equivalent to about 45 wt. % NaCl (Table 6.6). In this sample, analysis of a Type II
inclusion yielded liquid-vapor homogenization at 509o C, whereas a nearby Type III inclusion
homogenized at 513o C (Coote, 1992; Turner, 1995). The similarity in the temperature of liquid-
vapor homogenization of these two types of fluid inclusions supports the inference of
coexistence of this inclusion pair at the time of fluid trapping. However, Bodnar et al. (1985)
note that liquid-vapor homogenization temperature for vapor-rich inclusions are commonly
lower than that of the “true” homogenization temperature, which, in part, reflects the
difficulties in determining the homogenization of a vapor-rich inclusion. Therefore, the
homogenization temperatures of coexisting liquid- and vapor-rich inclusions need not equal one
another.
Table 6.6 Summary of data for select Type III fluid inclusions from quartz veins 1
ID Drill Hole Elevation Th (l-v)2 Mean Tm (NaCl)3 Mean Wt.% Pressure 5 Daughter6
(depth, m) (m RL) (range, C) Th (N) (range, o C) NaCl4 (N)
o
(bars) Minerals
1 SBD03-345 300 501-513 507 (2) 379-390 45 (2) 420 hal,hm,cp, syl, mt
2 SBD03-245 200 484-501 494 (5) 455-470 54 (5) 300 hal, hm, op
3 SBD06-522 0 463-476 471 (5) 285-300 37 (6) 370 hal, op
4 SBD10-370 0 440 440 (1) 340 40 (1) 280 hal, hm, mt
Notes:
1- Data for Type III inclusions associated with “AB” or “B” quartz veins and veinlets that occur
proximal to the center of the Batu Hijau deposit (<300 m from SBD03). These veins and veinlets contain
chalcopyrite-bornite and are associated with biotite-oligoclase wallrock alteration.
2- Th (l-v) = temperature of liquid-vapor homogenization to liquid.
3- Tm (NaCl) = temperature of NaCl melting.
4- Mean weight percent NaCl equivalent, determined from Tm (NaCl).
5- Pressure estimated from NaCl-H2 O diagram in Figure 6.55, modified from Bodnar et al. (1985).
6- Daughter mineral abbreviations: cp = chalcopyrite; hal = halite; hm = hematite;
mt = magnetite; op = opaque mineral; syl = sylvite.
Results summarized from Coote (1992) and CMS (1993); N = number of measurements.
Given that these inclusions are from transitional veins, higher temperatures and salinities were
probably associated with the digenite-bornite-bearing, early “A” and “Af” veinlets, which
contain the bulk of the copper in the deposit. Common Type III fluid inclusions measured in the
earliest “A” type quartz veins in porphyry deposits elsewhere have homogenization
temperatures in the range of 500o to 800o C and salinities of 40 to >70 wt. % NaCl equivalent
(e.g. Santa Rita, Arizona, Reynolds and Beane, 1985; Bodnar, 1995).
6.2.2.3 Petrology
Secondary biotite replacement of hornblende typically imparts a brownish gray color to the
altered rock and is commonly associated with varying intensity of “A” class, “AB” and “B”
veins and veinlets (Figure 6.9). Secondary biotite alteration is distinct from biotite hornfels, as
hydrothermal biotite forms mosaics of very fine- to fine-grained, shred-like biotite in
hornblende sites, commonly in the presence of rutile (or leucoxene) and hydrothermal
magnetite (Figure 6.9B and C, Table 6.2). In contrast, biotite in hornfels displays a decussate
texture and occurs throughout the rock groundmass, typically in the presence of diopside
(Figure 4.10).
In thin section, secondary biotite is weakly pleochroic from light- to medium-brown and ranges
in color from pale brown to greenish brown locally. The extent of replacement ranges from
incipient, with biotite clusters along the rims and cleavage planes of hornblende, through weak
(~10% replacement) to complete, with only the crystal outline of the relict hornblende
preserved. Moderate to strong replacement of hornblende is most common. Biotite alteration is
particularly intense at Batu Hijau. Secondary biotite also replaces groundmass phases in
porphyritic intrusions. Magmatic biotite in quartz diorite, granodiorite and the Young Tonalite,
and decussate biotite in hornfels, are stable in secondary biotite alteration zones. Biotite
replaces mafic silicate- and plagioclase-crystals, and groundmass phases in strongly altered
andesitic rocks (Figure 6.9). Biotite forms minor constituents within, and local selvages to,
early quartz and magnetite veinlets, as indicated in Table 6.3.
Magmatic plagioclase crystals in the biotite zone are either stable or variably replaced by
secondary oligoclase+albite (Figure 6.10, Table 6.2). Replacement of andesine rims is more
common than replacement of labradorite and bytownite cores, but nearly complete replacement
does occur in portions of the Batu Hijau deposit (e.g. Old Tonalite). The abundance of
secondary oligoclase is relatively limited in the other porphyry systems. Secondary oligoclase
also forms selvages to “A” class, “AB” and “B” veins and veinlets (Table 6.3). At Katala,
magmatic plagioclase is replaced by K-feldspar proximal to “A” veinlets (Figure 6.10). Semi-
quantitative XRD undertaken by Newmont Metallurigical Services (McComb, 1995) confirms
the presence of 42 to 46% K-feldspar in one sample of pervasively altered equigranular quartz
diorite at Katala (SKD02 101.5 m). Replacement of plagioclase by very fine-grained biotite
does occur along cleavage planes and within oscillatory zones in zoned crystals, particularly in
andesitic volcaniclastic rocks and intrusions. Calcite replaces plagioclase in volcanic lithic
breccia in Brang Tongoloka at Batu Hijau, and rare, very fine-grained anhydrite occurs within
quartz and plagioclase sites at Sekongkang and Katala. Clode et al. (1999) document anhydrite
replacement of magmatic plagioclase at Batu Hijau.
Minor magnesio-cummingtonite occurs with secondary biotite in replaced hornblende sites at

surface at Katala (Figure 4.23) and anthophyllite occurs as thin, irregular veinlets proximal and
external to the outer limit of weak biotite alteration in SBD 121 at Batu Hijau (Mitchell et al.,
1998). The limited presence of these magnesian secondary amphiboles within, and proximal to,
the secondary biotite zone probably indicates the addition of Mg in this portion of the
hydrothermal system.
Magnesian chlorite and rutile (or leucoxene) replace hydrothermal biotite locally and represent
a transitional mineral assemblage from secondary biotite to intermediate argillic alteration. The
chlorite is length-fast and displays anomalous brown extinction colors in thin section. Minor
occurrences of sheaf-like, magnesian chlorite are associated with early bornite in strongly
biotite-altered tonalite in drill core from the central part of the Batu Hijau deposit (unpublished
report, Leach, 1999). However, the relative age relationship of this type of chlorite to that of
secondary biotite remains unclear.
Secondary magnetite occurs as very fine- to fine-grained crystals within biotite-replaced

hornblende sites and disseminated in the rock groundmass. Magnetite also occurs along
fractures, within “Am” veinlets, and as an accessory mineral in “A” class, “AB” and locally
“B” veins and veinlets (Table 6.3).
6.2.2.4 Copper-Sulfide Minerals
The copper-sulfide minerals, digenite, bornite and chalcopyrite, are common accessory
minerals in “A” class, “AB” and “B” veins and veinlets (Section 6.2.2.2, Table 6.3, Figures 6.6
to 6.8). The logs of quartz vein abundance in drill core from the Batu Hijau deposit indicate
correlation coefficients of 0.62 and 0.80 between vein abundance and Cu, and 0.56 and 0.70 for
Au, from drill holes SBD86 (200 to 920 m depth) and SBD31 (480 to 660 m depth),
respectively (Mitchell et al., 1998). The copper and gold assay results represent 3 m down-hole
composite samples.
The distribution and abundance of copper-sulfide minerals, magnetite veinlets and pyrite in the
district are indicated in Figure 6.11 and Table 6.7. Chalcopyrite, as observed with a 20X
handlens, occurs in quartz veinlets and veins, along fracture planes and as disseminated grains
within zones of secondary biotite and magnetite veinlets, in each of the porphyry centers. At
Batu Hijau, the zone of chalcopyrite in outcrop extends up to 300 m beyond the limit of weak
or relict biotite alteration and magnetite veinlets. This may reflect, in part, the increased
development of fractures in the vicinity of the deposit during chalcopyrite mineralization,
which led to the distal deposition of chalcopyrite along zones of fracture-enhanced permeability
(e.g. Br. Tembaga). External to the biotite zone, chalcopyrite occurs along fractures and in
magnetite, actinolite or chlorite veinlets (e.g. “B*” veinlets at Katala, Table 6.3).
In the Batu Hijau deposit, Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company geologists have modeled copper-
sulfide mineral zones in three-dimensions, on the basis of visual estimates of mineral
abundance, and copper and sulfur assay results, in diamond drill core. The modeled
chalcopyrite-pyrite zone (0.5<Cu/S<1.0; 0<py/cp<1) and chalcopyrite-bornite zone (Cu/S>1.0;
bn/cp>0), which are projected to surface from the base of complete oxidation, surround the
Tonalite Porphyry complex (cf. Figures 4.1 and 6.11). The surface projection of the
chalcopyrite-bornite zone coincides with strong biotite alteration at surface, and both copper-
sulfide zones lie within the zone of magnetite veinlets. There is an asymmetry in the
distribution of the outer limit of biotite, magnetite veinlets and chalcopyrite with respect to the
modeled copper-sulfide zones (Figure 6.11). The outer limits of these three zones extend
further to the north and east from the center of the bornite-chalcopyrite zone, where the host
rocks consist of pre-mineral felsic intrusions, than to the south and west, where andesitic
volcaniclastic rocks predominate.
This asymmetry probably reflects the increased competency of the pre-mineral felsic intrusions
with respect to the volcaniclastic rocks, and the tendency for the intrusions to fracture more
readily and serve as a better host to vein- and fracture-related copper mineralization. The results
of the stress simulation presented in Chapter 5 support this model, in that the margins of the
pre-mineral composite pluton that forms the northeastern quadrant of the deposit, localizes
zones of high and low stress (Figure 5.18).
6.2.2.5 Mineral Chemistry
The composition of the secondary biotite is phlogopitic, with Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratios that average
about 0.25, from a range of 0.19 to 0.35 (Figure 6.15). The secondary biotite analyzed from
Batu Hijau contain more Mg than does secondary biotite analyzed from Sekongkang and
Katala, but the data are limited. In the case of Batu Hijau, secondary biotite contains more Mg
and less AlVI than the magmatic biotite analyzed from the Young Tonalite. No clear
relationship exists between secondary and magmatic biotites at Sekongkang and Katala, which,
in part, reflects lack of data. The compositions of hydrothermal biotite in the district are less
phlogopitic than secondary biotite at Bingham Canyon (Moore and Czamanske, 1973; Hendry
et al., 1985) and more phlogopitic than those reported from Yerington (Dilles, 1987).
Secondary biotite at Batu Hijau typically contains 2 to 3% TiO2 (Mitchell et al., 1998),
compared to 3 to 5% TiO2 in magmatic biotite in the Young Tonalite and equigranular quartz
diorite at Katala.
Hydrothermal feldspar is typically oligoclase+albite (An28-7; Figure 6.16). The majority of the
analyses were compiled from data reported from the Batu Hijau deposit (Mitchell et al., 1998).
This range of composition is more sodic than indicated by the magmatic plagioclase in the
Young Tonalite (An40-30), equigranular quartz diorite intrusions (An60-40) and andesitic
volcaniclastic rocks and intrusions (An95-60). Analyses of orthoclase from an early aplite vein at
Sekongkang indicate this phase to be essentially pure KAlSi3O8.
The magnesio-cummingtonite has a ΣFe/(ΣFe+Mg) of about 0.28, which is similar to the

magmatic amphiboles and slightly higher than the hydrothermal biotites at Batu Hijau (cf.
Figures 4.23 and 6.15). The single analysis of chlorite (pycnochlorite) that replaces biotite
indicates a ΣFe/(ΣFe+Mg) of ~0.27, which is slightly more magnesian than chlorites analyzed
from the propylitic zones (Figure 6.17). Limited analyses of hydrothermal magnetite, in
equilibrium with biotite and rutile in sites of replaced hornblende, indicate typical compositions
of <0.5 mole % ulvospinel for the Young Tonalite and equigranular quartz diorite at Batu
Hijau, and 2 to 6 mole % ulvospinel for porphyritic tonalite at Katala (Figure 6.18).
Table 6.7 Surface geometry of early chalcopyrite and magnetite zones.
Zone Sekongkang- Arung Ara Brang Belu Batu Hijau Katala

West Nangka
Chalcopyrite 3 small zones along an E- Minor cp at surface: WNW-elongate zone: Nearly circular zone: 3 small zones along E-
elongate belt 2.5 km long: ~50m (NNE) x 25m >200m x 50m estimated to be 1.8km (N-S) elongate belt 1km long:
largest area is NE-elongate x 1.5km (E-W), slightly largest zone is NE-elongate
500 m x 350m (Agang) larger than magnetite zone 300m x 150m
Magnetite Nearly identical to cp, but NNE-elongate zone: Similar to cp, but extends to Nearly circular zone: Nearly identical to cp, but
forms slightly larger areas ~600m x 150m west into zone of hematite 1.5km (N-S) x 1.2km (E-W) forms slightly larger zones
within NE-elongate belt replacement after mt within E-elongate belt
Definitions: 1) Chalcopyrite zone - chalcopyrite visible in outcrop or hand specimen.

2) Magnetite zone - magnetite-lined fractures and/or veinlets visible in outcrop or hand specimen.
Abbreviations: cp- chalcopyrite, mt - magnetite.
Table 6.8 Surface geometry of late pyritic zones.
Sekongkang - East Nangka Santong Diatreme Batu Hijau - Air Merah Katala
West Nangka
3 zones define an E-elongate E-elongate zone: nearly circular zone: 1km in diameter; several NW to NNW-trending zones E-elongate zone:
belt: >3km x 300-500m, > 1km x 100-200m; marks intersection of ENE- and NW- within a NW-elongate elliptical area: >2.3km x 100-400m
centered on Tatuk open to the E and W to WNW-trending py zones, which > 3km x 2km; open to NW, tapers to SE, with local NW flexures
coincide with clay-mica altered fault where py coincides with clay-mica altered
zones fault zones
Definitions: 1) Pyrite > vol. 1% as determined by visual estimate of abundance of disseminated pyrite in outcrop. Zones of relatively abundant pyrite occur within the
1 vol. % outline, as indicated in Figure 6.11, and typically contain from 2-4 vol. % pyrite, and as much as 5 to 8 vol. % pyrite, proximal to the Batu Hijau
deposit. Note the similarity to the geometry of late feldspar-destructive hydrothermal alteration zones in Table 6.12. Abbreviation: py- pyrite.
The sulfide minerals were not analyzed by the electron microprobe for this study. However,
results reported by Mitchell et al. (1998) at Batu Hijau indicate chalcocite, digenite, bornite
solid solution (chalcocite-bornite and digenite-bornite) and bornite to be contained in the
earliest veinlets, and bornite and chalcopyrite within transitional “AB”, “B” and “C” veins.
Micron-sized gold is encapsulated in early and transitional age bornite, and is characterized by
90 to 95% Au, 3 to 5% Ag, <0.4% Fe and up to 6% Cu. Merenskyite [(Pd,Pt)(Te,Bi)2] occurs
as < 50 µm exsolution beads within, or attached to, chalcocite-digenite, chalcocite-bornite or
digenite-bornite grains. The merenskyite is palladium-rich and contains no bismuth at a
detection limit of 0.10 wt. % (Mitchell et al., 1998).
6.2.3 Actinolite (Inner Propylitic) Alteration
Zones of secondary actinolite after magmatic amphibole typically occur between the central
biotite zone and the distal epidote-chlorite zone at Sekongkang−West Nangka, Arung Ara, Batu
Hijau and Katala (Figures 6.2, 6.4 and 6.5, Table 6.2). The inner limit of this alteration style, as
defined by actinolite veinlets and the presence of actinolite in thin section, typically coincides
with the outer portion of the secondary biotite zone, and locally continues as far as 300 m
inwards from the limit of weak biotite alteration (e.g. Brang Tembaga). Epidote is generally
absent from the actinolite zone. However, epidote is stable in the outer margin of this zone in
the vicinity of Katala and northeast of Batu Hijau. Actinolite-magnetite veinlets clearly post-
date biotite alteration at Batu Hijau and Katala (Figure 6.12).
Proximal actinolitic (inner propylitic) alteration in the district probably indicates calcium- and
magnesium-metasomatism by neutral pH fluids at temperatures in excess of 280o to 300o C,
inferred on the basis of the stability of actinolite in active hydrothermal systems (Browne,
1978). In porphyry systems elsewhere in the world, pervasive calcic amphibole -magnetite-
plagioclase (andesine to albite) alteration occurs outboard of the secondary biotite zone in
deposits hosted by intermediate volcanic or volcaniclastic rocks (e.g. Island Copper, British
Columbia, Aranciba and Clark, 1996; Panguna, Bougainville Island, Ford, 1978; and several of
the Philippine porphyries, Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984).
6.2.3.2 Petrology
Actinolitic alteration imparts a medium- to dark greenish-gray hue to affected andesitic rocks,
and is less obvious in hand specimens of felsic plutonic rocks. In thin section, actinolite is very
fine-grained (< 0.4 mm, commonly < 0.2 mm), acicular and forms fibrous mats after
hornblende. Replacement is along cleavage planes and is locally complete (Figure 6.12).
Within the biotite zone, actinolite is intergrown with biotite in the presence of rutile (or
leucoxene) and magnetite in hornblende sites. External to the biotite zone, actinolite+chlorite
replaces hornblende in the presence of primary and secondary magnetite, very fine-grained
rutile, leucoxene and rare titanite. The actinolite is colorless to pale green and weakly
pleochroic. Very fine-grained actinolite is common in the groundmass of strongly altered
andesitic rocks. Magnesian chlorite, as determined by optical properties (length-fast and locally
anomalous brown extinction colors), occurs commonly with actinolite at Batu Hijau, but is less
abundant to absent at Sekongkang−West Nangka and Katala.
Plagioclase is commonly stable in this zone. However, replacement of the rims of zoned calcic -
to intermediate-plagioclase crystals by oligoclase-albite occurs locally at Batu Hijau and
elsewhere in the district. Secondary oligoclase forms selvages to actinolite-magnetite veinlets,
which range up to 2 cm wide (e.g. SKD02, Katala; Figure 6.12). Actinolite, calcite and rare
epidote partially replace plagioclase, but are not a common occurrence.
Very fine-grained secondary magnetite occurs in variably replaced hornblende sites, along
fractures, within actinolite veinlets, and as clusters adjacent to primary magnetite locally.
Titanite typically occurs as bleb-like and mottled aggregate replacements of ilmenite.
Chalcopyrite occurs in the proximal portions of the actinolite zone as fillings in magnetite
veinlets, fracture-coatings and minor disseminated grains.
Veins and veinlets
Actinolite veinlets locally contain magnetite and variable amounts of chlorite and quartz. Local
vein selvages consist of secondary plagioclase (typically oligoclase)+chlorite+rare epidote. At
Katala, these veinlets contain chalcopyrite and cut early “A” veinlets in biotite-altered
equigranular quartz diorite, and hence are inferred to be the distal equivalents of “B” quartz
veins in SKD01 (Figure 6.12). Northeast of Batu Hijau, diopside-magnetite-apatite+quartz
veins to 5 cm wide cut weakly actinolite-altered equigranular quartz diorite and fine-grained
andesite (micro-quartz diorite) proximal to an intrusive contact (Figure 6.13). These diopside-
bearing veins cut magnetite veinlets (“Am” type) and are inferred to represent the distal
equivalents of early “A” veins in the biotite zone of the deposit.
Early magnetite veins that are related to pervasive magnetite, calcic amphibole and
intermediate- to sodic-plagioclase alteration occur in several global porphyry systems. Clark
(1993) designates these as “M” veins, by analogy with the vein classification scheme of
Gustafson and Hunt (1975), and places the timing of these veins early in the genesis of these
porphyry systems, typically prior to the development of “A” veinlets and K-silicate alteration.
However, in the Batu Hijau district, actinolitic alteration and related magnetite-bearing veins
are syn- to post- “A” veinlet formation and biotite alteration, and probably represent the
expulsion of Ca and Mg from the central potassic -sodic alteration zone.
Limited microprobe analyses indicate that the mats of very fine-grained, fibrous actinolite after
hornblende are magnesium-rich, with a ΣFe/(ΣFe+Mg) of ~ 0.2 (Figure 4.23), and lack
detectable TiO 2 (~ 0.15 wt. % detection limit). This is more magnesian than the magmatic
amphiboles analyzed from the district. The ΣFe/(ΣFe+Mg) ranges from 0.15 to 0.35 in the
medium-grained, euhedral actinolite in sample 98062708, northwest of Batu Hijau, which is
inferred to have formed by subsolidus reequilibration of hornblende. The chlorite analyzed is

pycnochlorite and has a similar ΣFe/(ΣFe+Mg) to the actinolite (Figure 6.17).
The single analysis of secondary oligoclase-albite that replaces labradorite-andesine adjacent to

a mat of actinolite in quartz diorite at Brang Petung indicates a composition of An8 (Figure
6.16). Secondary magnetite that occurs with actinolite in relict hornblende sites in equigranular
quartz diorite at Brang Tembaga contains < 3 mole % ulvospinel (Figure 6.18). Magnetite from
diopside-magnetite-apatite veins, northeast of Batu Hija u, is very pure, and contains > 99 mole
% magnetite.
6.2.4 Epidote-Chlorite (Outer Propylitic) Alteration
Distal epidote-chlorite (outer propylitic) alteration forms a broad zone, which occurs outboard
of the actinolite zones that surround each of the porphyry centers (Figures 6.2, 6.4 and 6.5).
Alteration within the epidote-chlorite zone is typically characterized by variable chlorite
replacement of hornblende and epidote after magmatic plagioclase (Table 6.2). Epidote and/or
chlorite also occur along fracture surfaces with, or without, pyrite in rocks affected by this
alteration style.
In this zone, a region of relatively abundant epidote alteration is characterized by moderate

epidote replacement of plagioclase (>20% plagioclase replacement) and epidote veinlets. This
alteration style forms annular belts, ~ 200 to 700 m wide, proximal and outboard of the
actinolite zones (Table 6.2). A similar epidote halo characterizes the El Tiro−North Silver Bell
stocks in the Silver Bell district, Arizona, where the inner limit of significant epidote occurs
adjacent to the outer limit of secondary biotite (Graybeal, 1982; Titley, 1993). In the study area,
the increase in epidote abundance is particularly well developed along the western, southern
and eastern margins of the Batu Hijau deposit, where calcic plagioclase-rich, volcanic lithic
breccia predominates. Epidote veinlets and replacement of plagioclase are less abundant in
volcanic sandstone and quartz diorite intrusions, which probably reflects, in part, the reduced
porosity / permeability of these rock types with respect to the volcanic lithic breccia. In the case
of the quartz diorite, the reduced abundance of epidote may also reflect the lesser concentration
of CaO in this rock type, as compared to the volcaniclastic rocks (5 to 7 wt. % CaO vs. 7 to 10
wt. % CaO, Figure 4.31, Chapter 4). Epidote veinlets locally cut actinolitic veinlets in rock
where actinolite replaces hornblende (e.g. north Katala), which suggests that at least some of
the epidote veinlets post-date the development of actinolite.
Chlorite+minor epidote-altered rock samples that lack epidote veinlets are described as “least-
altered” in Chapter 4, for the purpose of comparing the chemical compositions of different rock
types in the study area.
The occurrence of epidote is largely antithetic to that of secondary biotite and, to a lesser
extent, actinolite. This mutually exclusive relationship probably reflects a gradient in the
activity of Ca in the early hydrothermal fluids, caused by potassium- and sodium-

metasomatism in the biotite zone and expulsion of Ca outwards toward the distal portions of the
system, as inferred for actinolite alteration. The general lower limit of stability for epidote in
many active hydrothermal systems ranges from about 240oC (e.g. Wairakei, New Zealand,
Steiner, 1977) to >260oC (e.g. Broadlands, New Zealand, Browne and Ellis, 1970) in neutral
pH fluids.
6.2.4.2 Petrology
Epidote-chlorite alteration is conspicuous in all rock types in the study area, but is particularly
apparent in the volcaniclastic rocks, where pebble- to cobble-size clasts of phyric andesite and
holocrystalline igneous rocks are variably replaced by pistachio-green epidote (Figure 6.14).
Subrounded to rounded dioritic clasts typically are replaced by >90% epidote. Epidote-altered
rock fragments also occur as clasts contained within a carbonate-clay-chlorite altered matrix to
the Santong diatreme breccia (Figure 4.18A). Aggregates and single grains of very fine- to fine-
grained epidote partially replace plagioclase crystals in andesitic and felsic intrusions and in the
matrix and clasts of volcaniclastic rock types. The extent of replacement is commonly weak to
moderate, and rarely exceeds more than 30% of the total plagioclase in a given rock. In thin
section, weakly- to moderately-pleochroic, colorless to greenish yellow epidote replaces
plagioclase along fracture and cleavage planes and within the calcic cores (typically bytownite
to labradorite) of zoned crystals. Secondary sodic plagioclase (+calcite) locally accompanies
epidote replacement of magmatic plagioclase. Anhedral, hydrothermal apatite occurs as
irregular inclusions, up to 0.5 mm in mean diameter, within sodic plagioclase in the
northeastern part of Bambu. In addition, epidote, calcite and smectite replace plagioclase cores
at Sekongkang, and calcite and minor sericite-illite replace plagioclase in the vicinity of Batu
Hijau.
Chlorite is ubiquitous in this zone and partially to completely replaces hornblende as aggregates
of similarly oriented, very fine-grained sheaths along cleavage planes. Similarly- and
randomly-oriented masses of chlorite are common in the groundmass, or matrix, of andesitic
rocks and within lithic fragments in volcaniclastic rocks. In thin section, the chlorite is weakly
pleochroic from pale green to green, length-fast and locally has anomalous extinction colors,
ranging from brown (common) to deep blue (rare). Calcite, minor epidote, rutile, leucoxene and
less commonly smectite, are associated with chlorite replacement of hornblende.
Secondary magnetite (<4 mole % ulvospinel), pyrite and titanite (after ilmenite) are common
accessory constituents of this alteration style. Primary titanomagnetite is locally stable in
epidote-chlorite altered rock types. Chalcopyrite is rare, and occurs as fracture coatings, blebs
and disseminated grains where proximal to the actinolite zone.
The epidote analyzed by electron microprobe contains 71 to 86 mole % pistacite (0.71 to 0.86
Fe 3+ cations per formula unit, assuming a formula basis of 12.5 oxygen equivalents). The secondary
plagioclase analyzed in rocks affected by epidote-chlorite alteration is typically albite (An8-2 ),

but also consists of oligoclase locally (Figure 6.16). The compositions of analyzed chlorites at
Batu Hijau and Sekongkang range from ripidolite through pycnochlorite to diabantite, and
contain less Mg than the limited analyses of chlorites from the biotite and actinolite alteration
zones (ΣFe/(ΣFe+Mg) ~ 0.35, Figure 6.17).
Secondary magnetite compositions range from <1 to ~4 mole % ulvospinel, and are particularly
pure where associated with secondary albite (e.g. northeastern Bambu). In contrast, the primary
magnetites in andesitic volc aniclastic rocks and quartz diorite intrusions contain as much as 10
to 14 % TiO2 (~30 to 40 mole % ulvospinel, Figure 4.26).
6.2.5 Chlorite (Background) Alteration
Chorite-calcite-albite+(clay-sericite) alteration of phyric andesite, micro-quartz diorite and

volcaniclastic rocks occurs in the northeastern and southwestern portions of the study area (e.g.
Idul Fitri and Bambu, Figures 6.2, 6.4 and 6.5). Epidote is absent from these zones. This style
of alteration is viewed as background to the early hydrothermal alteration types. Chlorite is a
diagnostic mineral of lower greenschist facies metamorphism and is stable in neutral pH fluids
in active hydrothermal systems at temperatures that range from ~70o to >340o C (Browne and
Ellis, 1970; Reyes, 1990a). The presence of minor sericite (fine-grained muscovite) is
consistent with temperatures in excess of ~250o C (Bishop and Bird, 1987; Lawless and White,
1992).
6.2.5.2 Petrology
The following description is based upon rocks affected by chlorite-calcite-albite+(clay-sericite)

alteration in the Bambu area. Hand specimens of chlorite-calcite-albite altered phyric andesite
and micro-quartz diorite are medium gray, whereas similarly altered volcaniclastic rocks are
typically greenish gray. Aggregates of chlorite replace mafic minerals (hornblende and
pyroxene) to a variable extent in these rock types and occur as open-space fillings within the
matrix of volcaniclastic rocks. Chlorite replacement of mafic minerals is commonly ~30 to
80%, and locally 100%, complete. The chlorite is iron-rich, and, in thin-section, displays pale -
to light-green pleochroism, an anomalous Berlin blue interference color and is length-slow.
Calcite typically replaces the cores of calcic-plagioclase crystals, forms fracture-linings and
minor veinlets (<1 mm), and occurs as a minor constituent to the groundmass of intrusive and
volcaniclastic rock types. The extent of plagioclase replacement ranges from <10% to >80%
locally, but is typically weak to moderate (~10-50%). Calcite replacement of plagioclase is
more abundant in volcaniclastic rocks than in the andesite or micro-quartz diorite. Secondary
albite and quartz form aggregates adjacent to calcite-replaced calcic -plagioclase. Minor cla y
and sericite, which displays second- to third-order birefrigence colors and parallel extinction,
locally occur in plagioclase sites that have been largely replaced by calcite.
Magnetite is ubiquitous and typically comprises 1 to 2 vol. % of the assemblage. The majority
of this magnetite consists of fine-grained, disseminated cubic crystals, which are inferred to be
magmatic in origin. Pyrite is absent or occurs in trace amounts (<0.25 vol. %). Titanite is a
common accessory mineral that occurs with chlorite in altered mafic mineral sites and replaces
ilmenite locally.
6.2.6 Timing of Early Hydrothermal Events
Four major early hydrothermal alteration events are inferred in the district, on the basis of the
U-Pb SHRIMP ages of syn- and late-mineral felsic intrusions and 40 Ar/39 Ar ages of secondary
and primary biotite (Figure 6.1, Tables 6.9 and 6.10). These include the biotite alteration zones
at Sekongkang-West Nangka, Arung Ara, Katala and Batu Hijau, in order of decreasing age of
development. The intensity of biotite alteration and abundance of related copper-sulfide-
bearing “A” class, “AB” and “B” veins and veinlets generally increase with time, with the
exception of Arung Ara, as indicated in Figure 6.1. The age of secondary biotite alteration in all
of the four porphyry centers is closely related to syn-mineral felsic intrusions. This is
particularly evident at Katala and Batu Hijau, where 40 Ar/39 Ar biotite ages are indistinguishable
from U-Pb SHRIMP zircon ages for the causative intrusions. This is discussed further below.
The cross-cutting age relationships recorded and inferred between central biotite, proximal
actinolite and distal epidote-chlorite alteration types, suggest that the propylitic styles
developed at the same time as, and slightly later than, biotite+oligoclase alteration. Early
formed, central biotite alteration, which is inferred to have been produced by a thermal pulse
related to causative intrusion emplacement, was probably overprinted by collapsing zones of
actinolite and epidote alteration, as the hydrothermal system cooled and the isotherms retreated
(cf. Titley, 1982b). These temporal and spatial relationships are indicated schematically for the
Batu Hijau deposit area in Figure 6.5.
6.2.6.1 Approach and Methodology
Mineral separates of hydrothermal biotite (six) and magmatic biotite (one) were prepared from
unoxidized drill core and outcrop samples collected from the central biotite zones at
Sekongkang, Katala and Batu Hijau (Figure 6.2; Table 6.9A). These samples were selected
after reviewing the texture, mineral assemblage and alteration-state of biotite in thin-section for
more than 20 samples selected in the field as the best candidates for 40 Ar/39 Ar geochronology.
Following the selection of these 7 samples, approximately 5 to 15 mg were obtained for each of
the mineral separates by conventional heavy-liquid and magnetic separation techniques,
undertaken by the author in the mineral separation laboratory at UWA. The hand-picking of
mineral grains in acetone using a binocular microscope was necessary to separate biotite from
vermiculite and chlorite, and to ensure purity of >99%. The typical grain sizes for the biotite
separates range from 180 to 425 µm in minimum dimension. The biotite separates analyzed are
considered to be representative of early biotite alteration and magmatic biotite in the three
porphyry systems sampled.
The mineral separates were sent for irradiation at the TRIGA reactor at Oregon State University
and analyzed by the author at the 40 Ar/39 Ar laboratory in the School of Earth Sciences at
Stanford University. The details of the irradiation parameters, analytical equipment and
methodology utilized are discussed in Section 1.3.2.9 and the results of individual step-heating
runs are included in Appendix 9.
Table 6.9A Summary of 40Ar/39Ar age dates determined using the Stanford Argon-Argon facility.
39
Area Mineral Sample Host Rock Type Age 2sigma No. of % Ar in Isochron
1 2 3 4 5 40 36 6
(Ma) (Ma) plateaus plateau Concordant? MSWD Ar/ Ar
o
Sekongkang 1 biotite 97091713A eq biotite granodiorite dyke 5.47 0.08 7 52 Yes 0.34 286.9+6.4
o
Sekongkang 2 biotite SAD05-296m Subporphyritic biotite tonalite 5.47 0.06 6 72 Yes 0.59 298.3+8.7
o 1A
Katala 2 biotite SKD01-276m po hornblende tonalite 4.48 0.08 -- -- -- 22 302.6+5.2
o
Katala 2 biotite SKD01-468m po hornblende tonalite 4.37 0.08 4 70 Yes 0.71 296.2+13.3
o
Batu Hijau 2 biotite SBD91-444m Hornblende phyric andesite 3.74 0.12 7 95 Yes 0.7 293.6+9.1
o
Batu Hijau 2 biotite SBD04-157m Intermediate Tonalite 3.73 0.08 8 87 Yes 1.02 293.1+6.8
o
Batu Hijau 2 biotite SBD10-279m eq hornblende quartz diorite 3.72 0.06 7 86 Yes 0.75 286.4+8.1
Batu Hijau sericite SBD15-36m qz-se-py "D" vn - po dacite 3.65 0.02 7 81 Yes 1.05 302.8+4.9
Notes:
The analyses and processing of results for the Sekongkang, Katala and Batu Hijau samples were performed
by Steve Garwin using the Ar-Ar facility in the Department of Earth Sciences, Stanford University, California.
The Sekongkang samples are from the Agang area in the western part of the prospect.
Abbreviations: 1o = primary/magmatic, 2o = secondary/hydrothermal, eq = equigranular, po = porphyritic, py = pyrite, qz = quartz, se = sericite, vn = vein
1
Weighted mean plateau age of at least four contiguous heating steps that
constitute more than 50% of the total 39Ar released during the experiment
and that are indistinguishable at the 95% confidence interval.
Ages calculated using the constants of Steiger and Jager (1977);
Age of monitor phase Taylor Creek Rhyolite sanidine 85G003 is 27.92 Ma;
Ages corrected for decay of 37Ar and 39Ar, extraction blanks, reactor-induced interferences from
Ca, K and Cl, and mass spectrometer discrimination.
1A
An inverse isochron age is reported for SKD01-276m as a plateau of at least three contiguous heating steps
was not achieved at the 95% confidence interval (see Figure 6.20).
The isochron is determined on the basis of the results of eight heating steps (87% of released 39Ar).
2
Two standard errors of the mean, including error in J.
3
Number of contiguous heating steps used to determine the mean plateau age and inverse isochron age
4
Yes indicates that spectrum age and isochron age are indistinguishable at 95% confidence interval.
5
Mean square of weighted deviates.
6
Ratio of argon isotopes at y-intercept of the isochron (+ 1sigma);
This value indicates the composition of nonradiogenic argon released during degassing of sample;
Commonly close to the atmospheric value of 295.5 (Steiger and Jaeger, 1977).
Table 6.9B Summary of 40 Ar/39 Ar age dates determined using the US Geological Survey Argon-Argon facility.
Area Mineral Sample Host Rock Type Age 2sigma No. of %39 Ar in Isochron
40
(Ma)1 (Ma)2 plateaus3 plateau Concordant?4 Ar/ 36 Ar6
Tongoloka sericite 98100401 fault - volcanic lithic breccia 5.921A 0.06 -- -- -- 318.7+9.8
Tongoloka sericite 98111802 fault - volcanic lithic breccia 7.05 0.11 3 70 Yes 288.3+1.7
Notes:
The analyses and processing of results were performed by Larry Snee in the United States Geological Survey Ar-Ar facility in Denver, Colorado.
The methodology utilized is documented by Snee et al. (1988).
Footnotes are the same as indicated in Table 6.9A, with the following exceptions:
1A
An inverse isochron age is reported for 98100401, as a plateau of at least three contiguous heating steps was not achieved at the
95% confidence interval (see Figure 6.33). The isochron is determined on the basis of the results of three heating steps (76% of the 39 Ar released).
Apparent age spectra for the biotite samples analyzed by resistance furnace step-heating
experiments are shown in Figure 6.20 and summarized in Table 6.9A. All but one of the
samples display apparently undisturbed age spectra, characterized by plateaus that have
concordant isochron ages and trapped argon phases very close to that of atmospheric argon
(40 Ar/36 Ar=295.5). There is no evidence of excess argon and none of the samples yielded age
spectra indicative of partial argon loss. Hence, all of the plateaus are inferred to represent
simple closure of argon in the absence of subsequent thermal disturbance (McDougall and
Harrison, 1988).
6.2.6.2 Sekongkang
Two samples of biotite were analyzed from Sekongkang. The first separate consists of
magmatic biotite which forms aggregates with pyrite (after magetite?) from a syn-mineral
granodiorite dyke (97091713A, Figure 4.13, Section 4.6.2.2). The second separate is of
secondary shred-like biotite, which forms aggregates with pyrite, ilmenite and rare chalcopyrite
in relict hornblende sites, collected from a sub-porphyritic tonalite dyke (SAD05 296 m),
adjacent to a zone of intrusive breccia.
40
The weighted mean plateau Ar/39 Ar age of both samples is 5.47 Ma (+0.06 Ma or +0.08 Ma,
2σ, Figures 6.20 and 6.21, Table 6.9A). The fact that both biotite separates indicate the same
age, ~5.5 Ma, which is significantly younger by 0.4 m.y. than the U-Pb SHRIMP zircon age for
the biotite granodiorite dyke sample (97091713A; Figure 6.22, Tables 6.10 and 6.11) can be
explained by at least two probable scenarios. These include: 1) the magmatic - and secondary-
biotites formed nearly coeval to the emplacement of the syn-mineral dyke, and record the age at
which the biotites cooled below an Ar blocking temperature of ~300o C (McDougall and
Harrison, 1988), or 2) the magmatic biotite was reequilibrated and reset by a hydrothermal
event at ~5.5 Ma, which coincides with the age of secondary biotite development in SAD05
296 m. If the second scenario is true, then a younger phase of felsic intrusion, which has yet to
be recorded, could exist at Sekongkang. However, the undisturbed nature of the plateau for
sample 97091713A is more consistent with a simple cooling scenario.
6.2.6.3 Arung Ara
No biotite separates were prepared for Arung Ara, in part due to the relative unimportance of
this weakly mineralized system and time constraints. However, age-contact relationships
indicate that the porphyritic tonalite is syn-mineral.
Table 6.10 Summary of 206 Pb/238 U SHRIMP zircon ages, 40 Ar/39 Ar biotite ages and relationships of intrusions to mineralization and hydrothermal alteration
in the Batu Hijau district.
Area Sample Description U-Pb Zircon Ar-Ar Biotite Relationship to Mineralization and Hydrothermal Alteration
Age (Ma) Age (Ma)
Teluk Puna 98112102 dacitic volcaniclastic breccia 6.84+0.16 NA cut by Teluk Puna quartz veins; calcite-smectite altered
Sekongkang 97091713A equigranular biotite granodiorite dyke 5.88+0.14 5.47+0.08 syn-mineral; contains quartz rinds;magmatic biotite forms
clusters with pyrite (after magnetite?); biotite alteration of wall-rock
Arung Ara SRD02 305m porphyritic hornblende tonalite 4.99+0.16 NA syn-mineral; cuts "A" veinlets and is cut by "B" & "D" veins;
weak to moderate biotite alteration
Katala SKD01 276m porphyritic hornblende tonalite 4.70+0.16 4.48+0.08 pre-mineral; cut by "A" veinlets; strong biotite alteration
97100808A equigranular biotite granodiorite dyke 4.49+0.12 NA syn- to late-mineral; cut by "D" veins; sericite-chorite-epidote alteration
97101030 equigranular hornblende-biotite quartz diorite 4.43+0.14 NA early- to syn-mineral; cut by aplite veins and local "A" & "B" veins
local bioite-K-feldspar alteration
Batu Hijau SBD12 329m porphyritic dacite 3.89+0.08 NA pre-mineral; cut by "A" & "B" veins; biotite-oligocalse alteration
SBD91 416m Old Tonalite 3.67+0.12 NA early-mineral; cut by "A" & "B" veins; biotite-oligoclase aleration
SBD04 157m Intermediate Tonalite 3.76+0.10 3.73+0.08 syn-mineral; quartz rinds, cut by "A" & "B" veins; biotite-oligoclase
SBD41 414m Young Tonalite 3.74+0.14 NA late-mineral; cut by "B" & "D" veins; chlorite alteration (weak biotite)
Notes: 40Ar/39Ar age dates reported are for samples of hydrothermal biotite, with the exception of 97091713A, which indicates textures consistent with magmatic biotite.
All ages reported + 2 sigma. NA- not analyzed.
Table 6.11 Significant differences for 206Pb/238U SHRIMP and 40Ar/39Ar age data
40
SHRIMP Ar/39Ar Age Difference Significance Level
7.05 98111802 ------ *** >99% confidence interval
6.84 98112302 88 ------ ** 95-99%
5.92 98100401 *** *** ------ * 90-95
5.88 97091713A *** *** 27 ------ 24 All significant levels below 90 are labelled
5.47 97091713A *** *** *** *** ------
5.47 SAD05 296 *** *** *** *** 1 ------
4.99 SRD02 305 *** *** *** *** *** *** ------
4.76 SGD01 276 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ------
4.75 97101143 *** *** *** *** *** *** * 8 ------
4.7 SKD01 276 *** *** *** *** *** *** ** 51 31 ------
4.49 97100808A *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ** * ------
4.48 SKD01 276 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ** * 8 ------
4.43 97101030 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ** ** 47 47 ------
4.37 SKD01 468 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ** ** 86 * 43 ------
3.89 SBD12 329 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ------
3.67 SBD91 416 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ------
3.76 SBD04 157 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 87 72 ------
3.74 SBD41 414 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ** 57 18 ------
3.74 SBD91 444 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 61 18 0 ------
3.73 SBD04 157 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 61 30 11 12 ------
3.72 SBD10 279 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 54 38 22 25 16 ------
3.65 SBD15 36 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 26 82 81 86 * ** ------
(Ma) (Ma) 98111802 98112302 98100401 97091713A 97091713A SAD05 296 SRD02 305 SGD01 276 97101143 SKD01 276 97100808A SKD01 276 97101030 SKD01 468 SBD12 329 SBD91 416 SBD04 157 SBD41 414 SBD91 444 SBD04 157 SBD10 279 SBD15 36
Notes:
The statistical signifigance of the diffrence between the mean ages of the sample populations, each with an analytical uncertainty, is determined for each pair of ages by
employing the P-value test (Cox and Snell, 1981; Moore and McCabe, 1989). The values expressed for the age difference signifigance levels are equivalent to (1.0 - P) x 100.
Hence, the age difference significance levels corespond to the following levels of certainty:
levels below 90 indicate a resonable consistency between mean age date pairs (ie.not significantly different)
The tonalite is weakly- to moderately-biotite-altered (biotite replaces hornblende) from surface

to a depth of ~250 m. Moderate biotite alteration (>50% hornblende replacement) of quartz
diorite (QD2) wall-rock and the adjacent tonalite intrusion extends to a vertical depth > 350 m.
The contact between the tonalite and older quartz diorite truncates early “Am” magnetite and
biotite veinlets in the quartz diorite, and is cut by later “B” quartz veins (e.g. SRD02 394.1 m).
In the quartz diorite, about 5 m from the contact (e.g. SRD02 410.5 m), irregular “Am” veinlets
cut diffuse and wavy “A” quartz+magnetite veinlets. Therefore, the porphyritic tonalite was
emplaced subsequent to the deposition of “A” and “Am” veinlets, but prior to the development
of “B” veins. Hence, the age of secondary biotite and early “A” veinlets is inferred to be nearly
coeval to that of the zircon in the tonalite, at approximately 5.0 Ma (Figure 6.1, Table 6.10).
6.2.6.4 Katala
Two samples of secondary biotite were analyzed from strongly biotite-altered (>90%
replacement of hornblende) porphyritic tonalite in the central part of Katala (SKD01 276 m and
468 m). The sample collected from SKD01 276 m contains ~ 5 to 10 vol. % “A” veinlets and
minor “B” veins, with 1 to 2% chalcopyrite along fractures (Figure 6.7, Table 6.9A). The
sample collected from SKD01 468 m contains 0.3 to 0.5 vol. % “A” veinlets and trace
chalcopyrite. The porphyritic tonalite host to these samples is pre-mineral. The equigranular
quartz diorite pluton (QD3) is younger than the porphyritic tonalite at Katala, as indicated by
contact age-relationships (e.g. intrusive contact at SKD03 297.7 m) and U-Pb SHRIMP zircon
ages (Chapter 4). The quartz diorite is moderately to strongly biotite-altered along its southern
margin (e.g. SKD02, Figure 6.12) and cut by granitic aplite veins and minor “A” and “B” veins
and veinlets. The granodiorite dykes that occur adjacent to the quartz diorite pluton in this area
lack significant biotite alteration, but locally are moderately sericite-chlorite-epidote altered and
cut by pyritic “D” veins locally. Therefore, the late quartz diorite pluton and granodiorite dykes
are inferred to be early- to syn-mineral and syn- to late-mineral, respectively.
The age spectra for SKD01 276 m does not form a plateau for more than 50% of the total 39 Ar
released at the 95% confidence limit, despite the undisturbed nature of the age spectra (Figure
6.20, Table 6.9A). The lack of a plateau for the spectra of this sample reflects, in part, the high
precision of individual heating-step ages, which makes it difficult to achieve results that are
indistinguishable at the 95% confidence limit (hereafter, c.l.). The inverse isochron age
indicates 4.48 + 0.08 Ma. This age is significantly different at the 90% c.l. to the weighted
mean plateau age of 4.37 + 0.08 Ma determined for SKD01 468 m (Figure 6.21, Table 6.11).
However, both ages are nearly coeval (not significantly different at the 90% c.l.), with the U-Pb
SHRIMP zircon ages of the early- to late-mineral quartz diorite and granodiorite intrusions at
Katala, which indicate 4.43 + 0.14 Ma and 4.49 + 0.12 Ma, respectively (Figure 6.22, Tables
6.10 and 6.11). The 4.4 to 4.5 Ma age for causative intrusion and early biotite alteration at
Katala is consistent with the contact age-, alteration- and vein-relationships described above.
These age relationships suggest that the Katala porphyry system cooled rapidly below 300o C,
subsequent to emplacement of the causative intrusion(s). This is consistent with emplacement
of the quartz diorite-granodiorite at relatively high crustal-levels (e.g. 2 to 4 km) and rapid
cooling of an elongate and narrow pluton (~ 300 m wide) by convection-enhanced processes

related to fracture and quartz vein development in adjacent pre-mineral tonalite wall-rock.
6.2.6.5 Batu Hijau
Three samples of secondary biotite were analyzed from strongly biotite-oligoclase altered
phyric andesite (SBD91 444 m), equigranular quartz diorite (SBD10 279 m) and Intermediate
Tonalite (SBD04 157 m; Table 6.9A). The first two rock types are clearly pre-mineral, whereas
the Intermediate Tonalite is syn-mineral and intimately associated with copper-gold
mineralization at Batu Hijau (Table 6.10; Mitchell et al., 1998; Clode et al., 1999). The samples
contained varying proportions of bornite-digenite-bearing “A” class veinlets. Some of the
secondary biotite in these samples, particularly SBD91 444 m and SBD10 279 m, is partially
replaced along cleavage planes by green biotite (hydrobiotite) and minor chlorite. However, the
majority of these contaminant mineral phases were removed by hand-picking.
The apparent age spectra for the three samples yield weighted mean plateau ages of 3.74 + 0.12
Ma, 3.73 + 0.08 Ma and 3.72 + 0.06 Ma (Figures 6.20 and 6.21, Table 6.9A). These ages are
not significantly different from one another at the 90% c.l., nor are they significantly different
from the U-Pb SHRIMP zircon ages for the Old, Intermediate or Young Tonalites (Figure 6.22,
Table 6.11). In contrast, these three biotite ages are significantly different at the 99% c.l. to the
3.89+0.08 Ma zircon age for the pre-mineral porphyritic dacite in the eastern part of the
deposit. These combined age results suggest that the emplacement of the tonalite porphyry
intrusive complex and related early biotite alteration and copper-gold mineralization in the Batu
Hijau deposit probably occurred over a period of <100 k.y., or the precision (2σ) of the U-Pb
SHRIMP dating method.
6.3 Late Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization
6.3.1 Geometry and Scale of Late Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization
Late feldspar-destructive hydrothermal alteration, characterized by the replacement of

plagioclase by hydrothermal mica and/or clay minerals, cross-cuts and destroys the mineral
assemblages of all three early alteration styles. Late alteration zones are commonly structurally
controlled (Figure 6.23) and coincide with steeply dipping felsic intrusion margins and dykes,
zones of high fracture abundance, pyritic “D” veinlets, comb to massive quartz veins, and zones
of relatively high pyrite abundance (>1 vol. %). The widths of individual alteration zones
localized by quartz veins and fracture zones commonly range from 30 cm up to 5 m. However,
the coalescence of alteration zones has formed wide areas of partial feldspar-destruction, which
locally exceed 500 m in width. Several generations of feldspar-destructive alteration are
inferred, on the basis of the different ages determined for related, early biotite alteration in the
porphyry centers, and 40 Ar/39 Ar ages of sericite in late “D” veinlets and clay-mica altered fault
zones (Figure 6.1).
The distribution of these late alteration zones, visually estimated to have destroyed more than
20% of the plagioclase in outcrop, outlines a general easterly trend through the medial portion
of the area (Figures 6.3 and 6.24). A significant departure from this trend occurs in the Batu
Hijau area, where steeply dipping and northwesterly-striking feldspar-destructive alteration
zones coalesce to form wide zones that wrap around the steeply dipping margins of the tonalite
porphyry intrusion complex (cf. Figures 4.2 and 6.4). The surface distributions of the late
feldspar-destructive alteration zones that occur in the study area are summarized in Table 6.12.
Three major styles of feldspar-destructive alteration are recognized. These typically are zoned
from the proximal to distal portions of the porphyry centers, characterized by central advanced
argillic, proximal sericitic / paragonitic and distal intermediate argillic alteration types (Figures
6.3 and 6.4). The style and diagnostic mineral assemblages of these alteration types are
summarized in Table 6.13. Illitic alteration (<20% interlayered smectite) forms steeply dipping
structural zones in distal settings to the porphyry centers and occurs in the upper portions of the
Santong diatreme. Illitic alteration typically post-dates the previously described feldspar-
destructive alteration styles. The bulk of the diatreme is affected by the pervasive carbonate-
clay (illite-smectite)-chlorite alteration of the matrix to tuff breccia and lapilli-ash tuff. Very
late, structurally controlled zeolite-smectite alteration occurs in the southwestern part of the
area, in the vicinity of the Concentrator, and towards the west, along the primary access road to
the Batu Hijau project site. The latest stage of hydrothermal alteration in the Batu Hijau deposit
consists of open-space fillings of zeolite+calcite (Clode et al., 1999).
6.3.2 Pyritic “D” Veins, Late Quartz Veins and Pyrite Abundance
6.3.2.1 Distribution
Pyritic “D” veins
Pyritic (+quartz) veinlets and minor veins, commonly 1 to 5 mm, and rarely up to 2 cm, in
width, occur throughout the study area. However, the abundance of these veinlets and veins
increases with proximity to the porphyry centers, particularly Batu Hijau (Figure 6.11). These
veinlets and veins post-date the emplacement of “A”, “B” and “C” veins in these systems, and
are collectively classified as “D” veins or veinlets, using the terminology of Gustafson and
Hunt (1975). In the study area, “D” veins are typically associated with feldspar-destructive
alteration and a relatively high abundance of disseminated pyrite in affected wall-rock. The
distribution of zones of more than 1 vol. % disseminated pyrite display a similar distribution to
that indicated by feldspar-destructive alteration zones (>20% plagioclase replacement) (cf.
Figures 6.3 and 6.11; Table s 6.8 and 6.13). Regions of high pyrite abundance (typically 2 to 4%
and locally >5%), occur in proximal settings to the porphyry centers and within the Santong
diatreme. Pyrite abundance external to feldspar-destructive alteration zones comprises trace to
0.5% of the mineral assemblage, but does exceed 1% locally.
Table 6.12 Surface geometry of late feldspar-destructive hydrothermal alteration zones 1
Zone Sekongkang - East Nangka Santong Diatreme Batu Hijau - Air Merah Katala
West Nangka (includes Brang Belu)
Advanced Argillic overprints Se / Pa at depth minor and narrow, minor quartz-alunite Batu Hijau2 : 800m (N-S) x minor and narrow,
in Tatuk: ~300m (E-W) x structurally controlled boulders, not in situ 300m (E-W) – East Ridge structurally controlled
150m (N-S) zones: <2m wide zones: <1m wide
Brang Belu: WNW-
elongate, 300m x 100m
Sericitic / Paragonitic 3 zones define an E- sericite is associated with sericite is associated with Batu Hijau: NNW- to 2 small occurrences in
elongate belt: 2.7km x illitic alteration, but is not near-surface illitic NW-elongate zones define west and east Katala: up to
200-300m, centered on abundant alteration a NW belt, ~1.8km long; 200m (E-W) x 100m (N-
Tatuk individual zones <1.5km x S)
300m, distributed outboard
of advanced argillic zone;
occurs along Tongoloka-
Puna fault zone to SE
Brang Belu: surrounds
advanced argillic zone;
~300m (WNW) x 200m
Intermediate Argillic 3 zones define an E- E-elongate zone: ~1.5km x separates illitic alteration NW-elongate belt: ~4km E-elongate zone:
elongate belt: >3.5km x 100-200m at surface from calcite- long, which consists of 2.3km x 50-200m with
400m, centered on Tatuk clay-chlorite alteration at several zones, up to 1km local NW flexures
depth wide, outboard of sericitc /
paragonitic alteration
Illitic minor E-elongate zone, E-elongate zone: > 1km x nearly circular: ~1.2km structurally controlled not significant
south of West Nangka: 100m, merges with illitic diameter, local structural
NW-elongate zones to SW
>1km x ~100m alteration at Santong controls (e.g. NE Bambu- and SE of Batu Hijau: up
Santong fault zone) to 2km x 80m (e.g. Katala
fault zone)
Notes: 1) Greater than 20% destruction of plagioclase; 2) Does not include zone of sericitic / paragonitc alteration that is overprinted by advanced argillic alteration on west
Ridge.
The orientations of steeply dipping, pyritic “D” veinlets in the vicinity of the Batu Hijau deposit
indicate predominantly west-northwesterly to northwesterly strikes outside of the zone of
magnetite veinlets, and north-northeasterly to northeasterly trends within this zone (Figure
6.25). The orientations of these veinlets were measured in drill pad walls and stream exposures,
and compiled from Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company mapping of the uppermost benches
(above 500 m RL) in the developing open-pit. The common northwesterly strike of “D”
veinlets external to the magnetite zone parallels the local trend of zones of feldspar-destructive
alteration and >1 vol. % pyrite abundance. The orientations of “D” veinlets, within the
structural domains defined by the distribution and orientation of “A” and “B” quartz veins in
the deposit (Figure 5.10, Section 5.6.1.1), display a similar pattern to that shown by the early
quartz veins (cf. Figures 5.10 and 6.25). The “D” veinlets are predominantly northeasterly
trending and dip towards the center of the deposit. The coincidence of “D” veinlet orientations
with early quartz veins and veinlets in the Batu Hijau deposit illustrates the tendency of late-
stage mineralization to exploit and reactivate the fabric of early structural elements. A similar
style of vein and veinlet superimposition is documented at El Salvador (Gustafson and Hunt,
1975) and Yerington (Dilles and Einaudi, 1992).
Quartz veins
The distribution and orientation of pyrite-bearing, comb to massive quartz veins are
documented and discussed in Section 5.6.2 and illustrated in Figure 5.8. These veins are
typically associated with pyritic, feldspar-destructive alteration of adjacent wall-rock, and form
several northwesterly corridors that lie along the flanks of the Batu Hijau deposit (Figure 5.17).
The largest of these zones extends more than 8 km from the Tongoloka Valley through the
southwestern margin of Batu Hijau. The greatest abundance of quartz veins in this zone
exceeds 1 vol. %, as measured over a 200 m cross-strike interval in the Brang Belu area. The
emplacement of these quartz veins is inferred to have been coeval to the development of
adjacent feldspar-destructive wall-rock alteration and the deposition of pyritic “D” veinlets.
This relationship is based on similarities in distribution and orientation, and the mutually cross-
cutting contact relationships displayed by these three geological elements.
6.3.2.2 Texture and Mineralogy
Pyritic “D” veins
The “D” veinlets are typically regular and relatively planar, with local centerlines (Table 6.3).
Diagnostic minerals consist of pyrite+quartz+chalcopyrite and locally black tourmaline (Figure
6.26). At Batu Hijau, “D” veinlets also contain minor bornite, sphalerite and galena, locally
(Mitchell et al., 1998). Veinlet selvages consist of feldspar-destructive, clay-mica alteration
mineral assemblages (Table 6.3), and typically range from up to 5 to 10 times the width of the
veinlet. Hydrothermal alteration is locally zoned about the veinlets, indicating advanced argillic
or sericitic / paragonitic assemblages adjacent to the vein and chlorite-stable, intermediate
argillic alteration in the outer portions of the selvage. The primary rock texture is typically
destroyed in advanced argillic inner selvages and preserved in intermediate argillic outer
selvages. Similar styles of alteration zoning are described for the Main Stage veins at Butte,
Montana (Meyer et al., 1968) and the Summitville veins in Colorado (Stoffregen, 1987). Such a
zoning reflects, in part, the buffering of acidic fluids, which are channeled along fractures, by
neutral to basic wall-rocks, and may also indicate kinetic and dilution effects (Meyer and
Hemley, 1967; Reed, 1997).
Where pyritic “D” veinlets reopened digenite-bornite bearing, “A” class veins, such as at Batu
Hijau, digenite (Cu/S ~ 4) and bornite (Cu/S ~ 2.5) are sulfidized to form chalcopyrite (Cu/S ~
1) in the presence of clay-mica alteration minerals (Mitchell et al., 1998). At Katala and
Sekongkang-West Nangka, chalcopyrite and pyrite form along cracks in “A” and “B” veins that
have been reactivated by “D” veinlets (Figure 6.7).
Quartz veins
Late quartz veins display a range in texture (Figure 6.27). Proximal to the Batu Hijau deposit,
comb quartz veins contain white to light gray, prismatic, fine- to coarse-grained crystals which
project inward from sharp wall rock contacts into a medial cavity. Veins of massive white, fine-
to medium-grained, granular quartz are also common and locally contain internal bands and
pockets of comb quartz. Gradations between the two quartz textures are common. Minor
amounts of clay and white mica occur within the veins and include pyrophyllite, sericite, illite
and kaolinite. Cubic pyrite grains, to 2 mm, fill local vugs and medial cavities, and typically
comprise less than 1 vol. % of these quartz veins. Trace to minor amounts of sphalerite, galena
and chalcopyrite occur locally (combined base metal-sulfide total <0.5 vol. %).
Banded quartz veins and local quartz vein breccias are recorded in the vicinity of Brang Belu,
East Nangka and within the Santong diatreme (Figure 6.28). White to light gray, fine-grained,
prismatic and vitreous quartz forms bands defined by variations in grain-size and crystal habit.
Fine-grained prismatic quartz crystals project into vugs, which locally contain white mica and
clay. The vein breccias are characterized by subangular to angular fragments and internal
selvedges of silica-clay/mica-pyrite altered wall-rock. Bladed crystals of calcite, mangano-
calcite and ?barite occur locally in the veins. Leaching of these minerals has created negative
molds within the residual quartz. Very fine- to fine-grained pyrite constitutes 1 to 3 vol. % of
these quartz veins, as interstitial grains and vug-fillings. Sphalerite, galena, + tennantite and,
less commonly, chalcopyrite, occur in the marginal portions of quartz-pyrite vein breccia with
illite-minor sericite-pyrite altered selvages at East Nangka and in the Santong diatreme.
6.3.2.3 Fluid Inclusion Characteristics
A total of 12 samples were examined for the comb, massive, and less commonly, banded quartz
veins that occur within the annular region that lies from ~700 to 1500 m from the center of the
Batu Hijau deposit (SBD03 vicinity). Two major types of fluid inclusions are recorded: Type 1
liquid-rich, liquid-vapor (5 to 35% vapor) inclusions and Type II vapor-rich, liquid-vapor (60 to
90%) to vapor-only inclusions. Liquid-rich fluid inclusions are commonly distributed along
annealed fracture planes and in this setting are clearly secondary in origin. However, Type I-
and Type II-inclusions also contain populations of pseudosecondary and unknown origin.
The liquid-rich inclusions display equidimensional and branching forms, typically range from 5
to 20 µm in mean dimension (equant inclusions), and locally up to 60 µm in length (branching
inclusions). The vapor-rich inclusions are equidimensional to elongate and display perfect
negative crystal forms locally. These inclusions commonly range from 10 to 30 µm in mean
dimension. Daughter crystals occur within Type II fluid inclusions locally and consist of red
platelets of hematite and small cubic crystals (?halite), which create misshapen vapor bubbles.
The coexistence of liquid-rich and vapor-rich inclusions may indicate fluid immiscibility, if the
inclusions are coeval. However, this has yet to be established for the inclusions in these
peripheral quartz veins.
Liquid-rich Type III inclusions are recorded in some of the peripheral quartz vein samples, and
contain approximately 20 to 30% vapor and daughter crystals of halite and hematite. These
inclusions are typically equant and 20 to 60 µm in mean dimension.
6.3.3 Intermediate Argillic Alteration
In the study area, intermediate argillic alteration is defined by the replacement of plagioclase by
illite-smectite+sericite/paragonite and the replacement of hornblende by chlorite, illite-smectite,
rutile (or leucoxene)+sericite/paragonite, in the presence of quartz (Table 6.13). The
replacement of intermediate and calcic plagioclase by smectitic clay, typically montmorillonite,
in the presence of chlorite is characteristic of the intermediate argillic alteration assemblage, as
defined by Meyer and Hemley (1967). Intermediate argillic alteration affects all major rock
types in the district and commonly separates sericitic / paragonitic or illitic alteration, which
lack stable chlorite, from chloritic, propylitically altered wall-rock (cf. Figures 6.2 and 6.3).
The spatial relationships between intermediate argillic, sericitic/paragonitic and advanced
argillic alteration styles, and the salient characteristics of each alteration mineral assemblage,
are indicated in Figures 6.29 and 6.30.
Intermediate argillic alteration occurs as steeply dipping sinuous zones that extend through and
adjacent to the porphyry centers in the district (Table 6.12). These zones typically pass into
early alteration assemblages at depths that range from ~ 50 m at Air Merah to ~ 500 m along
the flanks of the Batu Hijau deposit, where intermediate argillic alteration coincides with the
outer margin of fractured rock containing 1-5 vol. % quartz veins (cf. Figures 5.9 and 6.4). This
style of alteration occurs in the core of the ore body, adjacent to the Young Tonalite, at depths
of up to 700 m (-250m RL, Figure 6.4). In the deposit, intermediate argillic alteration grades
into the transitional assemblage that characterizes wall-rock to chalcopyrite-bearing “B” and
“C” veins and veinlets, which is characterized by biotite-chlorite-sericite/paragonite-albite
(Clode et al., 1999). The abundance of sericite/paragonite increases in argillic -altered rocks
proximal to the sericitic / paragonitic alteration zones that occur adjacent to, or above, biotite-
altered porphyry centers. Intermediate argillic alteration overprints actinolite and propylitic
alteration assemblages locally and forms a transitional assemblage from carbonate-clay-chlorite
at depth to illite+sericite near-surface in the Santong diatreme.
Intermediate argillic alteration in the Batu Hijau district is inferred to have developed at
low water to rock ratios (Reed, 1997), neutral to slightly acidic fluid conditions and
temperatures up to ~230o C, as determined by the upper stability limit of interlayered illite-
smectite in active hydrothermal systems (Elders et al., 1981). For assemblages that include
chlorite-sericite/paragonite, temperatures probably exceeded 250oC, on the basis of the lower
stability limits of sericite and paragonite in geothermal systems (Reyes, 1985; Lawless and
White, 1992).
6.3.3.2 Petrology
Rocks affected by this alteration style are typically medium gray to greenish gray, where
unoxidized, and light gray to pinkish gray, where oxidized. The primary rock texture is
preserved. Primary mafic mineral sites, and locally secondary biotite, are replaced by chlorite-
illite-smectite (<30 mole % smectite)-rutile+ sericite/paragonite (Table 6.13). Plagioclase sites
(primary and secondary) are converted to illite-smectite+sericite/paragonite (Figure 6.31).
Disseminated and veinlet pyrite is common and typically comprises ~1 to 2% of the mineral
assemblage, and >2% locally, such as in fault/fracture zones and proximal to zones of
sericitic/paragonitic alteration. Intermediate argillic minerals also form selvages to pyritic “D”
veinlets and late quartz veins in rocks affected by early alteration styles, as discussed in Section
6.3.1 (Figure 6.26A). Specular hematite is a common replacement of magnetite in the presence
of pyrite and chalcopyrite at Batu Hijau (Figures 6.29 and 6.30). Elsewhere, pyrite replaces
magnetite and greatly reduces the magnetic susceptibility of the altered rock.
6.3.4 Sericitic / Paragonitic and Illitic Alteration
Sericitic/paragonitic and illitic alteration zones are defined by the predominance of quartz-
sericite/paragonite and quartz-illite, respectively (Table 6.13). The former type of alteration
overprints the central biotite zones in all porphyry centers, except Arung Ara, whereas the latter
alteration style characterizes structurally controlled zones distal to the porphyry centers and
occurs in the upper portions of the Santong diatreme (Figures 6.3 and 6.4, Table 6.12). Both
styles of alteration probably developed under slightly acidic fluid conditions and moderate
water to rock ratios (Meyer and Hemley, 1967; Reed, 1997). However, sericite and paragonite
are inferred to be stable at higher temperatures than illite, in the absence of crystalline white
mica (>250o C for the former vs. ~220 to 250o C for the latter, Browne, 1978; Reyes, 1985;
Lawless and White, 1992).
Table 6.13 Summary of late feldspar-destructive hydrothermal alteration and mineralization sequence
Magmatic or Early Advanced Argillic1 Sericitic / Paragonitic Intermediate Argillic Illitic

Alteration Minerals
Hornblende, Sekongkang: dickite, paragonite, sericite / paragonite, rutile, chlorite, sericite / paragonite, illite- illite (sericite), rutile / leucoxene
Secondary Biotite rutile, natro-alunite, andalusite tourmaline smectite, rutile
Brang Belu: pyrophyllite, rutile
Batu Hijau: pyrophyllite, sericte /

paragonite, dickite, andalusite,
diaspore, kaolinite, rutile,
tourmaline, corundum
fault zones: pyrophyllite,

diaspore, dickite, kaolinite, rutile,
zunyite
Plagioclase sericite / paragonite, illite sericite / paragonite, illite-smectite
Magnetite & pyrite + chalcopyrite+bornite pyrite + specular hematite pyrite + specular hematite pyrite
Ilmenite (Batu Hijau) +chalcopyrite, particulalrly at Batu +chalcopyrite, particularly at Batu
Hijau Hijau
pyritic “D” veins / veinlets pyritic “D” veins / veinlets pyritic “D” veins / veinlets pyrite veinlets
Veins / Veinlets quartz-pyrite veins quartz-pyrite veins quartz-pyrite veins
quartz-sphalerite-galena-
tennantite-chalcopyrite veins
Primary Rock Texture completely destroyed preserved to partially destroyed preserved preserved to destroyed, particularly
along fault zones
Notes: 1) The mineral associations do not represent equilibrium assemblages, but rather a superimposition of minerals formed at different temperatures (refer to text for
discussion). The clay/mica types are confirmed by X-ray diffraction. Quartz is ubiquitous. Bold font indicates high abundance; regular font indicates moderate abundance;
italics indicates minor abundance.
Sericitic/paragonitic alteration separates intermediate argillic from advanced argillic alteration

at Batu Hijau and in the vicinity of Air Merah−Brang Belu (Figures 6.3, 6.4, 6.29 and 6.30). It
occurs to depths of up to ~350 m beneath East Ridge at Batu Hijau and >330 m at Tatuk,
Sekongkang. At Batu Hijau, this zone is inferred to taper rapidly at depth, where it passes into
intermediate argillic alteration in the vicinity of a pre-mineral intra-intrusive contact (Figure
6.4). X-ray diffraction analyses of white mica-clay samples, collected along the mine access on
West Ridge, indicates an increase in the sericite/paragonite ratio towards a dickite-bearing
(advanced argillic) alteration assemblage (Figure 6.29). However, it is not clear to the author if
this trend is applicable elsewhere at Batu Hijau, or at other porphyry centers in the study area.
6.3.4.2 Petrology
Both sericitic/paragonitic and illitic styles of alteration bleach affected rocks to a light gray.
Primary rock textures are preserved to partially destroyed, and, in the case of fault-controlled
illitic alteration, completely destroyed. Hornblende and secondary biotite are commonly
replaced by sericite/paragonite (or illite) and rutile or leucoxene (Figure 6.31). Magmatic
plagioclase and secondary oligoclase-albite are converted to sericite/paragonite or illite. Quartz
and pyrite are ubiquitous, with approximately 1 to 4 vol. %, and locally as much as 5 to 8 vol.
% (e.g. East Ridge, Batu Hijau), disseminated and veinlet pyrite. Sericite/paragonite-quartz and
illite-quartz comprise selvages to pyritic “D” veinlets and late quartz-pyrite veins (Section
6.3.1). Specular hematite after magnetite is a common constituent to sericitic/paragonitic
alteration at Batu Hijau. Elsewhere, magnetite is completely repla ced by pyrite. The magnetic
susceptibilities of sericitic/paragonitic and illitic alteration assemblages are typically <100 x 10-5
SI units.
6.3.5 Advanced Argillic Alteration
Advanced argillic alteration in the Batu Hijau district occurs in the upper portions of the Batu
Hijau and Sekongkang porphyry systems, in a zone of late comb quartz-pyrite veins at Brang
Belu−Air Merah, and is localized as narrow zones along faults in numerous localities (Figures
6.3 and 6.4, Table 6.12). The diagnostic minerals for this type of alteration vary from one
location to another (Table 6.13). Pyrophyllite and quartz are common at Batu Hijau, Air
Merah−Brang Belu and in the fault-controlled zones, whereas dickite, quartz, minor natro-
alunite and relict paragonite occur at Tatuk in Sekongkang. Quartz is typically present in XRD
traces and occurs as a skeletal framework to leached rocks. Advanced argillic alteration affects
felsic intrusions and, to a lesser extent, andesitic rocks.
Advanced argillic alteration occurs to depths of more than 200 m beneath East Ridge at Batu
Hijau (pyrophyllite-andalusite) and persists to depths greater than 300 m at Tatuk in
Sekongkang (dickite). At Batu Hijau, a transitional assemblage between sericitic/paragonitic
and advanced argillic alteration styles, represented by the assemblage sericite-dickite-
quartz+pyrophyllite+andalusite, occurs along the West and East Ridges. However, it is unlikely
that these minerals formed in equilibrium: they probably reflect overprinting of early
sericite/paragonite+andalusite by a pyrophyllite-dickite assemblage, as discussed in Section
6.5. Pyrophyllite+diaspore+dickite and rare zunyite form discrete zones, typically <0.5 m wide,
within surrounding illitic and intermediate argillic altered wall-rock along fault zones, some of
which are located as far as 3 km from the nearest porphyry center. Coarse-grained and bladed
alunite-bearing, silicified hydrothermal breccias form exotic boulders, up to 3 m in mean
diameter, along the Santong Valley, in the vicinity of the diatreme breccia.
Clay-mica-bearing advanced argillic alteration typically develops under acidic fluid conditions
(pH<4) and high fluid to rock ratios (Meyer and Hemley, 1967; Reed, 1997). The varying
advanced argillic mineral assemblages in the Batu Hijau district suggest formation at different
temperatures, which can be estimated on the basis of the stability of aluminosilicates in active
geothermal systems and from experimental data. The presence of andalusite indicates
temperatures in excess of ~360o C (at 0.5 Kbar and PH2O =P total), whereas the formation of
pyrophyllite suggests a range of ~300o to 360o C, and kaolinite (or dickite) indicate <300o C
(based on Bowers et al., 1984 and the SUPCRT database). The stability limit of dickite in
active hydrothermal systems in New Zealand and the Philippines is ~150o to 270o C (Browne,
1978; Reyes, 1990a). The presence of minor zunyite along local faults indicates a temperature
range of ~240o to 280o C or slightly higher, inferred on the basis of the occurrence of this
mineral in the Philippine geothermal systems (Reyes, 1990a).
6.3.5.2 Petrology
Advanced argillic alteration is light gray in hand specimen and texture-destructive. The
porosity of strongly altered rocks locally exceeds 10 to 15 vol. %, with voids formed after
white mica/clay-altered crystals that have been leached from a quartz-rich skeletal matrix. The
vuggy silica, or residual silica (White and Hedenquist, 1995), alteration that typically
characterizes high-sulfidation epithermal systems is not present in outcrop in the study area; the
majority of the altered rocks contain a moderate mica-clay component (>20 vol. %).
Pre-existing mafic minerals and feldspar are completely replaced by the aluminosilicate and
white micaceous minerals indicated in Table 6.13. Pyrophyllite and/or andalusite replace
plagioclase phenocrysts in porphyritic dacite at Batu Hijau (Figure 6.32). Rosettes of black
tourmaline locally accompany pyrophyllite-diaspore-andalusite on the small easterly trending
ridge in the center of Batu Hijau. Rare bladed barite fills open-spaces in advanced argillic
alteration assemblages at Batu Hijau. Advanced argillic alteration assemblages are not common
within the selvages to comb and massive quartz-pyrite veins, with the exception of narrow
zones of pyrophyllite, typically < 1 cm wide, that overprint sericite/paragonite. However, the
zone of relatively abundant (1 to 5 vol. %) late quartz veins at the Air Merah−Brang Belu road
junction is characterized by abundant pyrophyllite (cf. Figures 5.8 and 6.3). The timing of the
development of the pyrophyllite with respect to the quartz veins at this locality is not clear. If
pyrophyllite formed slightly later than the veins, it could have completely replaced pre-existing
sericite+paragonite, which is a more typical bulk, wall-rock alteration assemblage for the
quartz-pyrite veins in the vicinity of Batu Hijau.
In general, the majority of the quartz associated with advanced argillic alteration is inferred to
be residual, due to intense base-cation leaching (Stoffregen, 1987). At high temperatures
(>360o C, 0.3 to 0.5 Kbar), where andalusite is stable, the retrograde solubility of quartz inhibits
quartz deposition and may cause silica to be leached from the wall-rock as the acid fluids cool
(Mitchell et al., 1998).
Pyrite typically comprises 2 to 4 vol. %, and locally as much as 8 to 10 vol. %, of the advanced
argillic mineral assemblage, distributed as disseminated grains and “D” veinlets. Magnetite is
completely destroyed (magnetic susceptibility of essentially zero). Clode et al. (1999)
document minor chalcopyrite and bornite in relict copper-sulfide or magnetite sites locally.
6.3.6 Carbonate-Clay-Chlorite Alteration
Carbonate-clay (illite-smectite, smectite and kaolinite)-chlorite alteration is abundant in the

Santong diatreme from near-surface to more than 250 m in depth, the limit of diamond drilling.
The alteration mineral assemblage occurs as a pervasive style within the matrix of tuff breccia
and lapilli-ash tuff and post-dates the epidote alteration of andesitic and felsic intrusive clasts.
However, minor epidote-quartz veinlets, <1 mm in width, cut the pervasively altered matrix
locally (e.g. SGD02 93 m). Carbonate+clay-chlorite alteration also affects porphyryitic
andesite to dacite dykes that cut the diatreme, as in SGD01 276 m. The abundance of carbonate
in this style of alteration commonly ranges from 5 to 15 vol. %. In the tuff breccia located in
the southern part of the diatreme (e.g. SGD02), sericite supplants the interlayered clays as the
diagnostic clay-mica mineral. In contrast, the accretionary lapilli-bearing ash tuff sequence to
the north (e.g. SGD01), lacks sericite and contains abundant interlayered illite-smectite.
The alteration mineral assemblage in the northern part of the diatreme is inferred to indicate
deposition at temperatures less than 230o C, as indicated by the upper stability limit of
interlayered illite-smectite in active geothermal systems (Elders et al., 1981). In contrast, the
sericite-bearing assemblage in the inferred throat of the diatereme to the south, which lacks
interlayered illite-smectite, is probably indicative of temperatures in excess of 250o C (Reyes,
1985; Lawless and White, 1992). The carbonate-rich mineral assemblage may have developed
in the upper, phreatic zone of a magmatic -hydrothermal system, where cool and low pH CO2 -
rich surficial- and ground-waters were drawn down into a chloride reservoir. This scenario is
largely inferred on the basis of the analyses of fluids and mineral assemblages in active
hydrothermal systems in New Zealand and the Philippines (Robinson et al., 1987; Reyes,
1990b; Corbett and Leach, 1998). The CO2 -rich waters are generated by the absorption of CO2
gas, which is exsolved from a boiling zone at depth (Corbett and Leach, 1998). In such a
system, the deposition of carbonate (and/or sulfate) minerals is favored by increasing
temperatures, as opposed to silicification, which occurs in response, in part, to cooling (Leach
et al., 1985).
The presence of chalcopyrite-bearing, porphyritic intrusive clasts in the diatreme supports the
link to a magmatic-hydrothermal system at depth, as does the recent Newmont Nusa Tenggara
company discovery of porphyry-style veins in quartz diorite that crops out along the southern
margin of the diatreme in the Santong Valley.
6.3.6.2 Petrology
Hand specimens of diatreme breccia and lapilli-ash tuff affected by this style of alteration are
typically medium- to grayish-green. Primary rock textures are preserved, despite extensive
replacement of plagioclase by carbonate+clay+sericite and the alteration of mafic minerals,
typically hornblende, to carbonate-chlorite-rutile (or titanite). Carbonate minerals and clay are
common constituents of the fine- to coarse-ash matrix to both tuff breccia and lapilli-ash tuff.
Fine-grained disseminated and minor veinlet pyrite comprises ~1 to 4 vol. % of the alteration
assemblage. The intensity of this style of alteration is typically moderate, defined by 30 to 80%
replacement of plagioclase by carbonate-clay.
The results of four quantitative X-ray diffraction analyses indicate two alteration assemblages,
the first for samples of tuff breccia from SGD02 in the throat of the diatreme and the second for
samples of accretionary lapilli-bearing ash tuff from SGD01 to the north (cf. Figures 1.3, 4.1
and 6.4; Table 6.14). Both assemblages contain abundant quartz, plagioclase (typically
magmatic andesine and secondary albite), 10 to 16 wt. % carbonates (calcite, ankerite and
huntite), ~4 to 5% chlorite, 4 to 6% kaolinite and 2 to 10% pyrite. The clay-mica minerals
indicate significant variation between the two assemblages. The samples from SGD02 contain
0.3 to 4% sericite, and lack interlayerd illite-montmorillonite, montmorillonite and tosudite
(interlayered chlorite-like / smectite-like clay). In contrast, the samples from SGD01 lack
sercite and contain 8 to 9% interlayered illite-montmorillonite, 5 to 6% montmorillonite and
3% tosudite.
6.3.7 Zeolite-Smectite Alteration
Zeolite-smectite+calcite alteration occurs along steeply dipping fractures in chlorite

(background) altered, phyric andesite in the vicinity of the Concentrator site and along the
margins of basaltic andesite dykes that cut the sub-chlorite grade, Plio-Pleistocene
volcaniclastic rock sequence exposed along the primary access road to the west (Figure 4.19).
In the latter occurrence, stilbite forms veins, typically <1 cm wide, which are enclosed within a
selvage of smectitic clay, typically less than 50 cm wide. Clode et al. (1999) report zeolite
(stilbite and laumonitite) and/or calcite as the last stage of alteration in the Batu Hijau deposit.
The zeolites, stilbite and laumontite indicate deposition from neutral pH fluids at temperatures
of less than ~150oC for stilbite (Browne, 1978; Kristmansdottir, 1979) and ~120o to
~220o C for laumontite (New Zealand, Steiner, 1977; Philippines, Reyes, 1990a). Smectite is
associated with stilbite and laumontite in geothermal systems and is stable in neutral chloride
waters up to ~150o C, and rarely, 200o C (Yellowstone, Keith et al., 1978; Iceland,
Kristmansdottir, 1979; Philippines, Reyes, 1990a).
Table 6.14 Summary of quantitative X - ray diffraction results for carbonate-clay-chlorite

altered rock samples from the Santong diatreme
Mineral Phase SGD01-109 m SGD01-146 m SGD02-93 m SGD02-154 m

(wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%)
Quartz 42.5 30.8 47.7 32.1
Sodic plagioclase 15.0 20.5 29.2 22.4
Ankerite 2.7 3.3 5.1
Calcite 6.5 9.7 2.6 7.1
Huntite 2.9 2.6 4.6 4.3
Mg-calcite 2.2
Clinochlore 4.2 3.6 4.0 5.5
Kaolinite 5.7 3.9 6.0 4.9
Illite-montmorillonite 9.0 8.0
Montmorillonite 5.0 6.0
Tosudite 3.0 3.0
Muscovite / Sericite 0.3 4.1
Sepiolite 4.0
Pyrite 4.8 5.8 2.0 9.6
Total 98.6 98.8 99.7 99.1
The above results were obtained from oriented, glycolated and heated (110o and 500o C) clay specimens
scanned at 0.5o per minute for a 2θ range from 2o to 70o . Analysis was undertaken using a Philips
PW1700 automatic diffractometer at the X-ray Analytical & Research Laboratory at the University of
Western Australia. The positions and intensities of the diffraction lines were calculated using an on-line
computer and a database that contains 32,000 mineral reference patterns. The quantitative XRD analysis
involved a combination of the internal standard method and the Rietveld method, which involves the
fitting of the full calculated XRD profile from the crystal structure information of the minerals identified
in the sample to the measured XRD pattern.
Select mineral formulae:

Huntite – Mg 3 Ca(CO3 )4 , Sepiolite – (Mg,Fe)4 Si6 O15 (OH)2* nH2 O,
Mg-Tosudite – Al2 (Mg2 Al)Si3 Al10 (OH)8 /(Na, Ca)0.33Al2 (Si,Al)4 O10 (OH)2* nH2 O
6.3.7.2 Petrology
This style of alteration is typically fracture-controlled and localized within vugs in the affected
rock. In the coastal occurrences, smectitic selvages to stilbite veins weather an orange-brown.
Smectite fills vugs in adjacent basaltic andesite dykes. At Batu Hijau, stilbite and laumontite,
and/or calcite, occur as open-space fillings, commonly within pre-existing quartz vein
centerlines, and in small vugs in the wall-rock (Mitchell et al., 1998).
6.3.8 Timing of Late Hydrothermal Events
In general, late hydrothermal alteration is inferred to have occurred shortly after the
development of early hydrothermal alteration in each porphyry center, as indicated by the
schematic time-space diagram for the zoning of alteration in the vicinity Batu Hijau (Figure
6.5). A minimum of four episodes of late hydrothermal alteration are inferred, which
correspond to early biotite alteration in each of the four porphyry centers (5.5 to 3.7 Ma, Figure
6.1). The distribution of alteration styles in the Santong diatreme with respect to those external
to this structure, and the <3.7 Ma age inferred for the emplacement of this volcanic structure,
suggest that the contained alteration styles post-date the development of the intermediate
argillic alteration external to the diatreme. Hence, the emplacement and nearly coeval
hydrothermal alteration of the diatreme are inferred to represent one of the latest feldspar-
destructive alteration events in the district.
Radiometric 40 Ar/39 Ar ages were determined for three samples of sericite collected from the
study area (Figures 6.20 and 6.33, Tables 6.9 and 6.10). Two of these samples are from sericite-
quartz altered faults along the Tongoloka-Puna fault corridor and the third is from quartz-
sericite-pyrite “D” vein in the upper portions of the Batu Hijau deposit (Figure 6.3). The
sericite in all three samples is characterized by a sharp, basal peak at 8.8o (2θ) with a half-
height peak width of ~0.3o (2θ), following preparation as an oriented clay-mica separate and
air-dried (refer to Section 1.3.1.3 for details of methodology and Appendix 6 for the XRD peak
chart).
Apparent age spectra for the sericite samples analyzed by resistance furnace step-heating
experiments are shown in Figures 6.20, 6.21 and 6.33, and summarized in Table 6.9. Two of
the three samples indicate apparently undisturbed age spectra, characterized by plateaus that
have concordant isochron ages and trapped argon phases very close to that of atmospheric
argon (40 Ar/36 Ar=295.5). There is no evidence of excess argon and none of the samples yielded
age spectra indicative of partial argon loss, as discussed for the biotite samples.
6.3.8.1 Tongoloka-Puna Fault Zone
Samples of sericite were collected from two exposures of a fault that lies within the Tongoloka-
Puna fault zone, in the southeastern part of the area (Figure 6.3). The fault cuts andesitic
volcaniclastic rocks and equigranular quartz diorite (Figure 4.1). At the first locality, sericite-
quartz-pyrite (~ 3 to 4 vol. %) alteration forms a zone ~ 3 m wide that is centered on a 1 m
wide fault zone. This zone contains breccia fragments of mica-clay altered wall-rock, quartz
vein clasts, and a through-going quartz-sphalerite-galena-chalcopyrite+pyrite vein, commonly
10 to 15 cm, and locally up to 50 cm, wide. The sericite sample (98100401) was collected from
the center of the zone, adjacent to the late quartz vein. The second sericite sample (98111802)
was collected ~ 700 m along strike to the southeast, from a 50 cm wide fault gouge-breccia
zone that occurs internal to quartz diorite, about 5 m from its intrusive contact with andesitic
volcaniclastic rock. The fault zone contains dark gray sericite-quartz-pyrite alteration, which is
surrounded by chlorite-illite altered wall-rock. Approximately 100 mg of sericite (+minor
contaminant quartz) was separated from each sample by standard, heavy-liquid separation
methods, following hand disaggregation, and sieving the separate to a size-fraction that ranged
from 75 to 106 µm.
The 40 Ar/39 Ar ages of the sericites, as determined by the US Geological Survey 40 Ar/39 Ar
laboratory in Denver, Colorado, indicate 5.92 + 0.06 Ma and 7.05 + 0.11 Ma, for samples
98100401 and 98111802, respectively (2σ precision; Figures 6.21 and 6.33, Table 6.9B). The
younger result represents an inverse isochron age, as the apparent age spectra did not yield a
plateau of three or more contiguous heating steps for a minimum of 50% of the 39 Ar released, at
the 95% c.l.. The older age represents a weighted mean plateau age, determined on the basis of
three heating steps for 70% of the 39 Ar released. The results of the individual heating steps are
included in Appendix 9.
These two sericite ages, ~7.1 and 5.9 Ma, are older than the ages obtained for samples of early
biotite alteration (5.5 to 3.7 Ma) in the porphyry centers, located more than 3 km towards the
north. The older sericite age is not statistically different at the 90% c.l. from the U-Pb SHRIMP
zircon age for dacitic volcaniclastic rock at Teluk Puna, 2 km towards the south (cf. 7.05 + 0.11
Ma to 6.84 + 0.16 Ma; Figure 6.1, Table 6.11). The younger sericite age indicates a similar
relationship to the U-Pb SHRIMP zircon age from the syn-mineral granodiorite dyke at
Sekongkang, approximately 10 km towards the northwest (cf. 5.92 + 0.06 Ma to 5.88 + 0.14
Ma). These relationships are not attributed to serendipity, and are inferred to indicate a direct
relationship between magmatic activity and fault-controlled sericitic alteration in the fault
zones sampled.
The fact that the sericite ages are separated by ~1.2 m.y., together with the field evidence for
multiple generations of quartz veins and related sericitic wall-rock alteration within the fault
zones, suggest that the Tongoloka-Puna fault zone acted as a conduit for hydrothermal
alteration throughout time. This is supported by the distribution of late quartz veins, pyritic “D”
veinlets and feldspar-destructive wall-rock alteration that clearly overprints early biotite
alteration at Batu Hijau, which is constrained to be 3.7 Ma. The interpretation of polyepisodic
movements along the faults in the Tongoloka-Puna fault zone and other northwesterly trending
fault zones in the Tongoloka-Batu Hijau fault corridor is consistent with the structural model
proposed in Section 5.8 (Figures 5.17 and 5.19). In this model, periods of arc-normal directed
relaxation coincide with the emplacement of steeply dipping, northwesterly striking quartz
veins and related feldspar-destructive wall-rock alteration.
6.3.8.2 Batu Hijau Area
Approximately 10 mg of sericite was separated from a 1 cm wide quartz-sericite-pyrite “D”

vein that cuts intermediate argillic -altered porphyritic dacite in the upper part of the Batu Hijau
deposit (SBD15 36 m). The vein is surrounded by a selvage of sericite/paragonite alteration that
grades into a chlorite-bearing, white mica-clay-pyrite wall-rock assemblage. In the quartz vein,
sericite occurs with pyrite as open-space fillings along the vein centerline and forms colorless,
prismatic platelets up to 1 mm in mean diameter. The sericite was separated by using heavy
liquids, subsequent to the crushing of the vein by hand with a steel mortar and pestle. Hand-
picking of the final separate was performed in the same manner as described for biotite, on
sericite grains sieved to a size-fraction of 250 to 425 µm.
40
The apparent Ar/39 Ar age spectra for the sericite indicates a weighted mean plateau age of
3.65 + 0.02 Ma (2σ) (Figure 6.20, Table 6.9A). This age is consistent with contact age-
relationships recorded in outcrop and drill core, and the age results determined by the U-Pb
SHRIMP zircon and 40 Ar/39 Ar biotite techniques (Sections 4.6.7 and 6.2.3, Figure 6.21). The
sericite age is significantly younger (>99% c.l.) than the zircon age measured from the
porphyritic dacite that hosts the quartz-sericite-pyrite vein, which is 3.89 + 0.08 Ma (SBD12
329 m; Tables 6.10 and 6.11). The sericite age is also significantly younger than the secondary
biotite ages for two of the three biotite samples analyzed (90 to 99% c.l.; SBD04 157 m and
SBD10 279 m) and not significantly different in age with respect to the third biotite sample
(86% c.l., SBD91 444 m; Table 6.11). These relationships suggest that the age difference
between the early biotite event and late sericite event at Batu Hijau is essentially the same as
the 2σ precision of the 40 Ar/39 Ar dating method for the mineral separates analyzed, ~ 80 + 80
k.y.. The difference in age between early biotite alteration and late quartz-sericite-pyrite “D”
vein emplacement approximates the duration of the Batu Hijau hydrothermal system, which is
further discussed in Section 6.7.
6.4 Metasomatic Changes
6.4.1 Approach and Rationale
The primary purpose of this section is to determine qualitatively what elements were added and
depleted during early- and late-hydrothermal alteration, with respect to common least-altered
rock types in the study area, and compare the chemical differences from one zone of
hydrothermal alteration to another. The term least-altered, as used in this chapter, applies to
rocks that display weak epidote-chlorite alteration (<10% replacement of plagioclase by
epidote) and background chlorite alteration.
In order to compare the effects of the varying alteration styles on bulk-rock chemical
composition, a suite (or suites) of least-altered rocks must be identified that exhibit a clear
fractionation trend, which can be compared to altered equivalents. This fractionation trend
serves as a reference line for the addition and depletion of chemical elements. The andesitic
volcaniclastic rocks and equigranular quartz diorite intrusions in the district satisfy these
criteria. There are six representative least-altered samples of each rock type selected for this
purpose from the 16 rock samples used as a basis for comparison of chemical composition in
Chapter 4. This selection reflects the exclusion of one sample of volcanic lithic breccia
(98100402), which is particularly anomalous in bulk chemical composition, and the assignation
of moderate epidote alteration (>20% plagioclase replacement by epidote) to three of the
samples termed “least-altered” in Chapter 4. The number of altered samples analyzed is small
(N=22) and biased towards the Batu Hijau area (N=14), making the conclusions of this analysis
only qualitative. The biotite-altered quartz diorite samples from Batu Hijau lack a least-altered
equivalent from the immediate area, due to the intensity of alteration in the deposit. Therefore,
these strongly altered samples are compared to least-altered quartz diorite samples collected
external to the Batu Hijau deposit. No samples of proximal actinolite alteration were analyzed,
and hence this alteration style is not represented.
The whole -rock samples, which form the basis of this chemical comparison, typically lack
mineral veins and veinlets, as the aim of this study is to contrast the compositions of pervasive,
bulk-rock alteration styles, as opposed to the chemical elements introduced by vein
mineralization. In fact, these veins and veinlets were commonly removed from the sample
analyzed by means of a wet-diamond saw. However, three of the biotite-altered rock samples
contain up to 0.5 to 1 vol. % quartz veinlets. No attempt has been made to normalize the SiO2
contents to a veinlet-free total, for these samples. All samples are normalized to an anhydrous,
LOI-free, major-oxide elemental total, which is consistent with the methodology used to
contrast the chemical compositions of least-altered rock types in Chapter 4.
A series of plots are utilized to compare the major- and trace-element concentrations of the
early- and late-hydrothermal alteration styles and least-altered equivalents of andesitic
volcaniclastic rock and equigranular quartz diorite. These include:
1) modified ternary plots, which relate changes in bulk-rock, major-oxide element (wt. %)
compositions to the compositions of common hydrothermal alteration minerals in porphyry
systems (cf. Beane, 1982).
2) bivariate plots of major- and trace-element concentrations versus an immobile and

incompatible element (Zr), to provide a visual comparison of relative elemental addition
and depletion by alteration style with respect to a fractionation trend determined for each
element from least-altered rock samples (cf. Grant, 1986; Barrett and MacLean,1994).
3) bivariate plots with Sr as the abscissa, as Sr reflects the abundance of Ca in plagioclase,

due to its similar atomic radius and like charge.
4) variation diagrams that quantify the relative addition and depletion of major- and trace-
elements in early- and late-alteration types with respect to mean concentrations in least-
altered rock types. These estimates of additions and depletions should be viewed as
qualitative, given the small number of data, the fact that the strongly biotite-altered quartz
diorite samples from Batu Hijau lack a direct least-altered equivalent, and because changes
in volume have not been quantified. Due to the former two reasons, mass-balance calculations
(e.g. Gresens, 1967; Grant, 1986) have not been undertaken.
5) bivariate and histogram plots that indicate the relationship of alteration indices to the
fractionation trends determined for least-altered rock types, and compare one alteration
index to another. The alteration indices include those proposed for alteration haloes in
volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits, such as Fe 2 O3 /(Fe 2 O3 +MgO) (Hashiguchi
and Usui, 1975) and Al2 O3 /Na2 O (Spitz and Darling, 1978). However, the application of
these indices to porphyry-style alteration systems may not differentiate the same alteration
mineral relationships as determined for VMS deposits. A third index,
(Na2 O+K 2 O)/(CaO+Na2 O+K 2 O), is developed by the author to quantify the amount of
(Na+K) metasomatism and Ca-depletion in the rock samples analyzed.
6.4.2 Early Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization
6.4.2.1 Major-Elements
The least-altered rocks contain similar alkali-element, Ca and Al concentrations to those of

labradorite (An70-60, andesitic volcaniclastic rocks) and andesine (An50-40, equigranular quartz
diorite; Figure 6.34). These similarities between bulk-rock and plagioclase compositions are
consistent with microprobe analyses for plagioclase in each rock type (cf. Figures 4.21 and
6.34). This is to be expected, given the large abundance of plagioclase in both rock types. There
is little consistent change in major-oxide element concentrations between those samples that
display moderate epidote alteration (N=3) and the least-altered samples, with the exception of
the net depletion of K2O and addition of MgO in both rock types (Figures 6.34 to 6.36). This
probably reflects, in part, the replacement of K-bearing hornblende by magnesian chlorite, and
the replacement of minor interstitial K-feldspar by secondary albite and/or smectitic clay. The
bivariate and histogram plots of the alteration indices defined in Section 6.4.1 show that little
change in major-oxide element abundance has occurred with respect to the least-altered
population (Figures 6.37 to 6.39), with the exception of the alkali index for quartz diorite. In
this case, Na2O and K2O are depleted and CaO is added.
In contrast, biotite-altered rocks indicate significant changes in bulk-composition with respect

to the least-altered rocks. This is best expressed by the six samples of quartz diorite, which
indicate the addition of SiO2, Fe2O3, Na2O, K2O and depletion of CaO, and, to a lesser extent,
MgO (Figures 6.34 to 6.36). The addition of silica reflects, in part, the increase in the
abundance of secondary oligoclase with increasing intensity of biotite alteration, as oligoclase
contains more silica than labradorite or andesine. The presence of <1 vol. % quartz veinlets in
the biotite-altered samples also contributes to this increase in SiO2. The addition of Fe reflects
the increased abundance of hydrothermal magnetite and the presence of copper-iron sulfide
minerals in biotite alteration. The bulk alkali-calcium-aluminum compositions of these altered
rocks display a trend towards albitic plagioclase, as indicated by the coincidence of the three
most-strongly altered samples with plagioclase composed of An20-10 in the ternary diagram of
Figure 6.34. This is consistent with the high abundance of secondary oligoclase in strongly
biotite-altered rock types at Batu Hijau. In addition, there is a minor addition of K2O in these
samples, which moves the bulk composition towards that of biotite.
The alteration index plots for biotite-altered quartz diorite display the effects of sodium-
(potassium)-metasomatism, and the minor increase in Fe2O3/(Fe2O3+MgO) with respect to
least-altered quartz diorite in some samples (Figures 6.37 and 6.39). This latter relationship is
consistent with the introduction of hydrothermal magnetite and copper-iron sulfide minerals,
particularly for the strongly altered samples from Batu Hijau.
Aluminum and titanium are relatively immobile. The trend towards the origin of the Ti vs. Zr
plot in Figure 6.35 reflects strongly biotite- and intermediate argillic-altered quartz diorite from
the Batu Hijau deposit. The increasing intensity of argillic alteration corresponds to increased
concentrations of Ti and Zr. This does not coincide with the fractionation trend for the
least-altered quartz diorite samples external to the Batu Hijau deposit, which may indicate a
different bulk composition for the protolith to quartz diorite at Batu Hijau or less likely, the
greater intensity of metasomatism in the Batu Hijau hydrothermal system. A Ti- and Zr-
deficient quartz diorite protolith would be consistent with the limited abundance of these two
elements in the least-altered samples of Young and Intermediate Tonalite porphyry analyzed
from the deposit (cf. Figures 4.31, 4.33 and 6.35).
No chemical data were collected for actinolite-altered rock types, or for rocks cut by actinolite
or epidote veinlets. However, the presence of actinolite and epidote veinlets suggests the
addition of Ca (+Mg), or alternatively, a decrease in the chemical activity of the alkali-elements
outwards from the central biotite zone, in the presence of calcic plagioclase-rich rock types.
The presence of actinolite reflects the increased activity of Mg with respect to epidote-rich
rocks. However, this is probably balanced by the presence of magnesian chlorite in wall-rock
cut by epidote veinlets.
Least-altered rocks typically contain relatively high Sr concentrations and variable amounts of
Rb (Figure 6.40). This reflects, in part, the preference of Sr to substitute for Ca in Ca-rich
minerals (e.g. calcic plagioclase) and the substitution of Rb for K in K-bearing minerals (e.g.
hornblende, and in quartz diorite, minor interstitial K-feldspar). Rocks affected by moderate
epidote alteration contain relatively high Sr (CaO) and low Rb (K2 O), which reflects the
stability of calcic plagioclase and replacement of K-bearing magmatic minerals by K-poor
phases, such as chlorite, albite and smectitic clay. In biotite-altered rocks, Rb concentrations are
slightly higher and Sr abundance slightly lower, than in the least-altered equivalents (Figure
6.40). This is consistent with sodium-(potassium)-metasomatism, which causes the replacement
of Sr-rich, magmatic plagioclase by secondary oligoclase and the fixing of Rb (K2 O) in biotite.
The trace-elements, Au, Cu, Mo, Zn, As and Se, also display systematic changes as a function
of alteration style. These elements are not significantly added nor depleted in the samples that
display moderate epidote alteration with respect to mean concentrations in least-altered
samples, but show major changes in those samples that are biotite-altered (Figures 6.41 and
6.42). In the biotite-altered samples, Au, Cu and minor Mo are added, which reflects the
presence of digenite, bornite, chalcopyrite and rare molybdenite that occur in minor veinlets,
along fractures and as aggregates (clots) in mafic mineral and magnetite sites, particularly in
the Batu Hijau deposit. The addition of Se to biotite-altered quartz diorite is consistent with the
occurrence of a galena-clausthalite (PbS-PbSe) solid solution phase and native selenium, which
form inclusions less than 2 µm in mean dimension, in digenite and bornite from early “A” class
veinlets at Batu Hijau (Mitchell et al., 1998). Zinc is weakly enriched, whereas As is depleted
with respect to the mean concentrations in least-altered rock types.
6.4.3 Late Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization
6.4.3.1 Major-Elements
In general, major-oxide elements indicate a progressive depletion in rocks affected by

intermediate argillic through sericitic/paragonitic to advanced argillic alteration types in the
study area. This trend of depletion is consistent with the increased amount of base-cation
leaching that characterizes texture destructive advanced argillic and locally sericitic/paragonitic
alteration styles. The exceptions to this trend of depletion include Al 2 O3 , SiO2 + Ti, which
typically increase in concentration from intermediate argillic through sericitic/paragonitic to
advanced argillic. This reflects, in part, the relative immobility of Al and Ti, and residual silica,
in rocks affected by feldspar-destructive alteration styles. These trends are apparent for the
district as a whole (Figures 6.34 to 6.36) and for rocks collected on the West and East Ridges at
Batu Hijau (Figure 6.43).
The progressive depletion of CaO, Na2 O and K2 O is indicated in the ternary diagram in Figure
6.34, which shows a change from the potassium-sodium metasomatic trend exhibited for biotite
alteration, which shifts the bulk composition towards albite-biotite, to a trend that approaches
the alumina-rich minerals, andalusite, pyrophyllite and kaolinite (dickite). The three samples of
intermediate argillic -altered quartz diorite from Batu Hijau overprint strong biotite-oligoclase
alteration near the center of the deposit, and hence contain greater concentrations of alkali-
elements than do intermediate argillic -altered volcaniclastic rocks elsewhere, which lack the
intense precursor biotite-oligoclase assemblage. Rocks affected by intermediate argillic
alteration indicate bulk compositions that plot proximal to those of sericite/paragonite,
Na-montmorillonite and Mg-chlorite, whereas rocks affected by sericitic/paragonitic
and advanced argillic alteration lie close to andalusite, pyrophyllite and kaolinite
(dickite).
The alteration index plots illustrate the increase in the alkali-elements, particularly K, with
respect to Ca for all three types of feldspar-destructive alteration, despite the overall depletion
of CaO, Na2 O and K2 O in the samples analyzed (Figures 6.38A and 6.39A). This relationship
suggests that the depletion of Ca, which reflects the destruction of magmatic (calcic)
plagioclase, occured at a greater rate than the depletion of K2 O, which is fixed in sericite and
paragonite that form the stable assemblage in sericitic/paragonitic alteration and persist as relict
species in advanced argillic alteration. In addition, Na2O is not as depleted as CaO in
rocks affected by intermediate argillic alteration, due to the variable destruction of secondary
oligoclase in the samples analyzed. The increase in Al2 O3 /Na2 O for feldspar-destructive
alteration with respect to this ratio in least-altered rock types and early alteration styles is
largely due to depletion of Na2 O and the relative immobility of Al2 O3 (Figures 6.38B and
6.39B). The increase in the Fe2O3/(Fe2O3+MgO) from intermediate argillic to sericitic/paragonitic and
advanced argillic alteration types (Figures 6.38C and 6.39C) reflects, in part, the complete
leaching of Mg from destroyed mafic minerals and the fixing of Fe in pyrite, which may
account for up to 10% of the rock volume in advanced argillic alteration. The comparison of the
alkali index to the alumina index, in Figure 6.37D, illustrates the progressive trend from Na-
montmorillonite, paragonite and relict oligoclase-albite through sericite-paragonite to

andalusite, pyrophyllite and kaolinite/dickite with increasing intensity of base-cation leaching
and associated destruction of primary rock texture.
Strontium is depleted in rocks affected by feldspar-destructive alteration (e.g. <200 ppm Sr),
with the exception of those advanced argillic -altered rocks that contain rare barite (up to 1000
ppm Ba), which contain nearly 500 ppm Sr (Figure 6.40). Sericite/paragonite-altered rocks
indicate a greater depletion of Sr than do intermediate argillic -altered rocks, consistent with the
complete destruction of plagioclase in the former alteration style.
There is a general trend of depletion for Cu and Au from intermediate argillic through
sericitic/paragonitic to advanced argillic alteration styles at Batu Hijau, and in the district as a
whole (Figures 6.41, 6.42 and 6.44). This relationship reflects the sulfidation of early-formed,
gold-bearing chalcocite, digenite and bornite to transitional chalcopyrite (intermediate argillic )
and late pyrite-dominant (sericitic/paragonitic and advanced argillic) assemblages. In general,
the concentrations of Cu and Au in intermediate argillic -altered rocks are less than those in
biotite-altered rocks, with the exception of Cu in quartz diorite from Batu Hijau, which is
probably a function of the limited amount of sample data (N=3). This is supported by the fact
that ~80% of the Cu in the deposit occurs in early copper-sulfide minerals in “A” and “Af”
quartz veinlets contained in biotite-altered host rock (Mitchell et al., 1998).
There is no systematic change in the abundance of Mo, but Mo concentrations are slightly
elevated with respect to the least-altered samples. The abundance of Zn is generally low, with
most of the samples containing le ss Zn than in biotite-altered and least-altered rock types.
Arsenic concentrations are also low, with the exception of sericite/paragonite-altered quartz
diorite and sericite-dickite-quartz-altered volcaniclastic rock, which are relatively enriched.
Selenium is enriched in all but one of the samples of feldspar-destructive alteration, but the
mineral phase in which the Se occurs is not known.
Late “D” veins, quartz veins and clay-mica-altered faults peripheral to Batu Hijau, ~ 0.7 to 2
km from the deposit center, contain anomalous concentrations of Cu, Au, Ag, Mo, Pb, Zn, As
and Sb (Table 6.15), which greatly exceed their abundance in the adjacent pervasively altered
wall-rock, as further discussed in Section 6.6.
6.4.4 Santong Diatreme
The least-altered samples from the Santong diatreme are moderately carbonate-clay-chlorite
altered, with ~ 10 to 50% of the plagioclase replaced. The chemical compositions of these
samples (N=3) are compared to those affected by moderate- to strong-intermediate argillic
alteration (N=2; ~ 30 to > 80% plagioclase replacement), which occurs near-surface or
proximal to structurally controlled zones of illitic (sericitic) and minor advanced argillic
alteration. The samples of intermediate argillic alteration display a depletion in CaO and Na2 O,
which corresponds to plagioclase-destruction, and enrichment in K2 O (sericite/illite) and Fe 2 03

(pyrite), as indicated in Figure 6.45. The depletion of Na2 O with respect to Al2 O3 is clearly
indicated by the alteration index plot of Figure 6.46. The apparent increase in SiO 2 in rocks
affected by intermediate argillic alteration probably reflects the greater abundance of carbonate
(up to 15 vol. %) and relatively reduced amount of silicates in carbonate-clay-chlorite-altered
diatreme material. Aluminum and Ti are relatively constant and inferred to be immobile.
Carbon (calcite) was depleted and sulfur (pyrite) was added during strong intermediate argillic
alteration (Figure 6.46). The concentrations of Au, Zn and As are enriched in intermediate
argillic-altered rocks, with respect to those affected by carbonate-clay-chlorite alteration, for
the limited number of samples analyzed. The differences for Cu and Mo are not systematic.
Within and adjacent to the Santong diatreme, sphalerite-galena-tennantite-chalcopyrite-bearing
quartz-manganocalcite-pyrite veins, which are characterized by selvages of illitic and
intermediate argillic alteration, contain highly anomalous Cu, Au, Ag, Pb, Zn and As (e.g.
Figure 6.28). The grades of these veins far exceed that of the adjacent wall-rock. The
relationship of these veins to late-stage mineralization elsewhere in the study area is discussed
in Section 6.6.
6.5 Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization of Peripheral Quartz Vein Systems
Puna, 4 to 9 km south-southeast of Batu Hijau, display characteristics different to those of the
early “A” and “B” veins and late comb to massive quartz veins (Chapter 5). The styles of
hydrothermal alteration and mineralization are also different in these areas, with respect to
those exposed in settings closer to the porphyry centers. The main purpose of this section is to
document the characteristics of these quartz vein systems, to place these in the context of the
district as a whole (Section 6.7).
6.5.1 Bambu Area
The Bambu vein system consists of two major north-northeasterly- to northeasterly-trending

zones of quartz veins, each about 1 to 7m wide, which are spaced about 300 m apart and extend
from 1 to 2 km (Chapter 5, Figure 5.8). The quartz veins are typically 10 to 50 cm, and locally
up to 1.2 m, wide.
6.5.1.1 Hydrothermal Alteration
The majority of the phyric andesite and andesitic volcanic sandstones near the vein system
display background chlorite-calcite alteration (moderate replacement of hornblende by chlorite
and plagioclase by calcite). Minor epidote replacement of plagioclase occurs in the northeastern
part of the area, in the vicinity of the andesite intrusive contact (Figures 4.1, 5.12 and 6.2).
These rocks commonly contain 1 to 2 vol. % fine-grained, primary magnetite (magnetic
susceptibility of ~1200 to 4000 x 10-5 SI units). Pyrite is typically absent from this assemblage.
Chlorite replacement of hornblende increases, proximal to both zones of quartz veins and the
abundance of magnetite diminishes to trace abundance or is absent (magnetic susceptibility of

<50 x 10-5 SI units). This zone of chloritization and magnetite-destruction ranges from about 50
to 150 m wide for each zone of quartz veins, except in the northernmost exposure of the
western vein zone, where magnetite is stable up to within 25 cm of a 1.2 m wide quartz vein.
Quartz vein selvages are typically <1 cm wide and consist of chlorite+minor sericite. Fine-
grained disseminated pyrite (1 to 3 vol. %) occurs rarely as 1 to 10 cm haloes to quartz veins in
the northern part of the western vein zone. No feldspar-destructive hydrothermal wall-rock
alteration is associated with the quartz veins. The co-existence of chlorite and sericite, in the
absence of significant clay minerals, implies near-neutral fluid conditions and temperatures in
excess of ~250o C (Reyes, 1985; Lawless and White, 1992).
6.5.1.2 Quartz Vein Texture, Mineralogy and Metal Contents
The veins contain prismatic quartz, with cockade, banded and sheeted textures locally (Figure
6.47). The quartz is medium- to coarse-grained, transparent to white and locally amethystine.
Open-spaces are common in the interior portions of the veins and are typically lined by
prismatic quartz crystals. Breccia fragments of chloritized wall-rock are angular and locally
derived. There are rare quartz molds after bladed barite.
The sulfide mineral assemblage contains chalcopyrite (trace to 4 vol. %), clove-green to brown
sphalerite (<0.5 vol. %), minor galena and trace pyrite. Chalcopyrite is most common in the
northern part of the area, where the eastern vein zone intersects the margin of the andesite
intrusion. In this area, previous Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company selective sampling of vein
exposures return 0.3 to 2 % Cu and Au values up to 4.9 ppm. However, only five samples of
about 70 exceed 1 ppm Au. Zinc concentrations are less than 0.5%. In the northern area, the
maximum assay value for Ag is 21 ppm and the Ag/Au ranges from about 5:1 to 10:1, for those
samples that contain >0.05 ppm Au. This is in contrast to elsewhere in the prospect area, where
this ratio ranges from 10:1 to 50:1 (Figure 6.51). In quartz veins throughout the area, Pb is
somewhat anomalous at <0.1%. Other elements, such as Mo, As and Sb, are close to detection
limits of 2 ppm, 2 ppm and 4 ppm, respectively.
A total of five quartz vein samples were briefly examined for fluid inclusions. In general, there
are fewer fluid inclusions in the Bambu vein samples than recorded in the late quartz veins
associated with feldspar-destructive alteration, peripheral to Batu Hijau (Section 6.3.2.3). The
Bambu fluid inclusions commonly consist of two-phase (liquid-vapor) inclusions, many of
which are primary in origin and define crystal growth surfaces, or are oriented perpendicular to
growth surfaces. The inclusions are typically regular in shape, equant to slightly elongate and
typically 3 to 10 µm in mean dimension for equant forms and <15 by 5 µm for elongate forms.
The typical liquid to vapor ratio ranges from about 70:30 to 90:10. No daughter minerals are
recorded in these inclusions. Evidence for boiling is absent, in that vapor-rich fluid inclusions
are not present.
6.5.2 Teluk Puna
The Teluk Puna vein system consists of a series of comb quartz veins and subordinate
chalcedonic quartz veins that extend ~ 5 km from within 2 km of the south coast towards Batu
Hijau (Chapter 5, Figures 1.2 and 5.13). The vein array consists of at least three en-echelon
north-northwesterly trending vein zones, spaced ~ 800 m apart. Northerly- and north-
northeasterly-trending vein splays occur in the northern and southern portions of the area,
respectively. Individual veins are commonly 15 to 50 cm, and range up to 1.5 m, wide, within
zones of veins that reach up to 10 m in width.
6.5.2.1 Hydrothermal Alteration
The majority of the outcrops of phyric andesite, andesitic volcanic lithic breccia and sandstone,
and dacitic to andesitic volcaniclastic rocks, in the vicinity of the vein system, display weak to
moderate calcite replacement of plagioclase and hornblende. The matrices of the clastic rocks
show partial replacement by calcite+smectitic clay. Chlorite and epidote are not recorded in the
dacitic-andesitic volcaniclastic rocks. However, weak chlorite alteration of mafic minerals
affects the phyric andesite and volcanic lithic breccia unit in the northern part of the prospect
area. Relict magnetite (~2 to 3 vol. %) is replaced by martite (~90% complete). Pyrite is absent.
Feldspar-destructive, clay+quartz+pyrite (1 to 5 vol. %) wall-rock alteration forms selvages to

veins, typically 1.5 to 3 m, and locally up to 6m, wide. The style of this alteration changes from
south to north across the prospect area (Figure 6.48). In the south, assemblages of kaolinite-
illite (<20% interlayered smectite) predominate, whereas illite (20 to 30% interlayered
smectite) occurs in the absence of kaolinite, in the north. Magnetite (martite) is destroyed
within these argillic alteration selvages.
In active hydrothermal systems, kaolinite forms under relatively acid fluid conditions (pH<4)
and temperatures less than ~200o C (Browne, 1978; Reyes 1990b). Illite is characteristic of
slightly acidic fluids (pH of 4 to 6) and temperatures that range from ~ 220o to >250o C
(Browne, 1978; Reyes, 1985). The presence of interlayered smectite implies temperatures of
<230o C (Elders et al., 1981). Therefore, the occurrence of kaolinite and illite in the southern
part of the area probably does not reflect an equilibrium assemblage, and may indicate the
overprinting of early-formed illite (slightly acid fluids, T~220o to 230o C and as much as 250o C)
by late-stage kaolinite (acid fluids, T<200o C).
6.5.2.2 Quartz Vein Texture, Mineralogy and Metal Contents
The veins commonly contain medium- to coarse-grained, prismatic comb quartz. However,
fine-grained and very coarse-grained comb quartz crystals also occur. The veins are sheeted,
banded and contain centerlines marked by the termination of comb quartz crystals locally
(Figure 6.49). Local breccia fragments of both plagioclase-stable and argillic -altered wall-rock
occur in the quartz veins locally. In addition, fragments of early-formed, gray quartz+pyrite
veins are contained within later, white comb quartz in the Tawon vein. Negative molds of
bladed calcite, or barite, are up to 2 cm in length. Layers of white, light- and dark-gray
chalcedony occur in the central (Pondok vein) and southern (Tabeso) parts of Teluk Puna.
Open-spaces that are concentrated along vein centerlines are locally filled by clay minerals.
The sulfide mineral assemblage includes pyrite (~1 to 2 vol. %), sphalerite, chalcopyrite and
minor galena locally. The abundance of the base-metal sulfide minerals increases from trace
amounts in the southern part of the area (e.g. Tabeso vein) to a combined total of ~0.5 to 5 vol.
% in the northern part of the prospect (e.g. Tawon and Cobra veins). The general stability of
base-metal sulfides in active hydrothermal systems in the Philippines indicate a common
temperature in excess of ~220o C at near-neutral pH (Reyes, 1985, 1990a).
The metal contents of the major zones of quartz veins in the Teluk Puna area are summarized in
Figure 6.48. These indicate anomalous concentrations of Au, Ag and As in the southern vein
zones, characterized by local highs that exceed 5 ppm Au, 50 ppm Ag and 1000 ppm As. Base-
metals are low, typically less than 100 ppm for Cu, Pb and Zn. In contrast, the northern veins
not only contain high Au, Ag and As, but concentrations of base-metals that locally exceed
1.4% Cu, 1.4% Zn and 1.8% Pb in the Tawon and Cobra veins. The Ag/Au ratios vary from ~1
in gold-rich zones at Tabeso to >30 in base-metal sulfide-bearing veins at Tawon and further to
the north. Low Ag/Au characterizes veins that occur as northerly- to north-northeasterly-
oriented splays from the main vein trend in Tabeso and Cobra (Figure 6.48).
Chartered Mineral Services in Auckland, New Zealand, analyzed six quartz vein samples from
the prospect area. The fluid inclusions recorded are two-phase (liquid-vapor) inclusions, which
are interpreted to be primary in origin (CMS, 1989). No daughter crystals were reported.
Homogenization temperatures from 36 measurements in six samples indicate a range from
~170o to 260o C, characterized by lower temperatures in the south and higher temperatures in
the north.
The general trend of increasing homogenization temperatures from fluid inclusions in quartz
from south to north at Teluk Puna is consistent with the zoning in base-metal sulfide minerals,
with the higher temperatures corresponding to increased abundance of chalcopyrite, galena and
sphalerite.
6.6 Metal Zoning Patterns
The distributions of metals in soil and bedrock trenches are compiled from 5708 soil samples
collected throughout the district and 107 trenches excavated along ridgecrests at Batu Hijau
(Figures 6.50 and 6.51). The soil samples were collected by a hand auger that sampled the C-
horizon (mixed soil and bedrock fragments) from depths typically ranging from 1 to 3 m. The
soil sampling grid extends ~10 km (east-west) by 1 to 3 km (north-south), and consists of
sample sites at 50 to 100 m intervals along east-west lines spaced from 100 to 200 m. The
trenches were dug by hand to depths of 1 to 2 m, in order to sample 5 m long zones of

decomposed bedrock. The soil and bedrock sampling was undertaken by Newmont Nusa
Tenggara Company personnel during 1990 through 1997, as part of a district-wide exploration
program.
The chemical results for outcrop samples of late quartz veins, clay-mica altered fault zones and
adjacent wall-rock are also compiled. These include 66 rock samples, more than 80% of which
were collected ~ 0.75 to 2 km peripheral to the center of the Batu Hijau deposit (SBD03
vicinity). The analytical results of ~ 70 rock samples were reviewed from Bambu and about 250
rock samples from Teluk Puna.
The primary purpose of this compilation and the following discussion are to relate metal zoning
to the distribution of alteration types and the styles of mineralization documented in Sections
6.2 to 6.5. Such a comparison facilitates the estimation of the physical conditions that prevailed
during metals deposition in the Batu Hijau district. The soil sample results provide a broad area
of regularly spaced coverage, whereas the outcrop results allow for the comparison of metal
contents between varying host structures (e.g. quartz vein vs. fault) and the adjacent wall-rock.
The various threshold values for hand-drawn contours of anomalous metals concentrations in
soil illustrated in Figures 6.50 and 6.51 are summarized in Table 6.15. These thresholds were
determined visually from the distribution of analytical results in a series of cumulative
frequency plots. The metal contents of selective outcrop samples collected peripheral to the
Batu Hijau deposit are indicated in Table 6.16.
Table 6.15 Anomalous thresholds for trace-element and metal concentrations in soil and
bedrock trenches from the Batu Hijau district.
Element Copper Gold Molybdenum Zinc Arsenic
Concentration 350 ppm 50 ppb 7 ppm 150 ppm 30 ppm
500 ppm 25 ppm
Threshold 90 90 75 75 75
(percentile)
95 95
Notes: Thresholds determined by visual and statistical methods from cumulative frequency plots of
single element data.
In general, anomalous Cu, Mo and Zn in soil and bedrock indicate a concentric zoning about the four
porphyry centers in the district. Gold occurs with Cu in the center of concentric zoning patterns and
defines linear trends that extend outwards from these centers. Arsenic forms elongate patterns
subparallel, but not always coincident, to those of Au. The order of the following descriptions (Sections
6.6.1 to 6.6.6) corresponds to the spatial distribution of metals with respect to each porphyry center,
which is typically characterized by central Cu, Au and Ag, proximal Mo, and distal Pb-Zn, Au, Ag and
As.
Table 6.16 Summary of trace-element and metal concentrations for late-stage quartz veins, clay-mica altered fault zones and
variably altered wall-rock peripheral to the Batu Hijau deposit 1 .
Sample Type Number Cu Au Ag Mo Pb Zn As Sb
of Analyses (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
Mean Values
Late Quartz Veins 37 553 0.26 15 11 705 894 178 68
Faults 2 9 412 0.50 5 4 148 2096 77 13
Wall-rock3 20 113 0.03 1 6 19 69 17 <4
Least-altered Equivalents4 :
Volcaniclastic Rock 6 81 <0.01 <1 2 7 96 6 <4
Equigranular
5 148 0.02 <1 3 10 104 3 <4
Quartz Diorite
Range of Values
Late Quartz Veins 37 21-13,300 <0.01-3.06 <1-267 <2-42 11-1780 <2-15,200 <2-3510 <4-1580
Faults 9 48-1270 <0.01-3.21 <1-17 <2-14 <4-966 19-9700 <2-218 <4-54
Wall-rock 20 15-333 <0.01-0.08 <1-6 <2-28 <4-104 <4-576 <2-84 <4-8
Note: 1- Sample locations range from ~ 0.75 to 2 km from the center of the Batu Hijau deposit (vicinity of SBD03).
2- Three of the fault zone samples are from a location ~1 km northeast of the Concentrator site.
3- Wall-rock consists of andesitic volcaniclastic rock and quartz diorite, which exhibits propylitic (chlorite-epidote-pyrite)
and clay-mica (intermediate argillic, subordinate sericitic and advanced argillic) alteration styles.
4- Mean values for samples of chlorite+epidote-pyrite (<0.5 vol. %) altered andesitic volcaniclastic rock
and equigranular quartz diorite.
Similar metal zoning patterns are recorded at Kalamazoo (Chaffee, 1982), El Tiro-Silver Bell
(Graybeal, 1982) and Mineral Park (Lang and Eastoe, 1988) and other porphyry deposits in the
southwestern USA (Titley, 1993). However, in these deposits, elevated Mo concentrations
typically occur in the core, rather than the flank, of the ore body, as is the case at Batu Hijau. In
the USA porphyry districts, zoning occurs on the scale of 10 to 50 km2 , and is centered about
causal intrusions ~ 0.25 to 2 km2 , and 0.5 to 1.5 km in diameter (Titley, 1993).
6.6.1 Copper
Anomalous Cu in soil (>350 ppm) occurs with strong biotite-magnetite+oligoclase alteration

and visible chalcopyrite in several areas in the district, with the exception of Batu Hijau, where
the copper anomaly extends beyond the weak (or relict) biotite zone to the outer margin of the
actinolite zone (cf. Figures 6.2, 6.11 and 6.50). The most coherent anomalies occur at Batu
Hijau and Sekongkang−West Nangka, with lower order anomalies at Arung Ara, Air Merah and
Katala. Each of these areas contains early “A” and “B” veins and/or veinlets in outcrop.
The largest and greatest concentration of Cu in soil occurs at Batu Hijau, where a 1.5 km by 1
km zone of >500 ppm Cu coincides approximately with >1 vol. % quartz veins in outcrop. A
gap in the 350 ppm Cu anomaly coincides with sericitic/paragonitic and advanced argillic
alteration on East Ridge at Batu Hijau, the outer limits being proximal to the northeastern
margin of the pre-mineral composite pluton (cf. Figures 4.1 and 6.50). This reflects, in part, the
sulfidation of copper-sulfide minerals and remobilization of Cu in this portion of the deposit.
The analyses of rock chips from blast holes in the upper benches (above 500 m RL) of the
developing open-pit confirm the reduction of Cu along structurally controlled zones of feldspar-
destructive alteration beneath and adjacent to East Ridge. The coincidence of the outer limit of
350 ppm Cu in soil with the northeastern margin of the pre-mineral composite pluton is
consistent with the preferential localization of intrusion-related mineralization along this
intrusive contact, as indicated by the stress simulation (cf. Figures 5.18 and 6.50).
Copper is concentrated in copper-sulfide minerals in early “A” and “B” veins and veinlets at
Batu Hijau, and in the other porphyry systems (Section 6.2). Comparison of the distribution of
Cu and quartz vein abundance in cross-section, as illustrated by figures 8 and 11 in Clode et al.
(1999), indicates a spatial coincidence between the outer limit of 0.5% Cu and 5 vol. % veins,
and a similar relationship between 0.3% Cu and 1 vol. % veins. These relationships between
copper ore, alteration styles and quartz vein abundance at Batu Hijau are summarized in Figure
6.5.
Mean Cu values in late-stage quartz veins and feldspar-destructive, clay-mica altered faults
peripheral to Batu Hijau approximate 500 ppm (Table 6.15). The mean abundance of Cu in
adjacent wall-rock is typically <150 ppm. The abundance of Cu exceeds 0.2% Cu in quartz
veins at Bambu that contain chalcopyrite. The zone of intersection between the veins and the
phyric andesite intrusive margin in the northern part of the area is characterized by up to 2% Cu.
At both Bambu and Teluk Puna, the Cu contents of the veins sampled indicate a general
increase towards Batu Hijau (Section 6.5).
6.6.2 Gold
Anomalous Au in soil (>50 ppb) coincides with zones of anomalous Cu in each of the porphyry
centers, and forms linear zones that parallel northwesterly-, and less commonly, northeasterly-
trending fault zones (cf. Figures 4.1 and 6.51). The linear gold anomalies locally coincide with
structurally controlled zones of feldspar-destructive alteration in the vicinity of Batu Hijau and
adjacent to the margin of the Santong diatreme (cf. Figures 6.3 and 6.51).
Gold occurs as inclusions in copper-sulfide minerals at Batu Hijau, and probably elsewhere in
the other porphyry systems (Section 6.2). The Au (ppm) to Cu (%) ratio for the Batu Hijau
deposit is about 4:5, with the outer limit of 0.5 ppm Au approximately coincident with that of
0.5% Cu (figures 8 and 9 in Clode et al., 1999).
Anomalous Au occurs in late quartz veins and mica-clay altered faults peripheral to Batu Hijau,
with concentrations of up to 3.2 ppm Au (Table 6.15). In contrast, the adjacent wall-rock
contains <0.08 ppm Au. At Bambu, the highest Au results, up to 4.9 ppm Au, are associated
with high Cu in quartz veins in the northern part of the area.
6.6.3 Silver and Silver-Gold Ratio (Ag/Au)
Silver in soil and decomposed oxidized bedrock is characterized by concentrations less than the
1 ppm Ag detection limit of the AAS analytical technique utilized. This is a common occurrence
in soils overlying gold-silver prospects in tropical weathering environments, such as Sumbawa,
on the basis of the author’s experience. Silver is soluble in other weathering environments as
well, such as in Nevada, where Saunders (1993) documents the leaching of Ag from ore
minerals under acidic conditions caused by iron-sulfide oxidation, subsequent to transport
primarily as a chloride complex (AgCl2 -) in shallow groundwaters.
The Batu Hijau deposit averages ~1 ppm Ag, as determined from the analysis of drill core,
using a detection limit of 0.5 ppm Ag (AAS): the Ag/Au ratio is ~2 (Figure 6.51). Silver is more
abundant in late quartz veins than in faults, peripheral to Batu Hijau, as indicated by mean
concentrations of 15 and 5 ppm, respectively (Table 6.15): the adjacent wall-rock have typically
<1 ppm Ag. The Ag/Au ratios in the quartz veins in the vicinity of Batu Hijau vary from >50 in
peripheral base-metal sulfide veins at East Nangka and northern Tongoloka to ~5 closer to the
deposit (Figure 6.51).
At both Bambu and Teluk Puna, Ag/Au ratios reach unity in gold-rich vein zones centered about
the intersections with steeply dipping intrusive contacts or at splays from the main vein trend
(Section 6.5). Elsewhere in these prospect areas, the Ag/Au ratios range from 10 to 50, and the
higher Ag contents are associated with base-metal sulfide-bearing quartz veins (e.g. 21 ppm at
northern Bambu and 370 ppm Ag in northern Teluk Puna).
6.6.4 Molybdenum
Anomalous Mo in soil (>7 ppm) forms haloes proximal to copper-gold anomalies at

Sekongkang−West Nangka, Arung Ara, Air Merah and Katala (Figure 6.50). At Batu Hijau, soil
contains more than 25 ppm Mo, forming an annular zone that wraps around the center of the
deposit. The outer limits of these Mo-rich zones are associated with weak (or relict) biotite and
proximal actinolite alteration styles (cf. Figures 6.2 and 6.50). Anomalous Mo occurs in soil
that overlies advanced argillic alteration along the East Ridge at Batu Hijau, suggesting the
relatively immobility of Mo, despite the extensive base-cation leaching that is characteristic of
this alteration style. The easterly asymmetry of the Mo anomaly at Batu Hijau, with respect to
the center of the deposit, is consistent with a greater abundance of Mo in drill core of quartz
diorite and porphyritic dacite to the east, than in andesitic rock types to the west (unpublished
company data). This may reflect, in part, a greater abundance of molybdenite-bearing “D” veins
in the felsic intrusions, and/or a greater concentration of Mo in least-altered felsic intrusions
than in least-altered andesitic rocks.
Anomalous Mo occurs in late quartz veins peripheral to Batu Hijau, which contain ~ 5 times the
background levels of the adjacent wall-rock (mean values of 11 ppm Mo vs. ~2 ppm Mo, Table
6.15). The Mo contents of the Bambu veins are typically <2 ppm. There are no data for Teluk
Puna.
6.6.5 Lead and Zinc
Lead and Zn have distributions similar associations in soil and rock samples. Zinc background levels
(~100 ppm) are about ten times than those of Pb (~10 ppm: twice the AAS detection limit).
Therefore, Zn was chosen as a better indicator of anomalous Pb-Zn in the underlying bedrock
than Pb. The hand-drawn contours of >150 ppm Zn in soil display two major annular zones,
about 250 to 600 m wide, that are centered about the Batu Hijau and Arung Ara porphyry
systems (Figure 6.50). The distribution of these zones coincides approximately with zones of
moderate epidote alteration and epidote veinlets (cf. Figures 6.2 and 6.50). Sphalerite+galena
characterize peripheral quartz veins in these annular regions, the selvages of which are marked
by feldspar-destructive intermediate argillic and illitic alteration assemblages. The Ag/Au ratios
of these veins typically exceed 20 to 50 (cf. Figures 6.50 and 6.51).
No significant Pb or Zn occurs in the Batu Hijau deposit (unpublished company data).

Anomalous Pb and Zn (Zn>Pb) characterize late quartz veins peripheral to the deposit (Table
6.15). Zinc is particularly high in mica-clay altered faults located about 1 km northeast of the
concentrator site, where sphalerite-bearing, clay-altered fault gouge contains up to 1.5% Zn. The
wall-rock to the quartz veins and faults contain background levels of Pb and Zn (e.g. ~10 ppm
Pb and 100 ppm Zn).
Anomalous Pb and Zn correlate with elevated Cu in the quartz veins at Bambu and Teluk Puna
(Section 6.5). In both areas, the abundance of Pb and Zn increase towards Batu Hijau.
6.6.6 Arsenic
Zones of anomalous As in soil (>30 ppm As) occur peripheral to the porphyry centers in the
district and are associated with advanced argillic and, to a lesser extent, sericitic/paragonitic
alteration at Tatuk, Sekongkang and along the East Ridge at Batu Hijau (Figure 6.51).
Anomalous As in soil forms linear zones that parallel and coincide with northwesterly- and
northeasterly-trending faults, zones of late quartz veins and intermediate argillic and illitic
alteration (cf. Figures 4.1, 6.3 and 6.51).
Significant concentrations of As do not occur in the Batu Hijau deposit (unpublished company
data), with the minor exception of the As contained in tennantite-bearing “D” veins (e.g. SBD
94-115 m). Arsenic concentrations in peripheral quartz veins exceed those of mica-clay-altered
faults and adjacent wall-rock, locally reaching 0.35% As in a tennantite-bearing quartz-
manganocalcite vein that cuts the Santong diatreme (Figure 6.28 and Table 6.15).
The As concentrations of quartz veins at Bambu are typically < 5 ppm. In contrast, the As
contents in the arsenic -rich quartz veins of Teluk Puna range from 100 to 3000 ppm, with the
highest abundances in the Tabeso and Cobra veins (Figure 6.48, Section 6.5).
6.6.7 Remobilization of Early Metals
Metals deposited by early hydrothermal processes, such as Cu and Au, were

remobilized by subsequent hydrothermal events at Batu Hijau. Evidence includes the reduction
in the Cu and Au contents of biotite-magnetite altered zones of copper-sulfide-bearing, early
“A” and “B” veins and veinlets by the sulfidation of these assemblages to form
pyrite+chalcopyrite in zones affected by strong sericitic/paragonitic and advanced argillic
alteration. The depletion in Cu and Au grades with increasing intensity of texture-destructive
alteration is indicated in Figures 6.41 and 6.42 (Section 6.4), Figure 6.50, and the results
reported by Mitchell et al. (1998). The copper- and gold-bearing nature of some of the pyritic
“D” veins, late quartz veins and mica-clay-altered faults peripheral to Batu Hijau, suggests that
Cu and Au are remobilized from proximal to peripheral settings with respect to the porphyry
centers during late-stage sulfidation of these hydrothermal systems.
6.6.8 Interpretation
In this section, the origins of the metal zoning recorded in the Batu Hijau district are inferred on
the basis of the relationships described between metals distribution and hydrothermal silicate,
oxide and copper- and iron-sulfide mineral assemblages. The experimental results of Hemley et
al. (1992) and the interpretations of Hemley and Hunt (1992) for the solubility of Fe-, Cu-, Pb-
and Zn-sulfides in chloride solutions at temperatures of 300o to 700o C and from 0.5 to 2 Kbar
are integrated into this analysis. These experiments were buffered in pH by quartz monzonite
and the assemblages K-feldspar-muscovite-quartz and pyrite-pyrrhotite-magnetite (Hemley et
al., 1992). In addition, exploratory experiments were undertaken for the assemblage K-feldspar-
biotite-magnetite-quartz-chalcopyrite-bornite at 500oC and 1 Kbar (Hemley and Hunt, 1992),
which is more applicable to the mineral assemblage associated with early copper mineralization
at Batu Hijau. Recent experimental data for the distribution of Au in the Cu-Fe-S system at 400o
to 700o C by Simon et al. (2000), provide insight into the timing and siting of gold deposition
with respect to copper- and iron-sulfide mineral paragenesis.
The general progression from central Fe and Cu to distal Pb and Zn in the metal zones
documented for the porphyry centers in the district is largely a function of the decreasing
solubility of Fe, Cu, Pb and Zn (in chloride-complexes) with decreasing temperature and
increasing distance from the causative intrusions that provide the heat source for each of these
systems (Hemley et al., 1992; Hemley and Hunt, 1992). This outward metal zoning in time and
space is a consequence of the intersection of the different metal saturation surfaces at
progressively lower temperatures, or increasing distance from a heat source, for hydrothermal
fluids of a given metal composition (figures 4 and 5, Hemley and Hunt, 1992). The cooling
histories of many porphyry systems probably follow a quasi-adiabatic path, which is consistent
with early development under lithostatic conditions and an evolution towards a hydrostatic
regime in the more distal region (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975).
The plotting of a quasi-adiabatic path on the metal solubility curves of Hemley and Hunt (1992)
suggests that, prior to the deposition of early Fe and Cu at temperatures in excess of 500oC (at 1
Kbar), these metals may be scavenged and leached from previously formed mafic minerals in
the crystallizing melt. This relationship may add to the enrichment of Fe and Cu in the center of
many porphyry deposits. In the study area, the abundance of hydrothermal magnetite and the
presence of early, barren magnetite veinlets in the center of each of the porphyry systems
suggests that magnetite deposition pre-dates that of copper-iron sulfide minerals, which is
consistent with the sequence of metals deposition predicted by Hemley and Hunt (1992). The
deposition of Fe (magnetite) is more strongly pressure dependent than that of Cu (Hemley and
Hunt, 1992). This relationship may explain, in part, the development of magnetite+quartz
(“Am”) veinlets at the onset of vapor saturation and hydrofracturing (pressure-drop), followed
by chalcocite-digenite-bornite-bearing “A” type veinlets, as recorded at Batu Hijau (Table 6.3).
In the deposit, these events occurred relatively early in the crystallization sequence of the
tonalite porphyry complex, at approximately 50% crystallization (Figure 4.47B).
In contrast, in the equigranular quartz diorite systems at Sekongkang−West Nangka and Katala,
the predominant copper-iron-sulfide mineral is chalcopyrite, which typically is associated with
pyritic “D” veins that have reopened early quartz+magnetite “A” and “B” veins (Table 6.3). In
these areas, the saturation of the fluid with respect to Cu could have been achieved much later in
the crystallization sequence, due, in part, to lower concentrations of Cu in the ore fluid and the
late onset of vapor saturation after about 80 to 90% crystallization (Figure 4.47A). There was
less potential for copper-enrichment in these systems, as much of the Cu was probably locked in
mafic silicate minerals, which formed prior to vapor saturation.
The association of Au with Cu in the center of the porphyry systems and the presence of Au in
bornite and solid solutions of chalcocite-bornite and digenite-bornite at Batu Hijau suggests that
gold mineralization was related to early copper-iron-sulfide and magnetite deposition. This
inference is supported by the experimental results of Simon et al. (2000), in which Au

concentrations in bornite range from ~30 ppm at 400o C to ~3000 ppm at 600o C. These
concentrations are an order of magnitude higher than those determined for Au in chalcopyrite
(or intermediate solid-slution, iss), which range from ~3 ppm at 400oC to ~100 ppm at
600oC. The absence of bornite in the chalcopyrite-bearing porphyry centers at
Sekongkang−West Nangka, Arung Ara and Katala is consistent with the low Au tenor of these
systems. The association between Au and bornite is also recorded at other large porphyry
deposits, such as Grasberg (MacDonald and Arnold, 1994), Panguna (Clark, 1990), Santo
Thomas II (Tarkian and Koopmann, 1995), Bingham Canyon (Babcock et al., 1995) and El
Salvador (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975).
Molybdenum is not believed to form a chloride complex in porphyry copper systems, but
probably is transported by fluoro-and/or hydroxyl-complexes, as in porphyry molybdenum
systems (cf. White et al., 1981; Hedenquist and Lowenstern, 1994; Webster 1997). The
solubility relationship of Mo to the chloride-complexed metals (Fe, Cu, Pb and Zn) is not
determined by Hemley et al. (1992). However, based on the metal zoning indicated in the study
area, the intersection of the Mo saturation surface is inferred to have occurred at temperatures
(and distances from the porphyry centers) transitional between early (proximal) Fe and Cu
saturation and late (distal) Pb and Zn saturation. The temporal positrion of Mo between early
Fe-Cu and later Pb-Zn is also suggested by the description of El Salvador by Gustafson and
Hunt (1975).
Lead and Zn (as chloride-complexes) are more soluble in the porphyry environment than Fe and
Cu and do not reach saturation at typical ore-fluid concentrations until temperatures below ~
300o to 350o C (at 1 Kbar), where pyrite (+chalcopyrite) is the stable iron-bearing phase (Hemley
and Hunt, 1992). By way of comparison, the 300o C isotherm (at 1.0 Kbar) in the study area can
be estimated to coincide approximately with the zinc annulus that is associated with moderate
epidote alteration zones, external to the actinolite and chalcopyrite zones (cf. Figures 6.2, 6.11
and 6.50). A decrease in pressure (or depth) of the system, would shift the zinc saturation
surface outwards to zones of lower temperature, given constant pH, fS2 , fO2 and fluid
composition. The relatively low concentrations of Pb and Zn in the peripheral annulus in the
study area may reflect, in part, the silicate-rich composition and reduced pH buffering capacity of
the wall-rocks. In porphyry districts characterized by abundant carbonate rocks, economic
amounts of Pb and Zn are hosted in these rocks, such as at Bingham Canyon (Babcock et al.,
1995).
The lack of significant pyrite in the base-metal sulfide-bearing quartz veins at Bambu, suggests
depletion of Fe from the system prior to distal sulfide deposition. This is probably due to the
consumption of available Fe by early magnetite precipitation and the preference of the
remaining Fe for chalcopyrite, as recorded in the base-metal veins at Butte, Montana (Hemley
and Hunt, 1992).
At Batu Hijau, the destruction and remobilization of Cu and Au, the sulfidation of digenite-
bornite to chalcopyrite-pyrite sulfide assemblages, and the progressive replacement of magnetite
by specular hematite and pyrite are consistent with an increase in the solubility of Fe and Cu,
during the late stages of the hydrothermal system. Hence, early-formed magnetite and copper-
iron-sulfides are dissolved, and Fe and Cu are precipitated at lower temperature (<350o C). This
remobilization process is enhanced by the dissociation of acids and the generation of hydrogen
ions from HCl, H2 S and H2 SO4 , caused by decreasing temperature, and sulfur depletion, due to
previous sulfide precipitation (Meyer and Hemley, 1967; Hemley and Hunt, 1992). Therefore,
as late-stage acid fluids leach Fe-Cu-Au from biotite-magnetite-altered rocks and generate
advanced argillic and sericitic/paragonitic alteration, the buffering capacity of the affected wall-
rock is reduced, as the composition of the rock approaches that of the fluid. However, as these
acid fluids move outwards through zones of proximal intermediate argillic to distal propylitic
alteration, the pH of the fluid is buffered by the calcic -plagioclase component of the wall-rock,
which causes the solubility of these metals to decrease and metals deposition to occur.
The presence of Au in late pyritic “D” veins, quartz veins and mica-clay-altered faults
peripheral to Batu Hijau, is consistent with this remobilization process, because the Au that is
not accommodated by chalcopyrite is probably absorbed on to pyrite, in this lower temperature
environment (Simon et al., 2000).
6.7 Interpretation
This section synthesizes the results of the descriptive sections. It places the paragenesis of
alteration mineral assemblages, oxide-sulfide mineralogy and metal zoning into the context of
relative and absolute time, and the physical conditions and chemical activity of the
hydrothermal fluids, that have affected the rocks in the Batu Hijau district.
6.7.1 Localization, Timing and Duration of Hydrothermal Systems and the Rela tion to
Tectonic Events
The porphyry systems in the district are associated with porphyritic and equigranular, causative
intrusions that are localized along the margins of pre-mineral plutons. The localization of these
porphyry centers is inferred to be largely controlled by the local stress configuration generated
by the interaction of a regional, subduction-related stress-state with the complex geometric form
of this steeply dipping intrusive contact, as discussed in Section 5.8 (Figures 5.17 and 5.18,
Section 5.8).
Early biotite-magnetite+ oligoclase alteration and related copper-gold mineralization

in each of the porphyry centers was approximately synchronous with causative-intrusion
emplacement, as inferred from field relationships and U-Pb SHRIMP zircon and
40
Ar/39 Ar biotite age results. The four porphyry systems studied in the district, were developed
at ~ 0.6 to 0.9 m.y. intervals from 5.9 Ma to 3.7 Ma (Figure 6.1). This frequency of occurrence
is similar to that documented in the Potrerillos district, Chile, where as many as eight different
porphyry centers were emplaced over a ~8 m.y. period (Marsh et al., 1997).
The timing of mineralization events in the peripheral vein systems at Bambu and Teluk Puna are
constrained to be late Miocene to Pliocene, on the basis of cross-cutting field relationships,
fossil ages (Bambu) and U-Pb SHRIMP age results (Teluk Puna). The geometric relationships
of these vein systems are consistent with development during nearly arc-orthogonal
convergence, in a similar structural setting to those of the porphyry systems (Figure 5.17,
Section 5.8). The metal zoning and location of these systems along fault zones that converge in
the vicinity of Batu Hijau are consistent with the coeval development of these vein arrays with
mineralization at the deposit. However, the absolute timing of these systems remains to be
established.
The development of the late-stage feldspar-destructive alteration, which overprints early biotite,
actinolite and epidote-chlorite alteration styles associated with each porphyry center, is inferred
to be closely related in time to the secondary biotite age in each center. However, the timing of
late hydrothermal alteration is constrained by an 40 Ar/39 Ar sericite age at Batu Hijau only.
There, sericite from a quartz-pyrite “D” vein is significantly younger than the 40 Ar/39 Ar age of
early-formed biotite (3.65 + 0.02 Ma vs. 3.73 + 0.08 Ma, respectively). Both the biotite and
sericite ages are not significantly different from U-Pb SHRIMP zircon (emplacement) ages for
the three tonalite porphyries that comprise the core of the deposit (e.g. 3.76 + 0.10 Ma for the
Intermediate Tonalite), which reflects, in part, the lower precision of the U-Pb dating method for
Pliocene zircons. An estimate of the duration of the magmatic -hydrothermal system at Batu
Hijau is determined by subtracting the sericite age from the mean biotite age, which indicates
80+ 80 k.y. (2σ). This estimate probably represents a maximum, as the argon closure
temperature of sericite is typically higher than that of biotite (cf. ~350o C vs. ~300o C,
respectively; McDougall and Harrison, 1988). Similar durations of hydrothermal systems have
been estimated for the Cobre stock in the Potrerillos district (230+210 k.y., Marsh et al., 1997),
Lepanto-Far South East (100 to 300 k.y., Arribas et al., 1995; Hedenquist et al., 1998), Round
Mountain (~100 k.y., Henry et al., 1997), and many other well-studied deposits that range from
100 to 300 k.y., as documented by Marsh et al. (1997) on the website located at
http://pangea.stanford.edu/ODEX/odex.html.
The late Miocene ages of sericite from fault-controlled zones of feldspar-destructive alteration
in the western Tongoloka Valley, indicate that hydrothermal activity began as early as ~7.1 Ma
(Figure 6.1). This expands the series of distinct hydrothermal events in the district to at least
five, constrained to have developed over a period of ~3.5 m.y. The zones of northwesterly
trending feldspar-destructive alteration are inferred to have developed in response to north-
northeasterly-directed relaxation events (Figures 5.17 and 5.19, Section 5.8).
The intensity of hydrothermal events generally increases with time, as indicated schematically
in Figure 6.1. The early development of mineralization in the late Miocene is attributed to the
onset of arc-parallel expansion and tensional reactivation of northeasterly trending, crustal-scale
strike-slip faults. The dilatent movement of these faults is inferred to be related to the collision
of the leading edge of the Australian shelf, or a microcontinent, with the Banda arc in the
vicinity of Timor (~8 Ma, Richardson and Blundell, 1996; Chapters 2 and 4). The crustal-scale
fault zones acted as channelways for ascending magma and related hydrothermal fluids. The
Pliocene porphyry systems in the study area developed as arc-parallel expansion increased, in
part, as a result of the westward escape of the arc in response to the increasing proximity of the
Australian Craton, prior to its collision with the arc in the mid-Pliocene (~4.0 to 2.5 Ma,
Audley-Charles, 1986; Hall, 1996). The final pulse(s) of magmatism in the district generated the
Batu Hijau porphyry deposit (~3.7 Ma) and contributed to the development of the Santong
diatreme, which is inferred to represent the latest magmatic -hydrothermal event in the district.
6.7.2 Fluid Composition, Chemical Activity and Metals Deposition
Two different styles of hydrothermal systems are inferred to have affected the rocks that host
the porphyry centers in the district. These include rocks that have undergone extensive Na (K)-
metasomatism (biotite-oligoclase alteration), such as associated with the low-K tonalite
porphyries at Batu Hijau, and rocks that lack extensive secondary oligoclase and include
secondary K-feldspar, such as related to medium-K quartz diorite and granodiorite at Katala.
The former style of system exhibits abundant paragonite and advanced argillic alteration, as
recorded at Batu Hijau, and, to a lesser extent, Sekongkang. The latter type of system lacks
abundant paragonite and advanced argillic alteration, as indicated at Katala. The primary
difference between these two styles of hydrothermal system is the activity of [K+]/[H+], which is
inferred to be at least one log unit lower in the tonalite-related center at Batu Hijau than in the
quartz diorite-granodiorite-related center at Katala (Figure 6.52).
The possible cooling paths for each of these magma types are indicated schematically on the
temperature-activity diagrams for the systems H2 O-(Al2 O3 )-Na2 O-SiO2 and H2 O-(Al2 O3 )-K2 O-
SiO2 at 0.5 Kbar, expressed as cations (e.g. [Na+]/[H+]) and dissociated species (e.g. [Na+ +
NaCl]/[H+ + HCl]) in Figure 6.52. These diagrams illustrate two different models of cooling and
chemical activity for the fluids in the magmatic-hydrothermal systems in the Batu Hijau district.
The first model is the traditional view, basically that of Meyer and Hemley (1967) (Figure
6.52A and B). In this model, the fluids cool at relatively constant [Na+]/[H+] (or [K+]/[H+]),
following the feldspar-andalusite buffer, down to ~350o C, before the excursion of the fluid
phase towards lower [Na+]/[H+], which is dependent on the degree of fluid-rock interaction. The
fluids that are least buffered by the wall-rock (i.e. fluid>>rock) move into the advanced argillic
mineral stability fields (advanced argillic), whereas those fluids that interact greatly with the
wall-rock (i.e. fluid<<rock) follow the albite-paragonite buffer into the stability fields of
intermediate argillic and propylitic mineral assemblages. Fluids that cool along paths
intermediate to these two end-members (i.e. fluid>rock) form paragonitic or sericitic alteration,
depending on the relative activity of [Na+]/[H+] and [K+]/[H+]. Hence, the proximal to distal
alteration zoning that characterizes the porphyry systems in the Batu Hijau district, and
elsewhere, is primarily a function of the extent of fluid-rock interaction and buffering by wall-
rock mineral assemblages.
In the traditional model, the primary cause of the excursion of fluids towards lower [Na+]/[H+] is
believed to be related to several factors, which include: 1) the dissociation of acids and the
generation of H+ from HCl, H2 S and H2 SO4 , due to cooling, 2) fixation of Na+ (or K+) in the
wall-rock, 3) boiling, which concentrates volatiles that can condense and increase acidity, and 4)
mixing with cooler oxygenated groundwaters, which further cool the magmatic fluid and
increase acidity (Meyer and Hemley, 1967; M.T. Einaudi, written communication, 2000).
The second model is based largely on the recent work of Hedenquist et al. (1998) and others in
high-sulfidation and related porphyry systems, such as Far South East−Lepanto in the
Philippines. At Far South East, oxygen isotopes and fluid inclusion results indicate that
magmatic fluid was involved in sericitic and advanced argillic alteration (Hedenquist et al., 1998).
This relationship led Hedenquist et al. (1998) to propose the development of both these types of
alteration from magmatic fluids, the former due to simple cooling and wall-rock buffering, the
latter related to condensation directly from a non-reactive magmatic gas at temperatures of
350o C or less. Similar relationships are illustrated in Figure 6.52C and D for the potential
cooling paths of hydrothermal fluids in the porphyry systems of the study area. Increased
wall-rock buffering of these fluids would cause a shift towards higher [Na+]/[H+] as the
fluid cooled, and generate the proximal to distal alteration zoning discussed above.
The results of this study do not indicate conclusively which of the above models is applicable to
the evolution of the hydrothermal systems in the Batu Hijau district, as no isotopic work has
been undertaken to date. However, the presence of hypersaline, liquid-rich Type III fluid
inclusions with daughter minerals of halite, sylvite, anhydrite, chalcopyrite and/or hematite in
the andalusite contained in advanced argillic -altered rocks at Batu Hijau (Mitchell et al., 1998),
suggest that this alteration style has a magmatic affinity. In addition, Type III inclusions with
halite and hematite occur in late quartz-pyrite veins associated with pyrophyllite-sericite
selvages in Brang Belu, up to 1.5 km northwest of the center of the deposit. Finally, the majority
of the mica-clay from feldspar-destructive alteration that is localized along faults indicates
pyrophyllite+diaspore+dickite+zunyite interior to wider zones of illite (or sericite)+chlorite.
These relationships suggest a connection between widespread, late-stage advanced argillic
alteration and magmatic fluids in the study area.
In both models, the early magmatic-hydrothermal fluids are inferred to start cooling below
~750o C, which corresponds to conditions of vapor saturation near the wet tonalite solidus at 0.5
Kbar (Section 4.10). Upon reaching ~600oC, the fluids, which are rich in Na (or K),
react with calcic plagioclase-rich wall-rock to form biotite-oligoclase alteration at Batu Hijau or
biotite+K-feldspar alteration at Katala (point KS in Figures 6.52 and 6.53). Magnetite and
digenite (chalcocite)-bornite are deposited in early “A” class veinlets at Batu Hijau, under
oxidizing conditions that approach the hematite-magnetite buffer (cf. Figures 4.49 and 6.54).
The solubility of gold as AuClo is high, and Au and Cu are deposited in bornite (Simon
et al., 2000). The concentration of Cu in the Katala hydrothermal fluid is below that of the
copper saturation surface, and hence only magnetite is deposited in early “A” class veinlets
(Hemley and Hunt, 1992).
Transitional alteration at Batu Hijau includes bioite-chlorite-sericite/paragonite-secondary

oligoclase-albite (Clode et al., 1999). These minerals comprise the stable wall-rock assemblage
to “AB” (chalcopyrite-bornite+magnetite), “ B” (proximal chalcopyrite+bornite assemblage or
distal chalcopyrite-specularite+bornite assemblage), and “C” veins (chalcopyrite+bornite).

These transitional sulfide-oxide mineral assemblages and veins were probably deposited at
~500o to 450o C, on the basis of the stability relationships indicated in Figures 6.52 and 6.54.
The progression from early to transitional veins coincides with a decrease in the activity of
[Fe2+]/[H+]2, under relatively constant [Cu+]/[H+], as indicated in Figure 6.54A. The proximal “B”
veins were likely deposited under higher fS2 and lower fO2 conditions than the distal “B” veins,
which contain hypogene hematite and indicate conditions along the hematite-magnetite buffer
(Figure 6.54B). The solubility of gold, as the chloride complex, decreases with decreasing
temperature and less Au is precipitated in chalcopyrite than in the early bornite-rich
assemblages. At Katala, chalcopyrite begins to be precipitated in “B” veins, but only in modest
amounts, as the majority of the Cu in this system is deposited during late “D” veinlet
emplacement.
Late alteration occured at temperatures of about, or below, 350oC, as discussed in the fluid
cooling models discussed above. The low [K+]/[H+] activity of the Batu Hijau system favored the
development of extensive advanced argillic alteration (e.g. pyrophyllite+andalusite+diaspore
+dickite), when compared to Katala, where this alteration style is restricted to narrow, fault- or
fracture-controlled zones that contain dickite. The presence of andalusite at Batu Hijau and, to a
much lesser extent, at Sekongkang indicates temperatures in excess of 360o C (Bowers et al.,
1984 and SUPCRIT database). The activity of the alkali-elements and [Mg2+]/[H+]2 decrease
with the trend toward increased base-cation leaching from intermediate argillic through
sericitic/paragonitic (illitic) to advanced argillic alteration types (Figures 6.52 and 6.53).
Bornite and chalcopyrite were progressively sulfidized to form pyrite, and relict magnetite and
specularite were converted to pyrite with increasing fluid/rock ratios (Figures 6.52 and 6.54). The
local presence of pyrite-bornite in late “D” veinlets at Batu Hijau suggests conditions below the
hematite-magnetite buffer and temperatures <400o C (at 1.5 Kbar; Simon et al., 2000). At
pressures of ~0.5 Kbar, the stability field of chalcopyrite expands and the maximum temperature
of pyrite-bornite stability decreases, given constant fO2 , fS2 and pH (cf. Bowers et al., 1984). At
these relatively low temperatures, Au may occur in bornite, chalc opyrite and/or pyrite (Simon et
al., 2000). The majority of the Cu and Au is deposited at Katala during late sericitic and
intermediate argillic alteration and associated “D” veinlet emplacement, which is localized in
cracks in early quartz-magnetite veins and veinlets.
The propylitic assemblages indicate the decrease of both [Ca2+]/[H+]2 and [Mg2+]/[H+] from
actinolitic through epidote-chlorite to background chlorite alteration styles (Figure 6.53). This is
interpreted to be largely a function of the expulsion of Ca and Mg outwards from the porphyry
systems, in response to Na-K-metasomatism that causes central biotite-magnetite+oligoclase
alteration. The limited presence of diopside veins in the outer portion of the actinolite zone,
northeast of Batu Hijau, is consistent with an even higher [Ca2+]/[H+]2 than for actinolite.
Carbonate-clay-chlorite alteration within the Santong diatreme indicates CO2 addition. This
carbonate-rich assemblage may have developed in the upper, phreatic zone of a magmatic -
hydrothermal system, where cool and low pH, CO 2 -rich surficial- and ground-waters were drawn
down into a chloride reservoir (Corbett and Leach, 1998). One possible origin for the CO2 -rich
waters is the absorption of CO2 gas, which is exsolved from a boiling zone at depth.
6.7.3 Conditions of Vapor Separation and Trapping of Fluid Inclusions in Quartz Veins at
Batu Hijau
In this section, interpretations of the fluid inclusion results from early to transitional quartz
veins at Batu Hijau (Section 6.2.2.2) further constrain the minimum depth of formation of the
deposit. In addition, the similarity of these fluid inclusions to those in well-studied porphyry
systems elsewhere provides estimates of the depth of phase separation and trapping of ore
fluids. The integration of the fluid inclusion results with the depth of phenocryst crystallization
and intrusion emplacement (Chapter 4) provides a basis for the estimation of the volume of melt
required to generate the Batu Hijau copper-gold deposit.
The analytical results for hypersaline, liquid-rich Type III fluid inclusions summarized in Table
6.6, are from early to transitional quartz veins that developed during biotite-oligoclase alteration
and deposition of bornite-chalcopyrite, and are inferred to represent “AB” veins (Section
6.2.2.2). Therefore, the estimate of the conditions of trapping for the fluid inclusions represents
a minimum pressure, temperature and salinity, for conditions that prevailed during precipitation
of early copper- and gold-rich digenite-bornite-bearing “A” and “Af” veinlets.
Estimated conditions of trapping of fluid inclusions in the bornite-chalcopyrite-bearing veins are

based on the following assumptions: 1) liquid and vapor coexisted at the time of inclusion
trapping; thus homogenization temperature equals trapping temperature, and 2) given that
liquid-vapor homogenization occurs at higher temperatures than halite melting for the inclusions
measured, the inclusions are within a P-T region where immiscible liquid and vapor can coexist,
supporting generation of liquid and vapor by fluid immiscibility. The assumption of coeval
development of vapor- and liquid-rich inclusions is probably valid, because these two types of
inclusions commonly occur together in early veins of high-level porphyry deposits elsewhere
(e.g. Bingham, Grasberg and Red Mountain, Bodnar, 1995; Far South East, Hedenquist et al.,
1998). In addition, the large abundance of vapor-rich inclusions in the Batu Hijau quartz veins
supports the supposition of immiscibility, as immiscibility generates volumetrically more vapor
than liquid (J.S. Cline, written communication, 2000).
Given the assumption of immiscibility, the pressure of trapping is ~400 bars for the sample with
the highest mean trapping temperature (SBD03 345 m, Figure 6.55, Table 6.6). This pressure is
interpreted to be lithostatic, due to the quasi-plastic state inferred for vein deposition and the
presumed absence of through-going fractures that would be required to connect the porphyry
system to the paleowater table in a hydrostatic model. Therefore, the fluid inclusions in the vein
measured (at 300 m RL) were trapped at a depth of ~1.5 km beneath the paleosurface. This
depth estimate represents a minimum, for the reasons discussed above, and due to the potential
presence of volatile phases, which would cause phase separation at a higher pressure for a fluid
of given bulk composition (Hedenquist et al., 1998). This minimum depth estimate compares
well to that inferred on the basis of thermobarometric results in Chapter 4 and (U-Th)/He
apatite age results in Chapter 5, which place the upper portion of the Young Tonalite (~300 m
RL in Figure 4.2) at a depth of less than 2 km. If fluid over-pressuring occurred during trapping,
then as much as 100 bars could be added to lithostatic pressure, on the basis of estimates made
by Burnham (1997) for quartz monzonite at Bingham. However, given that the immediate wall-
rock was probably fractured, due to earlier episodes of vein emplacement, the degree of over-
pressuring is not considered to have significantly affected the pressure of trapping at Batu Hijau.
Low salinity vapor and hypersaline liquid, which are trapped in Types II and III inclusions,
respectively, are inferred to have separated from a magmatic fluid at a paleodepth of ~2.2 km
(600 bars), as it cooled through ~510o C (e.g. SBD03 345 m, Figure 6.56). This estimated
minimum depth of phase separation corresponds to the − 400 m RL in the deposit, or about the
deepest level of drilling to date (~1 km below the pre-mine surface at East Ridge). The bulk
salinity of the magmatic fluid is estimated to be ~ 6 wt. % NaCl, on the basis of the typical
salinity range of the bulk fluid exsolved from felsic magmas (2 to 10 wt. % NaCl, Burnham,
1979; Hedenquist et al., 1998). Burnham (1997) estimates a bulk salinity of 6 wt. % NaCl for
magmatic fluid from quartz monzonite at Bingham. However, the Batu Hijau data do not
constrain this estimate. The partitioning of ~13 mass % vapor (0.3 wt. % NaCl) and ~87 mass %
hypersaline liquid (45 wt. % NaCl equivalent) is predicted, assuming a pure NaCl-H2 O system
(Sourirajan and Kennedy, 1962). The presence of additional dissolved salts (e.g. KCl) would
decrease the estimates for the depths of phase separation and inclusion trapping; the presence of
any volatiles in the magmatic fluid would increase the depth estimates (Bodnar et al., 1985;
Hedenquist et al., 1998).
The volume of the melt responsible for the production of this fluid, and capable of generating
~4.5 million tonnes of Cu (10 billion lbs. Cu), can be estimated on the basis of the numerical
models of Cline (1995), which are built upon earlier work of Cline and Bodnar (1991). The
following estimate assumes that: 1) Cu behaved as a compatible element during the
crystallization of the tonalite porphyry melts at Batu Hijau (cf. Candela, 1989), and 2) Cu and
chloride were concentrated in exsolved fluids formed during vapor saturation early in
the crystallization sequence of high-level felsic magmas (cf. Burnham, 1979; Burnham and
Ohmoto, 1980; Cline, 1995). If this exsolution were to occur late in the crystallization sequence,
or not all, then Cu would be sequestered to magmatic mafic mineral sites. This relationship
between Cu and magmatic mineral sites is indicated by the higher levels of Cu in barren
intrusions versus the least-altered equivalents of syn-mineral stocks at Yerington (Dilles, 1987),
and the greater Cu concentrations of mafic minerals from barren plutons than for those in the
temporal equivalents of mineralized stocks in North American porphyry districts (Hendry et al.,
1985).
The initial partitioning of Cu to an aqueous fluid is inferred to have taken place at a depth exceeding
the depth of brine-vapor separation, determined above (e.g. >2.2 km beneath the paleosurface or
below the – 400 m RL). The tonalite porphyry dykes and stocks (Young, Intermediate and Old
Tonalites) are inferred to represent the apex of a cupola that passes downwards into a source
magma chamber. The existence of a magma chamber of moderate size is a necessity to account
for the highly differentiated composition of the tonalite porphyry intrusions (>68% SiO 2 and 5%
Na2 O) in an island arc setting, constructed on oceanic crust, particularly since radiogenic
isotopes indicate no evidence for crustal assimilation (Chapter 4). The depth to which this
magma chamber extended can be estimated on the basis of the pressures determined from early-
formed hornblende phenocrysts in porphyritic tonalites at Arung Ara and Katala, which indicate
lithostatic depths of 6 to 9 km (Chapter 4). These depths are consistent with those calculated for
the basal portions of the Yerington batholith, as determined through the reconstruction of the
Jurassic cross-section for the deposit (Dilles, 1987; Dilles and Einaudi, 1992; Dilles and
Proffett, 1995).
The numerical modeling of Cline (1995) for a felsic melt that contains 4 wt. % H2 O and 50 ppm
Cu at 1.0 Kbar results in the partitioning of ~93% of the total Cu content of the magma to the
exsolved fluid, assuming Cu exhibits compatible behavior. If Cu were to behave incompatibly
during melt crystallization, the calculated melt volume does not change significantly (i.e.
volume decreases ~5%). The chemical and physical parameters are broadly applicable to the
composition and depth of emplacement of the Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry system, as discussed
in Chapter 4 and above. The melt required to generate 4.5 million metric tonnes of Cu is ~ 35
km3 . However, this is only an approximation, given the simplicity of the model of Cline (1995),
as compared with real porphyry systems. This volume equates to a cylindrical body that is about
5 km tall and ~ 3 km in mean diameter, on the basis of the estimated paleodepth of ~ 8 km for
the base of a parent magma chamber that passes upwards into a tonalitic cupola at a paleodepth
of > 3 km. The inferred diameter of the magma chamber is similar to that of the large
wavelegth, airborne magnetic anomaly that occurs in the Batu Hijau area (cf. Figure 7.9,
Chapter 7). The size of this inferred magma chamber is relatively small, as compared to that
estimated for Yerington (~1000 km3 , Dilles and Proffett, 1995) and Far South East (~100 km3 ,
Hedenquist et al., 1998).
The Cu content is the highest in the early exsolved fluid, which contains ~8000 ppm Cu, as
early vapor saturation results in minimal loss of Cu to crystalline phases (Cline, 1995). This
relationship is consistent with the deposition of the bulk of the Cu (and Au) in Batu Hijau
during the emplacement of early “A” and “Af” veinlets. PIXE results indicate average Cu
concentrations of more than 3500 ppm for the fluid in hypersaline, liquid-rich Type III
inclusions in a chalcopyrite-bearing “B” vein in tonalite porphyry at Batu Hijau (B.I. McInnes,
written communication, 1999). These Cu contents are inferred to represent minimum estimates
of the Cu concentration of the aqueous fluid during the development of the deposit.
6.8 Summary
In the Batu Hijau district, hydrothermal alteration and copper-gold mineralization occur in
porphyry systems that are centered about causative intrusions, emplaced at progressively higher
crustal-levels through time. These porphyry systems are localized by the margins of early- and
pre-mineral plutons. Early alteration styles are characterized by central potassic -sodic
(biotite+oligoclase), proximal inner propylitic (actinolite+chlorite) and distal outer propylitic
(epidote-chlorite) alteration, which are distinct from regional chlorite-calcite (background)
alteration. In the vicinity of Batu Hijau, these three alteration styles form concentric zones that
extend ~ 0.5 km, 1 km and 3 km away from the center of the deposit, respectively. Variable
extents of potassium-sodium metasomatism characterize the cores of each of the porphyry
systems in the district, with Ca+Mg driven outwards to form actinolite, rare diopside and
epidote veins in the proximal to distal propylitic zones. The style of central biotite alteration is
a function of the composition of the causative intrusions, which controls the composition of the
hydrothermal fluids that have affected each porphyry center. The magmatic fluids derived from
low-K tonalite at Batu Hijau caused extensive sodium metasomatism and oligoclase alteration,
whereas, the magmatic fluids generated from medium-K quartz diorite-granodiorite at Katala
localized K-feldspar alteration.
At least four generations of porphyry systems are recorded in the district, with a periodicity of
0.6 to 0.9 m.y. from ~5.9 Ma at Sekongkang to 3.7 Ma at Batu Hijau. The temporal coincidence
of 40 Ar/39 Ar biotite ages with U-Pb SHRIMP zircon (magmatic) ages indicates that cooling of
these systems from emplacement (>700o C) through the closure temperature of biotite (~300o )
was rapid, with the exception of Sekongkang, where 400 k.y. separate these two age results.
The low-temperature cooling histories of these porphyry systems are quantified by application
of the (U-Th)/He apatite geochronometry results in Chapter 7.
The late feldspar-destructive alteration zones, which extend for more than 15 km throughout the
district, exhibit a change in style proximal to the porphyry centers, which is characterized by
proximal advanced argillic through sericitic/paragonitic to distal intermediate argillic types.
This spatial relationship is consistent with increasing interaction between late-stage
hydrothermal fluids and the wall-rock buffer with increasing distance from the porphyry
centers. The geometry and clay-mica mineral assemblages of late hydrothermal alteration
indicate higher temperatures and more acidic fluid conditions in the vicinity of the porphyry
centers. This relationship is best expressed at Batu Hijau, where the common presence of
andalusite in advanced argillic alteration suggests formation at temperatures in excess of 360o C
(Bowers et al., 1984 and SUPCRT database). The widespread occurrence of advanced argillic
alteration at Batu Hijau, as compared to the other porphyry centers in the district and porphyry
systems worldwide, is related to the low activity of [K+]/[H+] in the tonalite magmatic fluid.
This K-poor fluid composition favors the development of advanced argillic assemblages over
those dominated by sericite in more K-rich systems. Several generations of feldspar-destructive
alteration have affected the district from ~7.1 to 3.7 Ma, the majority of those recorded being
related to the waning stages of magmatic -hydrothermal activity in each of the porphyry centers.
Late carbonate-clay-chlorite alteration of the Santong diatreme post-dates the majority of

feldspar-destructive alteration elsewhere in the district. This style of alteration is inferred to be
caused by phreatomagmatic eruptions and degassing of a magma chamber at depth. Such a
relationship is consistent with the presence of chalcopyrite-bearing, porphyritic intrusive clasts
in the diatreme breccia and the recent discovery of porphyry-style quartz veins in quartz diorite
that crops out along the southern margin of the diatreme. The latest episode of hydrothermal
activity recorded in the study area consists of fracture- and veinlet-hosted zeolite-smectite
alteration, which indicates deposition under near-surface conditions, typified by temperatures
<150o C.
Copper and Au are contained within “A” and “B” quartz veins at Batu Hijau, and, to a much
lesser extent, in the three peripheral porphyry centers. Anomalous Au, Ag, base-metal, Mo and
As concentrations occur in pyritic “D” veins, comb to massive quartz veins, and fault zones that
occur within late structurally controlled, feldspar-destructive alteration zones. This style of
mineralization post-dates early-stage porphyry mineralization and remobilized Cu (and Au)
on the deposit-scale at Batu Hijau. Zones of auriferous quartz veins extend for over 5 km from
the flank of Batu Hijau into peripheral, base-metal sulfide-bearing quartz vein occurrences at
East Nangka and the Tongoloka Valley. District-scale metal distribution indicates a concentric
zoning of metals about the porphyry centers, typified by central Fe, Cu and Au, proximal Mo,
and distal Pb, Zn, Au, Ag and As. This progression is largely a function of the decreasing
solubility of Fe, Cu, Pb and Zn with decreasing temperature and increasing distance from the
causative intrusions for each of the porphyry centers. Linear belts of anomalous Au and As in
soil and outcrop correspond to the distribution of “D” veins, comb quartz veins and faults.
The timing of the development of the Bambu and Teluk Puna vein systems is constrained to the
late Miocene to mid-Pliocene. The geometric relationships of the vein arrays in each area
suggest vein emplacement in response to the nearly arc-orthogonal, tectonic convergence
directions determined for the development of early “A” and “B” veins at Batu Hijau and the
other porphyry systems. The metal zoning at Bambu and Teluk Puna indicates an increase in
base-metal contents with proximity to Batu Hijau, resembling district zoning patterns
base metal-rich vein systems that flank porphyry systems in western North America.
The estimates of the depth of fluid trapping for hypersaline liquid-rich inclusions in bornite-
chalcopyrite-bearing, early to transitional quartz veins at Batu Hijau (at 300 m RL), suggest a
depth of >1.5 km below the mid-Pliocene paleosurface. This depth corresponds to the apical
region of the main dyke of Young Tonalite. Hypersaline fluid and coexisting low-salinity vapor
separated from a magmatic fluid at paleodepths > 2.2 km, and probably ~3 km, which is below
the depth limit of the current drill holes in the deposit (– 400 m RL). This zone of exsolution
and phase separation is inferred to coincide with the apical portion of a tonalite porphyry cupola
located above a magma chamber that extended to a depth of 6 to >8 km beneath the
paleosurface. A total magma volume of ~35 km3 is estimated to be sufficient to have sourced the ~4.5
million tonnes of Cu (10 billion lbs. Cu) that comprise the deposit. The bulk of the Cu (~80%)
and Au in Batu Hijau were deposited in early digenite-bornite-bearing “A” and “Af” quartz
veinlets by fluids that contained several thousand ppm Cu. The duration of this hydrothermal
event is constrained to be less than 80 + 80 k.y., as determined by the 40 Ar/39 Ar age difference
between early-formed secondary biotite and late sericite deposited in pyritic “D” veins.
The style and geometry of hydrothermal alteration and mineralization, and the timing of
hydrothermal events in the district, which culminated in the formation of the Batu Hijau deposit,
are related to the tectonic -, geologic- and structural-settings discussed in previous chapters. The
following chapter provides a synthesis of all salient relationships between tectonic -, geologic-
and alteration-mineralization-events, and illustrates the critical elements of an exploration
model for porphyry copper-(gold) deposits in volcanic island arc and continental margin
settings.
CHAPTER 7 SYNTHESIS AND DISCUSSION 263
CHAPTER 7 SYNTHESIS AND DISCUSSION
7.1 Introduction
The initial chapters in this thesis document and discuss the tectonic and geologic setting of copper and
gold mineralization in the Neogene magmatic arcs of Indonesia, with emphasis on Sumbawa
(Chapters 2 and 3). Chapters 4 and 5 present the geologic and structural setting of the volcano-
plutonic complex in the Batu Hijau district, and Chapter 6 documents the geometry, style and
timing of hydrothermal alteration and mineralization.
This chapter reviews the geologic history of the district and synthesizes the salient relationships
between tectonic and geologic setting and hydrothermal alteration and mineralization. The
major differences between the metal-rich Batu Hijau deposit and the metal-poor peripheral
porphyry systems are highlighted to define the key diagnostic features of productive porphyry
deposits in Sumbawa and elsewhere. Particular emphasis is given to the geometry of felsic
intrusions, quartz vein and fracture abundance, alteration zones, sulfide-oxide mineral
distribution and metal zoning in the vicinity of the Batu Hijau deposit. The recognition of this
geometry enables the reconstruction of the Batu Hijau magmatic -hydrothermal system back to a
mid-Pliocene paleosurface, which forms the basis for a genetic model (this chapter) and the
exploration model presented in Chapter 8. Correlation between the geophysical signature and
geologic characteristics of the deposit are briefly discussed, as the correct interpretation of
geophysical data facilitates exploration for porphyry copper-(gold) deposits concealed by low-
grade, or post-mineral, cover sequences.
The cooling rates of the causal intrusions to the porphyry centers are constrained by the
integration of U-Pb SHRIMP zircon, 40 Ar/39 Ar bioite and (U-Th)/He apatite age results. In
addition, the cooling history of the tonalite porphyry intrusive complex at Batu Hijau is modeled
numerically and compared to the duration of the magmatic -hydrothermal event estimated by
radiometric methods. The zoning of hydrothermal silicate-, sulfide- and oxide-minerals are
placed in context of this cooling model and the simulated isotherms.
The significant characteristics of the Batu Hijau magmatic -hydrothermal system are compared
to those of global porphyry deposits, whic h occur in both volcanic island arc and continental
margin settings. This comparison further identifies the major attributes of large porphyry
copper-(gold) deposits.
Table 7.1 Chronology of geologic events in the Batu Hijau district
Time (Ma) Magmatic or Volcano-sedimentary Event Hydrothermal Event Time (Ma)
Quaternary- Coastal coralline limestone

Pleistocene
Pleistocene- Coastal volcaniclastic sequence and pseudo-radial basaltic andesite dykes Zeolite-calcite-smectite in district Pleis tocene-
Late Pliocene and coastal regions Late Pliocene
<3.7* Emplacement of Santong diatreme and late porphyritic andesite-dacite dykes Carbonate-clay-chlorite, illitic, IA <3.7*
{Early KS, ?“A” & “B” veins - Naga Emas}
3.7-3.8 Batu Hijau tonalite porphyry complex (Young, Intermediate and Old Tonalites)
Late AA, Se/Pa, IA and illitic (“D” veins) 3.65
3.8-3.9 Equigranular quartz diorite (QD3) at Batu Hijau Early KS, IP and OP (“A” & “B” veins) 3.73
Peripheral veins at Bambu and Teluk Puna?
3.9 Porphyritic dacite at Batu Hijau
4.4-4.5 Equigranular quartz diorite (QD3) and late granodiorite dykes at Katala Late Se/Pa and IA (“D” veins) −
Early KS, IP and OP (“A” &”B” veins) 4.4-4.5
4.7-5.0 Porphyritic tonalites at Katala (~4.7) and Arung Ara (~5.0) Late IA at Arung Ara (“D” veins) −
Early KS, IP and OP (“A” &”B” veins) 5.0*
>5.0* Equigranular quartz diorite (QD2) at Bambu-Santong
5.9 Equigranular quartz diorite (QD1) and late tonalite-granodiorite dykes Late AA, Se/Pa, IA and illitic (“D” veins) −
at Sekongkang−West Nangka Early KS, IP and OP (“A” & “B” veins) 5.5-5.9
6.8 Dacitic-andesitic volcaniclastic sequence at Teluk Puna Fault-controlled Se and illitic at Tongoloka 7.1
6.8<x<15 Phyric andesite intrusions (post-date andesitic volcaniclastic rocks)

Notes:
<15* Deposition of andesitic volcanic lithic breccia unit Dates that lack a fossil or radiometric age constraint are indicated
by an asterisk (*). Vein nomenclature described in Table 6.3.
15-20 Deposition of limestone lenses in upper part of volcanic sandstone Abbreviations: AA=advanced argillic, IA=intermediate argillic,
sequence at Bambu IP=inner propylitic, KS= potassic-sodic, OP=outer propylitic,
Se/Pa=sericitic/paragonitic.
20-24* Deposition of lower part of andesitic volcanic sandstone unit
7.2 Chronology of Geologic Events in the Batu Hijau District
The chronology of geologic and magmatic -hydrothermal events in the Batu Hijau district is
summarized in Table 7.1. The resedimented, crystal-rich volcaniclastic rock sequence, which
comprises the geologic basement, was deposited in the Early to Middle Miocene, between ~ 24
and 15 Ma. This sequence is interpreted to have formed in a fore-arc, predominantly submarine
setting, coeval with, or shortly after, andesitic island arc volcanism. The facies distribution of
clastic rocks indicates that deposition was controlled, in part, by syn-depositional faults
oriented subparallel and transverse to the axis of the Banda arc in Sumbawa. The foraminiferal
assemblages of limestone interbeds within the lower volcanic sandstone unit suggest that this
portion of the sequence was deposited in a mid-neritic setting (40 to 60 m below sea level). The
style and geometry of the syn-eruptive, resedimented volcaniclastic sequences in the Lesser
Antilles provide a modern-day comparison (Sigurdsson et al., 1980; Fisher, 1984).
The volcaniclastic succession has been cut by several intrusions, which include at least three
types of hypabyssal andesite, more than three equigranular quartz diorite plutons (QD1 to QD3)
and related late-stage tonalite to granodiorite dykes, and a series of porphyritic tonalite stocks
and dykes. The hypabyssal andesites range from Middle to Late Miocene and the equigranular
and porphyritic felsic intrusions from Late Miocene to mid-Pliocene (5.9 to 3.7 Ma). The
youngest dated intrusions are the tonalite porphyry stock and dyke complex (3.7 Ma), centered
within the Batu Hijau deposit. The Santong diatreme breccia, in the center of the area, and
porphyritic andesite to dacite dykes of are comparable age to, or younger than, the Batu Hijau
tonalite complex, and post-date all other felsic intrusions in the area.
A series of hydrothermal systems developed in response to late-stage, differentiated intrusions

in four porphyry centers. In order of decreasing age, these are Sekongkang−West Nangka,
Arung Ara, Katala and Batu Hijau. The intensity of the magmatic -hydrothermal systems
increases with time. This is, in part, related to the progressively higher levels of emplacement
of causative intrusions, which range from 3 to 4 km for quartz diorite-tonalite at Sekongkang,
Arung Ara and Katala to < 2 km for tonalite porphyry at Batu Hijau and late andesite dykes in
the Santong Valley. The implications of this temporal variation in emplacement level are
discussed with respect to volatile exsolution in Section 7.5. At Batu Hijau, the emplacement of
the tonalite porphyry complex was rapid, characterized by at least three distinct pulses of
intrusion within a 90 + 160 k.y. (2σ) time span (3.76 + 0.12 Ma to 3.67 + 0.10 Ma), which falls
within the range of precision of the U-Pb SHRIMP dating technique. The duration of the
hydrothermal system is of a similar magnitude, as indicated by a time span of 80 + 80 k.y. for
the argon closure of early biotite and late sericite (3.73 + 0.08 vs. 3.65 + 0.02 Ma).
The peripheral base-metal-bearing, quartz vein systems at Bambu and Teluk Puna are inferred
to be contemporaneous with the Batu Hijau porphyry deposit. However, timing relationships
are not well-constrained. Structurally controlled zones of feldspar-destructive alteration styles,
266 CHAPTER 7 SYNTHESIS AND DISCUSSION
which are characterized by advanced argillic, sericitic/paragonitic, intermediate argillic and

illitic types, post-date early hydrothermal alteration in each of the porphyry centers, and are
inferred to have developed in response to the collapse of the magmatic -hydrothermal systems.
Late-stage carbonate-clay-chlorite alteration of the Santong diatreme probably reflects
phreatomagmatic eruptions and degassing of a magma chamber at depth. Very late zeolite
alteration marks the final activity of hydrothermal fluids in the district.
Each of the porphyry systems developed in basement rocks that are significantly older, and of
more mafic composition, than the causative intrusions. The Late Miocene (~6.8 Ma) dacitic
volcaniclastic rocks that crop out at Teluk Puna could represent the subaerial equivalent of the
precursor magmas that led to emplacement of felsic intrusions in the central part of the district.
This is inferred on the basis of the similar composition of both suites of rocks and the southerly
dip of the unconformity that separates the dacitic rocks from the Early to Middle Miocene
andesitic basement. Dacitic volcaniclastic rocks of similar age are also recorded at Jereweh,
approximately 10 km north of Batu Hijau, which supports the concept that the porphyry centers
lie along an easterly, or east-northeasterly, trending structural dome (Figure 1.2).
The interpretation that all of the porphyry systems in the district could fit beneath a single
stratovolcano seems improbable. Such an environment is not favored during the Pliocene, due
to the lack of radial distributed dykes, fractures and veins, which are diagnostic of this geologic
setting at high crustal-levels. A similar argument has been made for the mineralized intrusive
centers in the Potrerillos district, Chile (Marsh et al., 1997). The strongly preferred trends,
displayed by fracture zones and comb quartz veins external to the porphyry centers, suggest
development under a regional stress-field consistent with nearly arc-orthogonal subduction. The
preferred origin of the porphyry systems involves a series of dykes, cupolas and high-level
plutons localized above a quartz dioritic batholith at depth. In contrast, the basaltic andesite
dykes that cut post-mineral, Plio-Pleistocene volcaniclastic rocks near the coast display a
pesudo-radial distribution and could have developed in the shallow portions of a young
stratovolcano, located adjacent to the western boundary of the study area (Chapter 5).
7.3 Correlation of Geologic and Hydrothermal Events to Regional Tectonism
The Batu Hijau district is located within a relatively uplifted crustal block, about 30 km west of
a major arc-transverse, crustal-scale fault zone, the Trans-Sumbawa Fault, which offsets the
coastline of Sumbawa more than 10 km in a sinistral-sense (Figures 3.2 and 3.3). The trace of
this fault coincides with the surface projection of an inferred tear, or kink, in the subducting
slab beneath the Banda arc, as indicated by the topology of the Benioff zone (cf. Figures 2.2,
2.3, 2.7, 3.1 and 3.2). The geophysical signature, structural settings and styles of mineral
occurrences in Sumbawa indicate three major crustal blocks, with the deepest levels of
exposure in the vicinity of Batu Hijau (Chapter 3). Hence, the porphyry systems in the district
developed proximal to a crustal-scale fault zone in a relatively uplifted crustal block, in a
similar setting to large intrusion-related systems elsewhere (e.g. Central Andes, Chile; Central
Ranges, Irian Jaya; and North Luzon, Philippines; Sillitoe, 1998; Kerrich et al., 2000).
However, it is recognized that the total amount of physiographic uplift in southwestern
Sumbawa does not compare to that which characterizes these other metallogenic belts; in the
case of Sumbawa, it is the relative uplift between crustal blocks that is important.
Preferred mean exhumation rates estimated for the Batu Hijau district range from
0.5 + 0.2 mm/yr, for the mid-Pliocene (3.7 Ma) to present, and 0.7 + 0.3 mm/yr for the
late-Pliocene (2.3 Ma) to present. These rates are similar to those estimated by apatite fission-
track and K/Ar dating methods for the Grasberg district, located in the Central Ranges of Irian
Jaya (<0.7 mm/yr since 3.0 Ma; Weiland and Cloos, 1996).
The porphyry systems in the study area are associated with porphyritic and equigranular,
causative intrusions that are localized along the margins of pre-mineral plutons. The
localization of these porphyry centers was largely controlled by the local stress configuration
generated by the interaction of a regional, subduction-related stress-state with the complex
geometric forms of steeply dipping intrusive contacts (Section 5.8; Figures 5.17 and 5.18). The
four porphyry systems were developed at ~ 0.6 to 0.9 m.y. intervals from 5.9 Ma to 3.7 Ma.
The Late Miocene ages of sericite, from fault-controlled zones of feldspar-destructive alteration
and comb quartz veins in the western Tongoloka valley, indicate that hydrothermal activity
began as early as ~ 7.1 Ma. This expands the series of distinct hydrothermal events in the
district to at least five, constrained to have developed over a period of ~ 3.5 m.y.. The
northwesterly trending alteration zones are inferred to have developed in response to north-
northeasterly-directed extension, due to arc-relaxation (Chapter 5; Figure 5.17 and 5.19).
The early development of hydrothermal alteration and mineralization in the Late Miocene is
attributed to the onset of arc-parallel expansion and tensional reactivation of northeasterly
trending, crustal-scale strike-slip fault networks. The onset of dilatent movement of these faults
is inferred to be related to the collision of the leading edge of the Australian shelf, or a
microcontinent, with the Banda arc in the vicinity of Timor (~8 Ma, Richardson and Blundell,
1996). These arc-transverse faults localized the rapid ascent of magma, which facilitated the
efficient release of mineralizing fluids at high crustal-levels (cf. Burnham, 1967). The Pliocene
porphyry systems in the study area developed as the rate of arc-parallel expansion increased.
The arc-parallel extension is a consequence of the westward escape of the Banda arc, which
results from changes in deformational style leading up to the collision of the Australian Craton
with the arc in the mid-Pliocene (~4.0 to 2.5 Ma, Audley-Charles, 1986; Hall, 1996). In a
similar sense, the formation of intrusion-related Plio-Pleistocene deposits in the Luzon Central
Cordillera of the northern Philippines, and Chinkuashih in Taiwan, could also be related to fault
reactivation in response to variations of the regional stress-field. In these areas, the variations in
stress fields were caused by the collision of the Philippine Sea Plate with the Eurasian continent
in the vicinity of Taiwan, which commenced at about 5 Ma (Hall, 1996; Rak, 1999).
Steeply dipping, arc-transverse fault networks play an important role in this tectonic model, by
connecting the shallow levels of the arc to the base of the crust and the mantle below, and
therefore, increasing the rate of magma ascent. Kinks or tears in the subducting slab would
serve to channel upwelling asthenosphere to the base of the lithosphere, where it meets the fault
network. Perturbations in the asthenosphere may be generated through slab rollback
(Gvirtzman and Nur, 1999), or a slab-free window formed by a detachment or tear in the slab
along a region of high strain or weakness (Figure 2.7). Hence, the composite channelway
formed through the interaction of deformation zones in the down-going slab and overlying arc
focuses the high heat flow and hydrothermal fluids necessary to develop ore bodies. The
episodic reactivation of crustal-scale fault- and fracture-systems in transpressional to
transtensional settings further enhances crustal permeability in the vicinity of Sumbawa, where
collisional events and the subduction of the buoyant, Roo Rise oceanic plateau, south of
Sumbawa, serve to vary the orientation of the predominantly arc-orthogonal compressive stress
field (Chapter 2).
Northeasterly trending arc-transverse faults localize intrusions and mineral prospects in

Sumbawa (Chapter 3). The cross-arc distribution of intrusion-related mineral deposits is a
common occurrence in magmatic arcs elsewhere. This relationship is particularly evident in the
Central Andes, where the trace of the “Easter Hot Line” is inferred beneath the Maricunga belt
and Farallon district of Chile-Argentina (Bonatti et al., 1977; Sasso and Clark, 1998). The Easter
Hot Line is interpreted to mark a linear zone of upwelling asthenosphere localized by an easterly
trending kink or tear in the subducting Nazca Plate as the slab-dip flattens from north to south,
across the northern boundary of the Chilean flat-slab (Sasso and Clark, 1998).
143
The isotopic signature of Batu Hijau district igneous rocks, characterized by high Nd/144 Nd,
low 87 Sr/86 Sr and 206 Pb/204 Pb, and γOs similar to that of the present-day mantle (cf. McInnes et
al., 1999b), is consistent with a sub-arc, MORB-like mantle wedge source. Evidence for crustal
assimilation during felsic intrusion emplacement is not recorded, which supports the model for
the rapid ascent of precursor magmas through the crust to high-levels along fault-controlled
channelways.
The final pulse(s) of magmatism in the district generated the Batu Hijau porphyry deposit (~3.7
Ma) and contributed to the development of the Santong diatreme, which is inferred to represent
the latest magmatic -hydrothermal event. Following this final igneous episode, the magmatic
front migrated more than 30 km to the north, prior to the onset of shoshonitic volcanism in the
Quaternary (e.g. Sangenges volcano; Figure 3.1). A similar relationship between copper-gold
mineralization and the migration of the axis of volcanism is inferred for the giant Neogene
intrusion-related copper and gold systems of the Central Andes (Kay et al., 1999).
7.4 Geometry of the Batu Hijau Magmatic-Hydrothermal System
A series of synoptic plans and schematic sections, reconstructed to a mid-Pliocene paleosurface

for the Batu Hijau region, are presented in Figures 7.1 to 7.9 (cf. Figure 6.5). In each of the
plans, the 0.5% Cu outline is indicated for reference. The primary aims of this approach are to:
1) summarize the salient geometric relationships documented in Chapters 4 to 6 in a format that
is easy to assimilate, and 2) develop the basis for the exploration model presented in Chapter 8.
Batu Hijau was chosen as the best candidate for this type of analysis. However, similar
diagrams could be prepared for the other porphyry centers.
The simplified geology plan and section (Figures 7.1 and 7.2) illustrate the localization of the
tonalite porphyry complex adjacent to the southwestern margin of the pre-mineral composite
pluton. The 0.5% Cu outline corresponds to the tonalite porphyry complex and marks the
intersection of a northerly trending zone of high fracture abundance with the northwesterly
trending Batu Hijau−Tongoloka fault corridor. Syn- and late-mineral tonalite porphyry dykes
trend northeasterly, in contrast to the easterly- and northwesterly-trends of the other intrusions.
The Santong diatreme occurs at the intersection of the Bambu fault zone and the Batu
Hijau−Tongoloka fault corridor, about 2.5 km northwest of Batu Hijau.
In cross-section, the unconformity at the base of the dacitic volcaniclastic rock sequence that is
exposed in Teluk Puna, about 6 km to the south of Batu Hijau, is projected above the present
topographic level of Batu Hijau. This projection assumes an average southerly dip of ~15o and
the continuity of this surface, which is consistent with the trace of the unconformity and
bedding measurements at Teluk Puna (Figures 1.2 and 5.13). The porphyritic dacite at Batu
Hijau is inferred to have vented as a dacitic diatreme and dome complex, on the basis of the
microaplitic texture (<0.01 mm) of the groundmass to this intrusion. The microcystalline
groundmass (< 0.02 to 0.2 mm) of the late porphyritic andesite-dacite dykes is also inferred to
indicate venting at surface. These late dykes are probably related to the emplacement of the
Santong diatreme. In contrast, the textures of the hypidiomorphic, equigranular quartz diorite
and strongly porphyritc tonalite porphyry intrusions (0.05 to 0.3 mm aplitic groundmass) are
indicative of sub-surface emplacement. This relationship is significant, in that if the early- to
late-mineral tonalite porphyry intrusions did vent, then much of the metal-rich volatiles could
have been lost to the atmosphere (cf. Hedenquist and Lowenstern, 1994), and the copper-gold
grade of the intrusive complex reduced greatly. The apex of the Young Tonalite in section
(~300 m RL) is estimated to have been emplaced at a paleodepth of < 2 km. The tonalite
porphyries are inferred to comprise a cupola that passes downward into a quartz diorite-tonalite
batholith at a paleodepth of more than 3 km, which is below the current limit of drilling.
The hydrothermal alteration plan and section (Figures 7.3 and 7.4) illustrate the outer limits of
early biotite, actinolite and moderate epidote alteration, which indicate concentric zoning about
the deposit center (cf. Figure 6.5). The lower stability limits of biotite and actinolite in active
hydrothermal systems allow for the designation of approximate isotherms, which correspond to
>300o C for biotite and ~280o C for actinolite (Browne, 1978; Elders et al., 1981; Bird et al.,
1984). The late, structurally controlled, feldspar-destructive alteration styles display a
progressive zoning from proximal advanced argillic through sericitic/paragonitic to distal
intermediate argillic and illitic types. This zoning suggests an exploration vector characterized
by the localization of least-buffered, hot and acid fluids adjacent to the core of the deposit, and
the increasing activity of the wall-rock buffer in distal settings, where the hydrothermal fluids
become cooler and near-neutral in pH.
The presence of andalusite in advanced argillic assemblages indicates approximate

temperatures >360o C (Bowers et al., 1984 and SUPCRT database). The abundance of
sericite/paragonite increases, and that of interlayered illite/montmorillonite decreases, in
intermediate argillic-alteration with proximity to rocks affected by early bioite-oligoclase
alteration. This probably reflects the increased activity of potassium and sodium in the
metasomatized core of the deposit and an increase in temperature towards its center. The
temperatures implied by the intermediate argillic assemblage, chlorite-illite/montmorillonite,
approximate <230o C, whereas the stability of sericite/paragonite is diagnostic of temperatures
in excess of ~250o C (Elders et al., 1981; Reyes, 1985; Lawless and White, 1992). The
hydrothermal alteration of the diatreme, which is characterized by illitic alteration at surface
and carbonate-clay+sericite-chlorite alteration at depth, is inferred to post-date the late-stage
alteration at Batu Hijau.
In cross-section, the outline of the early alteration zones wrap around the upward-tapering,
conical tonalite porphyry intrusions, in part, due to the greater degree of cooling along the sides
of the tonalite stock complex versus its top, which reflects differences in surface area (cf.
Norton and Knight, 1977; Norton, 1982). The late alteration zones form shoulders to the
deposit and indicate zones of fracture-related permeability adjacent to intrusive contacts. An
advanced argillic lithocap is inferred to have developed proximal to the base of the dacitic
volcaniclastic sequence. This reflects, in part, the reduced buffering capacity of this rock type,
which is less calcic than the underlying andesitic basement. In addition, the unconformity could
have coincided with the depth of acid fluid condensation from magmatic vapors, as discussed
by Hedenquist et al. (1998) for Lepanto−Far South East in the Philippines (cf. Figure 6.52).
The distributions of sulfide- and oxide-minerals display similar patterns to those of

hydrothermal alteration zones (Figures 7.5 and 7.6). The bornite zone (Cu/S > 2.5) coincides
with zones of >1.0% Cu and > 1.0 g/t Au (cf. figures 8 and 9 in Clode et al., 1999). The outer
limit of the chalcopyrite-bornite zone (1.0 < Cu/S < 2.5) approximates that of strong biotite
alteration and falls outside of the 0.5% Cu outline, which coincides with the zone of >5 vol. %
“A” and “B” veins. The outer limits of magnetite veinlets and visible chalcopyrite in outcrop
occur proximal to the outer limit of bioite alteration. This is consistent with the deposition of
magnetite and chalcopyrite by near-neutral, chloride-rich fluids at temperatures in excess of
300o C, conditions that favor the stability of secondary biotite. The northeasterly asymmetry of
the fracture-controlled magnetite and chalcopyrite zones about the center of the deposit
probably reflects the increased competence of the pre-mineral felsic intrusions with respect to
the volcaniclastic rocks, and hence the tendency for the intrusions to fracture more readily.
The distribution of “D” veins and pyritic zones coincides generally with the outline of feldspar-
destructive alteration, with zones of 2 to 8 vol. % pyrite localized within zones of advanced
argillic and sericitic/paragonitic alteration on the West and East Ridges at Batu Hijau and
argillic alteration styles in the Santong diatreme. Pyrite zones form the shoulders to the deposit
and are inferred to extend to the paleosurface, where pyrite could have formed a significant constituent
(> 5 vol. %) of the advanced argillic lithocap. Northwesterly-trending zones of late-stage comb to
massive quartz veins formed at the same time as the pyritic “D” veins and flank the Batu Hijau
deposit.
The plan and cross-section of metal zoning (Figures 7.7 and 7.8) illustrate the simplified results
of the compilation of company soil, bedrock trench and drill core assay results (cf. figure 6 in
Meldrum et al., 1994; figures 8 and 9 in Clode et al., 1999). The outline of > 0.5% Cu
coincides with that of 0.5 ppm Au in drill core (Clode et al., 1999), as do the outlines of > 500
ppm Cu and > 50 ppb Au in soil. A zone of > 25 ppm Mo forms a proximal halo to the Cu-Au
core of the deposit. Copper and Au are depleted and remobilized from zones of texture-
destructive advanced argillic alteration on East Ridge, where Mo appears to be stable and fixed
in leached quartz diorite and porphyritic dacite. Hence, Mo may provide a good indicator of
copper-gold mineralization at depth, even in zones of metal depletion and remobilization. Zinc
forms a distal annulus to Batu Hijau, which extends up to 2 km away from the deposit center, at
a threshold of 150 ppm. This zone coincides approximately with the zone of epidote veins and
moderate epidote alteration of plagioclase.
Peripheral gold and arsenic anomalies are related to structurally controlled zones of pyritic “D”
veins and comb quartz veins that locally contain sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite and tennantite.
Northwesterly trending arsenic anomalies occur outboard of similarly oriented gold anomalies
in the vicinity of Batu Hijau. The abundance of Ag and related Ag/Au ratio in veins vary
systematically with proximity to the porphyry center, characterized by Ag/Au of ~ 2 in “A” and
“B” veins in the deposit to ~ 50 in base metal sulfide-bearing comb quartz and “D” veins in the
zinc annulus.
The final synoptic plan (Figure 7.9) illustrates the geophysical signature of the Batu Hijau
region, as compiled from unpublished company data. The general methods used to process the
raw airborne magnetic and radiometric, and gradient array, induced polarization-resistivity data
are documented by Fernyhough and Qarana (1996). A broad east-elongate belt of elevated
magnetic response, about 15 km by 1 to 5 km, coincides with the distribution of felsic and
andesite intrusions in the district. This low frequency magnetic anomaly is inferred to represent
a composite plutonic complex, or batholith, at depth (Ferneyhough and Qarana, 1996). Batu
Hijau occurs in a ~2.5 km diameter pseudo-circular portion of this broad magnetic zone, which
is inferred by the author to reflect the approximate diameter of the magma chamber that
generated the tonalite porphyry intrusive complex (Chapter 6).
The center of the deposit is characterized by a discrete magnetic high, which is consistent with
a magnetic susceptibility of ~ 15,000 x 10-5 SI units (unpublished company data; R. Stuart,
personal communication, 2000), or ~ 4 vol. % magnetite, using the conversion factor of
Ferneyhough and Qarana (1996). The abundance of secondary magnetite locally reaches ~5 to
7 vol. % in the center of the deposit, as determined by visual analysis of select drill core. By
comparison, the abundance of hydrothermal magnetite in the Grasberg intrusive complex, Irian
Jaya, ranges from ~3 to 6 vol. % (6 to 12 wt. %; Potter, 1996). At Batu Hijau, the westerly
asymmetry of the magnetic high with respect to the 0.5% Cu outline could reflect the greater
abundance of hydrothermal magnetite in the andesitic rocks, the least-altered equivalents of
which contain more Fe and primary magnetite than do the felsic plutonic rocks (Chapter 4).
Airborne magnetic highs characterize other gold-rich porphyry systems, particularly those in
volcanic island arcs, where there is a greater abundance of magnetite than in porphyry deposits
formed in continental margin settings (Cox and Singer, 1988). Examples include Grasberg
(Potter, 1996) and Island Copper, British Columbia (Cargill et al., 1976).
The discrete magnetic high to the southwest of Batu Hijau corresponds to a zone of epidote-
chlorite-magnetite alteration in andesitic volcaniclastic rocks at depth. The Santong diatreme is
characterized by a pronounced magnetic low over the inferred pipe-like throat of this structure.
This is consistent with the > 250 m deep zone of magnetite-destructive carbonate-clay+sericite-
chlorite alteration in this portion of the diatreme. Airborne radiometric data indicate a
pronounced potassium anomaly (> 0.8% K) over the biotite zone at Batu Hijau and the general
outline of feldspar-destructive alteration, which contains variable amounts of K-bearing illite
and/or sericite. The highest concentrations of K determined for the area summarized in Figure
7.9 coincide with illite-sericite-bearing, late-stage alteration in the Santong diatreme (up to
1.2% K).
The gradient array induced-polarization data indicate zones of moderate chargeability (>50
msec) that correspond to mapped disseminated pyrite abundance > 1 vol. %, with the exception
of the Santong diatreme, where pyrite has oxidized to form hematite and goethite from surface
to a depth of ~ 10 to 20 m. Zones of high chargeability (>60 msec) correlate to peripheral zones
of 2 to ~ 8 vol. % pyrite in feldspar-destructive alteration and central stockworks of ~1 to 3 vol.
% copper-sulfide in “A” and “B” veins at Batu Hijau. Similar relationships between
chargeability and porphyry centers are documented in the Philippines and British Columbia,
Canada (Pelton and Smith, 1976). A northerly trending zone of moderate resistivity (> 150 Ω-
m) extends through the center of the deposit and conductive zones (< 50 Ω-m) characterize
peripheral clay-mica-rich, feldspar-destructive alteration zones (Ferneyhough and Qarana,
1996; unpublished company data).
7.5 Genetic Model for the Development of the Hydrothermal Systems − Controls on
Mineralization
The most important factors that control the location and extent of porphyry copper-gold
mineralization in the Batu Hijau district, include: 1) the favorable structural setting provided by
margins of early- and pre-mineral composite plutons, and 2) causative intrusion emplacement at
high crustal-levels, which facilitated the exsolution of metal-bearing volatiles early in the
crystallization sequence of the melt. Table 7.2 is a comparative summary of the major
characteristics of the porphyry centers, which indicates the key attributes of the metal-rich Batu
Hijau deposit versus those of the metal-poor peripheral systems.
The margins of easterly elongate, equigranular quartz diorite plutons have acted as a focus for
brittle deformation, dyke emplacement and quartz vein development. The reactivation of pre-
existing faults and zones of crustal weakness is inferred to have influenced the distribution of
volcano-sedimentary facies and localized the emplacement of felsic intrusions. The intersection
of fault and fracture zones with the margins of quartz diorite plutons controls, in part, the
distribution of porphyry centers. The localization of Batu Hijau along a north-trending portion
of a predominantly east-elongate, pre-mineral pluton, reflects the interaction of regional, far-
field stresses with the margin of the pluton and the local development of a zone of low mean
stress, or low σ3. This localization of low stress created a favorable site for the high-level
emplacement of the causative tonalite porphyry intrusions. The geometry, energetics and
thermal effects of this intrusive complex generated near-field stresses that contributed to the
orientation and distribution of the “A” and “B” quartz veins that comprise the deposit.
The majority of the porphyry centers, including Batu Hijau, and the peripheral veins systems at
Bambu and Teluk Puna, probably developed under stress-states imposed by nearly arc-
orthogonal compression, characterized by a north-northeasterly-directed maximum
compressive stress (σ1) related to subduction beneath the Banda arc. In contrast, the west-
northwesterly zones of comb to massive quartz veins, and related feldspar-destructive
alteration, in the vicinity of Batu Hijau, are inferred to be related to subsequent relaxation
events, which indicate a north-northeasterly-oriented minimum compressive stress (σ3). The
results of computer-based stress simulations indicate that: 1) the location of the Batu Hijau
deposit is influenced by the shape of the pre-mineral composite pluton, and 2) comb to massive
quartz veins are controlled, in part, by zones of structurally-enhanced permeability localized
along the Tongoloka−Batu Hijau fault corridor (Chapter 5).
Hydrothermal alteration and mineralization occur in porphyry systems that are centered about
causative intrusions that were emplaced at progressively higher crustal-levels through time,
as indicated by plagioclase-amphibole thermobarometry and (U-Th)/He apatite
thermochronometry results (Chapters 4 and 5). The estimated depths of crystallization within
the felsic intrusions range from ~ 6 to 9 km for phenocrysts in the porphyritic tonalites of
Arung Ara and Katala (5.0 to 4.7 Ma), which constrains the depth of the causative magma
chamber(s) to a minimum of 8 km. The solidus emplacement of porphyritic intrusions ranges
from ~3 to 5 km at Arung Ara and Katala to as shallow as < 2 km for the tonalite porphyry
stocks in Batu Hijau (3.7 Ma) and late-stage porphyritic andesite dykes. The equigranular
quartz diorite plutons and late-stage granodiorite to tonalite dykes at Sekongkang (5.9 Ma) and
Katala (4.4 Ma) were probably emplaced at depths of ~3 to 4 km. This depth range of
intrusions resembles those determined for the Yerington batholith, Nevada (1 to >8 km,
Dilles, 1987; Dilles and Einaudi, 1992; Dilles and Proffett, 1995) and the mid-Tertiary felsic
intrusions in the Wasatch Mountains, Utah (0.5 to 9 km, John, 1989a).
Table 7.2 Comparative summary of the Batu Hijau deposit and peripheral porphyry
systems.
Characteristics Batu Hijau Deposit Peripheral Porphyry Systems
Geologic Setting Margin to N-trending apophysis Margin to E-elongate pre-
of pre-mineral composite pluton mineral composite pluton
Structural Setting NW-trending fault corridor, NE- to E-trending fault

proximal to NE-trending fault zone and fracture zones
Fractures N-trending zone, localized by pre- E-trending zones, localized
and syn-mineral intrusions by pre-+syn-mineral intrusions
Veins >5 vol. % “A” and “B” veins, centered 0.5-5 vol. % “A” and “B” veins
around deposit; abundant “D” and comb as isolated zones; minor “D”
quartz veins along flanks of deposit veins and comb quartz veins
near center of prospects
Causative Intrusions
Age of Emplacement Mid-Pliocene (3.7 Ma) Late Miocene to Early Pliocene

(~5.9 to 4.4 Ma)
Level of Emplacement < 2 km below paleosurface 3 to 4 km below paleosurface
Composition Tonalite (>68% SiO2, 5% Na2O) Quartz diorite-granodiorite

(up to 71% SiO2, 2.5% K2O)
Tonalite (66% SiO2, 4%Na2O -
Arung Ara)
Texture Porphyritic, 40-60% phenocrysts Equigranular to subporphyritic,
in aplitic groundmass (0.05-0.3mm) 60-95% crystals, groundmass
<0.5mm
Porphyritic, 30-40% phenocrysts
(Arung Ara)
Phenocrysts Plagioclase, hornblende, quartz, biotite Plagioclase, hornblende + biotite
(quartz at Arung Ara)
Groundmass Quartz, plagioclase, biotite Quartz, plagioclase,K-feldspar
(quartz, plagioclase+biotite -
Arung Ara)
Hydrothermal Alteration
Early-stage Concentric and circular distribution Concentric and elongate
distribution
Biotite zone High intensity and large extent Low-moderate intensity and
extent
Late-stage Widespread along NW-trending zones Localized by E-elongate belts
that coalesce at margins of deposit that cut across axes of prospects
Advanced argillic zone Widespread; contains abundant andalusite Minor and localized;
rare andalusite
Mineralization
Copper-sulfides Early chalcocite, digenite, bornite; Transitional to late chalcopyrite
transitional to late chalcopyrite
Metal grades >0.5% Cu and 0.5 g/t Au Typically <0.1% Cu & 0.1 g/t Au
Note: the descriptions for the peripheral porphyry systems are biased towards the Sekongkang−West
Nangka and Katala prospects, but also include descriptions of Arung Ara.
Volatile exsolution occurred relatively early in the crystallization sequence of the low-K Batu
Hijau tonalite porphyry intrusions, which contributed to the increased oxidation of these
magmas (cf. Burnham, 1967; Candela, 1989; Sillitoe and Thompson, 1998). This facilitated the
deposition of gold-bearing, digenite-bornite in early “A” veins from fluids that contained
several thousands of ppm Cu (cf. Hemley and Hunt, 1992; Cline, 1995; Simon et al., 2000).
The rapid emplacement at high crustal-levels of at least three phases of tonalite porphyry
intrusion enhanced the cumula tive tenor of the deposit, as each intrusion is associated with a
pulse of metal deposition. In contrast, phase separation occurred late in the crystallization
sequence of the low- to medium-K calc -alkaline tonalite and granodiorite dykes associated with
equigranular quartz diorite plutons at Sekongkang and Katala. Hence, the majority of the
copper in these centers was probably incorporated in magmatic minerals (at ~50 to 100 ppm
levels), which left relatively little Cu to precipitate as chalcopyrite late in the evolution of
these hydrothermal systems.
Variable extents of potassium-sodium-metasomatism characterize the cores of each of the

porphyry systems in the district, with Ca+Mg driven outwards to form actinolite, minor
diopside and epidote veins in the proximal to distal propylitic zones. The style of central biotite
alteration is a function of the composition of the causative intrusions, which controled the
composition of the hydrothermal fluids in each porphyry center. The magmatic fluids
from low-K tonalite at Batu Hijau caused extensive sodium-metasomatism and oligoclase
alteration, whereas the magmatic fluids from medium-K, quartz diorite-granodiorite at Katala
localized K-feldspar alteration. The late feldspar-destructive alteration zones, which extend for
more than 15 km throughout the district, exhibit a change in style with increasing proximity to
the porphyry centers, which is consistent with higher temperatures and more acidic fluid
conditions in the vicinity of the centers. This type of zoning is best expressed at Batu Hijau,
where hypersaline, liquid-rich (Type III) fluid inclusions, which occur in andalusite from
advanced argillic mineral assemblages (Mitchell et al., 1998), suggest a magmatic volatile
source to late-stage hydrothermal fluids (cf. Hedenquist et al., 1998).
The presence of the late-mineral Santong diatreme proximal to Batu Hijau is consistent with the
late-stage phreatomagamtic activity that accompanies the waning stages of hydrothermal
systems in porphyry districts elsewhere in the southwest Pacific (cf. Far South East, Arribas et
al., 1995; Dizon, Malihan, 1987; and Wafi in PNG, Tau and Andrew, 1998). The occurrence of
chalcopyrite-bearing, porphyritic intrusive clasts in the diatreme breccia and the recent
Newmont Nusa Tenggara company discovery of porphyry-style quartz veins in quartz diorite
that crops out along the southern margin of the diatreme (Naga Emas), suggest a link between
porphyry development and diatreme emplacement.
7.6 Cooling History for High-level Causative Intrusions Associated with Mineralization
The different closure temperatures for each of the three radiometric dating methods utilized in
this study enable the determination of the cooling histories for the major porphyry centers (cf.
Harrison and Clarke, 1979; Spear, 1993; McInnes et al., 1999a). In the generation of the
temperature - time plot of Figure 7.10, the following approximate closure temperatures are
assumed: 1) U-Pb SHRIMP zircon – 750o C (tonalite solidus; Spear, 1993; Schmidt and
Thompson, 1996), 2) 40 Ar/39 Ar biotite – 300o C (McDougall and Harrison, 1988; Spear, 1993),
and 3) (U-Th)/He apatite – 90o C (at a cooling rate > 100o C/m.y.; Wolf et al., 1996).
The determined cooling rates indicate rapid cooling from the solidus to the 40 Ar/39 Ar closure
temperature of biotite for all the causative intrusions, with the exception of Sekongkang
(Chapter 6; Figure 7.10). This is consistent with the high-level emplacement of small diameter
intrusions into relatively cool wall-rocks, as discussed below. The intrusions cooled more
slowly in the low-temperature range, indicating the oldest (U-Th)/He apatite ages for the
youngest intrusions, which were emplaced at the highest crustal-levels (cf. Figure 5.15). This
inverse age relationship is not consistent with a simple cooling model and indicates the effects
of exhumation through an estimated depth of ~ 1.5 km, which corresponds to the closure
temperature of apatite (Chapter 5).
The average cooling rates from the solidus to ~ 90o C for the causative intrusions range from ~
180o C/m.y. for equigranular quartz diorite at Katala to ~ 450o C/m.y. for the tonalite porphyry
complex at Batu Hijau (Figure 7.10). The cooling rates of ~ 100o C/m.y. at Sekongkang and ~
200o C/m.y. at Arung Ara are inferred, on the basis of the similarity in geologic setting to
Katala, despite the absence of one of the three age date results necessary to determine an
empirical cooling history. The average cooling rates for the causative intrusions are similar to,
and higher than, those determined at the Chuiquicamata intrusive complex in Chile, which was
emplaced at a depth of < 4 km below the paleosurface (~ 100o C/m.y., McInnes et al., 1999a). In
contrast, an average cooling rate of ~ 15o C/m.y. is determined by both empirical results and
numerical modeling for the unmineralized Quottoon pluton, British Columbia, which was
intruded as a ~12 km wide body at a depth of ~ 5 km (Harrison and Clarke, 1979).
7.6.1 Numerical Simulation of the Cooling of the Batu Hijau Tonalite Porphyry Complex
7.6.1.1 Approach and Rationale
A numerical model has been created to compare the longevity of the Batu Hijau hydrothermal system,
as determined empirically, to the expected cooling by conduction of the tonalite porphyry
complex after emplacement into relatively cool wall-rocks (Figure 7.11). This simulation also
enables the comparison of the spatial distribution of mapped hydrothermal alteration and
mineral zones to that predicted by the isotherms generated in the numerical model. Examples of
thermal cooling simulations for plutons by conduction are documented in the literature
(Lovering, 1935; Carslaw and Jaeger, 1959; Norton and Knight, 1977; Harrison and Clarke,
1979). More recently, the cooling history of the Cobre stock complex in the Potrerillos district,
Chile, has been modeled with similar aims to those of the present study (Marsh et al., 1997).
Cooling models that incorporate the effects of hydrothermal circulation (convection) have also
been generated (Norton and Knight, 1977).
In the modeling of the Batu Hijau tonalite complex, all three intrusions (Old, Intermediate and
Young Tonalites) are assumed to have been emplaced as a single composite stock about 500 m
in diameter (Figure 7.11). The geometry is assumed to approximate that of an infinitely long,
tabular dyke, 500 m wide, with cooling confined to the sides of the intrusion. This assumption
facilitates numerical modeling by reducing the degrees of freedom of the system to a one-
dimensional analysis. The implications of this assumption with respect to the actual cooling of the
tonalite porphyry stock are discussed further below. The composite stock is modeled to have been emplaced
at ~150oC above the wet tonalite solidus at 500 bars (~ 1.5 to 2 km lithostatic depth) at about 40%
crystallization, whic h corresponds to the onset of vapor saturation (cf. Figures 4.42, 4.47 and
4.48). The latent heat generated from the crystallization of the remaining 60% of the melt
equals 120,000 J/kg melt (Spear and Peacock, 1989; Peacock, 1990). The temperature of the
wall-rock is inferred to be 100o C, which is equivalent to a depth of ~1.5 to 2 km, assuming a
geothermal gradient of 40o C/km and an ambient 30o C.
The conductive cooling simulation program CONTACT (Peacock, 1990) was used to calculate
the isotherms illustrated in Figure 7.11. This computer program uses an explicit finite-
difference algorithm to solve the time-dependent, one-dimensional heat conduction equation:
dT/dt = Κ∗d2 T/d2 x, where Κ represents the thermal diffusivity (m2 /s; Spear and Peacock, 1989).
The heat of crystallization of the pluton is incorporated by adjusting the heat capacity, and
thereby the thermal diffusivity, during crystallization (S.M. Peacock, written communication,
2000).
The early cooling of the tonalite composite stock is inferred to have been by conduction, as
opposed to convection. This reflects the assumption that the intrusion was contained by a quasi-
plastic carapace at temperatures above ~ 400oC, which would inhibit fluid circulation,
except perhaps immediately after intrusive pulses or hydrothermal breccia events (cf. Fournier,
1989 and 1991; Burnham, 1997; Marsh et al., 1997). However, cooling by convection
probably occurred in the cooler and more distal portions of the system, or later in the cooling history,
as the rocks behaved in a more brittle manner (cf. Norton and Knight, 1977; Spear, 1993). In the
case of convection, the isotherms would extend further away from the causative intrusion, but
retreat more quickly, than in a purely conductive model (Norton and Knight, 1977).
7.6.1.2 Results
The results of the simple cooling model indicate a span of about 250 k.y. from the solidus to
~100o C, which is about 1.2 m.y. less than that determined by the empirical ages (Figure 7.10).
This relationship is consistent with the inferred effects of uplift on the low-temperature cooling
history of the Batu Hijau district (Chapter 5). The model results for the higher-temperature
cooling history, for temperatures above the 40 Ar/39 Ar closure temperature of biotite, indicate a
span of ~ 15 k.y. for the center of the intrusion (Figure 7.11). This age difference falls within
the limits of the 2σ precision of the dating methods employed and is consistent with the
coincidence of zircon and hydrothermal biotite ages at Batu Hijau. Similar results are
documented for numerical modeling of the Cobre stock in the Potrerillos district (Marsh et al.,
1997).
The actual cooling of the Batu Hijau composite tonalite stock could have been more rapid than
indicated in this simulation, as cooling would have taken place at the top of the stock, in
addition to the sides. However, the model assumes an infinitely long, tabular dyke, rather than
the actual cylindrical-conical stock, which is characterized by a greater volume to surface area
ratio than for the dyke. This would conserve heat in the stock and decrease the cooling rate of
the actual intrusion with respect to the model. Hence, the model probably represents a
reasonable approximation of the cooling history of the tonalite complex, given these opposing
effects on cooling rate due to variations in stock geometry.
A numerical model could also be developed for the porphyry system at Katala, but this is not
necessary, since the causative intrusion is of a similar width to that modeled for Batu Hijau and
similar results are expected. The span of ~400 k.y. between the zircon age and magmatic and
hydrothermal biotite ages at Sekongkang could be related to a slower cooling rate (Chapter 6).
The pluton necessary to generate such a time span by conductive cooling would require a radius
of 1 km, assuming emplacement in wall-rock at 150o C (depth of ~3 km). This seems
reasonable, given the diameter of the quartz diorite pluton (QD1) in the Sekongkang−West
Nangka region. However, this model has yet to be evaluated fully with respect to the
dimensions and distribution of the hydrothermal alteration zones and the time-distance
relationships of the modeled isotherms.
Comparison of the time-space distribution for the isotherms determined from the Batu Hijau
cooling model to that of mapped alteration mineral zones confirms the applicability of the
simulation (cf. Figures 6.5, 7.1-7.8 and 7.11). Such a comparison also suggests the interaction
of circulating hydrothermal fluids in the proximal to distal parts of the system at temperatures
<400o C. The lower stability limits of biotite and actinolite in active hydrothermal systems
approximate 300o and 280o C, respectively (Chapter 6). Further constraints can be provided by
the results of the fluid inclusion studies documented by Turner (1995), which indicate
minimum temperatures exceeding 500o C in the center of the deposit (SBD03) and a ~375o C
isotherm that extends about 400 m from the center of Batu Hijau. The latter surface coincides
approximately with the limit of strong biotite alteration, ~ 5 vol. % quartz veins and the 0.5%
Cu outline (Figure 7.11).
The location of these hydrothermal zones with respect to the maximum temperatures calculated
in the model, indicate a good agreement for the relatively high-temperature fluid inclusion data.
However, the simulated isotherms display temperatures lower than the stability limits for biotite
(∆T ~ 25o C) and actinolite (∆T ~ 50o C). This probably reflects, in part, cooling by convection
in the proximal to distal parts of the system, where heat transport is enhanced by fracture-
controlled fluid migration (cf. Norton and Knight, 1977). An alternative explanation includes
the addition of heat from an intrusion not modeled. However, the convection model is
preferred.
7.7 Comparison With Other Porphyry Copper Deposits and Districts
7.7.1 Geological Setting and Depth of Emplacement
Figure 7.12 and Table 7.3 provide a comparative summary of the salient characeristics of
selected porphyry deposits in volcanic island arc and continental margin settings. The selection
of these deposits reflects a bias towards systems that are: 1) gold-rich, 2) located in the
southwest Pacific and/or 3) characterized by a constrained depth estimate.
The Batu Hijau district occurs in a primitive, Neogene volcanic island arc setting, similar to
that which hosts porphyry deposits in North Luzon (e.g. Far South East and Santo Thomas II)
and elsewhere in the southwest Pacific (e.g. Panguna, PNG and Koloula, Solomon Islands).
The spatial proximity of the late-stage Santong diatreme to the Batu Hijau deposit is a common
characteristic of island arc porphyry systems in the southwest Pacific (Sillitoe and Gappe,
1984; Sillitoe, 1993) and British Columbia (Sutherland-Brown, 1976). The ages of the volcano-
sedimentary basement rocks that host porphyry systems in island arc settings range from Late
Cretaceous to Miocene (Table 7.3). In contrast, the basement rocks to continental margin
porphyry deposits are much older, ranging from Precambrian to early Tertiary.
Table 7.3 Summary of host rocks and causative intrusions for selected porphyry deposits in continental margin and volcanic island arc settings.
ID No. Name, Location Host Rocks and Age Causative Intrusion(s), Emplacement Age (Ma) Reference(s)
(Duration of Hydrothermal System1 , m.y.)
Continental Margin
MacDonald and Arnold (1994);
1 Grasberg, Irian Jaya, Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary and carbonate rock, Main Grasberg monzodiorite porphyry, ~3 McDowell et al. (1996);
Indonesia Pliocene andesitic-monzodioritic diatreme (<0.8# ) Weiland and Cloos (1996)
2 Henderson, Colorado Precambrian granite Rhyolite-granite porphyries, 28-23 White et al. (1981); Seedorff
(0.6-1.2; Ar/Ar) (1988); Carten and Snee (1995)
3 Park Premier Stock, Triassic siltstone and limestone, Early Oligocene Granodiorite porphyries, Park Premier stock, John (1989a,b), Clark (1993)
Wasatch Mtns, Utah andesitic-rhyodacitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks 34>x>32 (<2; K/Ar)
4 Bingham, Utah Pennsylvanian sedimentary rocks and limestone, Quartz monzonite porphyry, ~38 Babcock et al. (1995); Bodnar
Eocene quartz monzonite (2.1; K/Ar) (1995); Warnaars et al. (1978)
5 El Salvador, Chile Late Cretaceous andesitic volcanic and Granodiorite porphyries - "X", "K" & "L", ~41 Gustafson and Hunt (1975);
Eocene rhyolitic volcanic rocks (1.2; K/Ar or 0.4; Re-Os, preferred) Watanabe et al. (1999)
6 Ann Mason – Triassic to Early Jurassic sedimentary and Granite porphyry, Yerington batholith, 169-168 Dilles and Einaudi (1992)
Yerington, Nevada volcanic rocks (1.0; U-Pb) Dilles and Wright (1988)
Volcanic Island Arc
7 Far South East, Miocene andesitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks Quartz diorite porphyry, 1.4 Garcia (1991); Arribas et al.
Luzon, Philippines (<0.3; K/Ar) (1995); Hedenquist et al. (1998)
8 Santo Thomas II, Late Cretaceous to Paleogene basaltic-andesitic Quartz diorite porphyry, ~1.9 Sillitoe and Gappe (1984);
Luzon, Philippines metavolcanic and minor clastic rocks (<0.5# ) Philex (1993)
9 Dizon, Luzon, Late Miocene to Pliocene andesitic-dacitic volcanic rocks Quartz diorite-dacite porphyry, ~2.7 (K/Ar) Sillitoe and Gappe (1984);
Philippines Malihan (1987)
10 Biga - Atlas, Cebu, Early Cretaceous metasedimentary and Quartz diorite porphyry, late Early Cretaceous Sillitoe and Gappe (1984);
Philippines metavolcanic rocks BMG (1986)
Notes: 1 – inferred duration of system, if known, and dating method, compiled from references cited and Marsh et al. (1997) (http://pangea.stanford.edu/ODEX/odex.html).
Symbols: # - age difference between K/Ar biotite and fission-track apatite at Grasberg, and K/Ar biotite and fission track zircon at Santo Thomas II (poorly constrained).
The Pliocene age of the Batu Hijau deposit is similar to other southwest Pacific porphyry
systems, which can be attributed to early- to mid-Pliocene plate-tectonic reorganizations related
to arc-continent and arc-arc collisional events, and the subduction of buoyant aseismic ridges or
oceanic plateaus (Solomon, 1990; Rak, 1999; this study). Such events are inferred to have led
to variations in local stress-fields, the transition from arc-orthogonal to arc-oblique plate
convergence, and pulses of arc-parallel extension (Chapters 2 and 6). The continental margin
porphyry deposits in North and South America are older, characterized by at least three major
pulses of development: 1) late Cretaceous to Paleocene (Laramide Orogeny), 2) late Eocene to
Oligocene (~45 to 30 Ma), and 3) late Miocene to early Pliocene (Central Andes) (Titley and
Beane, 1981). Each of these episodes of porphyry development is characterized by major plate
reorganization (Rampino and Caldiera, 1993). Pre-Cretaceous porphyry systems are also
recorded, such as at Ann Mason−Yerington (168 Ma, Dilles and Wright, 1988) and in the
Canadian Cordillera (Titley and Beane, 1981; McMillan and Panteleyev, 1995).
The arc-transverse distribution of intrusion-related deposits in both island- and continental-arc

settings coincides locally with inferred kinks or tears in the subducting slab and the margins of
subducted, buoyant aseismic ridges. These relationships are well expressed in the Central
Andes (Skewes and Stern, 1985; Sasso and Clarke, 1998), North Luzon (Yang et al., 1996;
Kerrich et al., 2000), and western Sumbawa (Chapters 2 and 3). These tears in the down-going
slab are inferred to have localized crustal-scale fault networks in the overlying arc, which
facilitate the rapid ascent of volatile - and metal-rich magma from the sub-arc mantle to high-
crustal levels (Chapters 2 and 6).
The estimated depths of emplacement beneath the syn-mineral paleosurface for the selected
porphyry deposits indicate higher levels of causal intrusion in the island arc versus continental
settings (Figure 7.12). In the majority of the deposits, the tops of the causative intrusion(s), or
economic copper ore shells, where late-stage alteration and supergene assemblages have not
completely obscured early sulfide zones, range from ~1 to 2 km beneath the paleosurface. In
contrast, Ann Mason-Yerington and Bingham are inferred to have formed at depths of ~ 2.5
and 4 km, respectively (Dilles and Einaudi, 1992; Bodnar, 1995). The vertical column of ore in
the compiled deposits, where preserved, exceeds 1 km, the bottom of the ore zone passing
downwards into a weakly mineralized batholith (e.g. Yerington) or being truncated by late-
mineral intrusions (e.g. Atlas).
The paleodepths estimated for the tops of the causative intrusions correlate moderately well with
the depths of emplacement reported by Cox and Singer (1988) for global porphyry deposits and
Sutherland-Brown (1976) for deposits in the Canadian Cordillera. These authors indicate
depths of ~ 1 to 2 km for porphyry copper-gold deposits and ~ 3 to 5 km for porphyry copper-
molybdenum deposits. However, neither of these papers defines the reference surface from
which depth is measured (e.g. top of the causative intrusion or copper ore shell). Cox and
Singer (1988) report an inverse correlation between depth of emplacement and gold-grade (r =
−0.90), and a positive correlation between gold-grade and magnetite abundance (r = 0.68). This indicates
that in general many gold-rich porphyry copper systems contain abundant magnetite and were emplaced
at high crustal-levels, relationships that characterize some of the larger deposits in island arc
settings (e.g. Grasberg and Batu Hijau).
Several of the worlds largest porphyry copper-gold deposits occur in dynamic tectonic
environments, which are characterized by physiographic uplift and high rates of exhumation, as
indicated in the Central Andes, Central Ranges of New Guinea and the North Luzon Cordillera
(Sillitoe, 1998; Kay et al., 1999, Kerrich et al., 2000). The high uplift rates reported for the
Central Ranges are consistent with those determined at Batu Hijau, 0.5 to 1.0 mm/yr. The
preservation of high-level deposits depends, in part, on the relative rate of uplift versus that of
erosion. In seismically active regions characterized by high rainfall, where erosion is significant
(e.g. Sumbawa, Irian Jaya and Luzon), gold-rich porphyry deposits older than 8 Ma could have
been eroded. This is determined on the basis of an estimated exhumation rate of 500 m/m.y.
and a paleodepth of < 4 km for the bottom of the copper ore zone. Older porphyry deposits are
preserved in more stable tectonic environments (e.g. continental, porphyry copper-molybdenum
systems), where covered by post-mineral rock sequences (e.g. Yerington), or emplaced at
depths greater than 5 km (e.g. Butte; Bodnar, 1995).
7.7.2 Geometry and Style of Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization
The geometries and styles of hydrothermal alteration and sulfide-oxide mineral zones in porphyry
systems are summarized in Chapter 1 and documented in the literature (Lowell and Guilbert,
1970; Sillitoe, 1973, 1993; Hollister et al., 1974; Titley and Beane, 1981; Beane and Titley,
1981; Titley, 1982; Einaudi, 1982; Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984; McMillan and Panteleyev, 1995).
The styles of the porphyry centers in the Batu Hijau district share many similarities to porphyry
systems elsewhere. However, a few deviations from the classic models do occur. These relate,
in part, to the low-K composition of the tonalitic magmas that generated the hydrothermal
systems at Batu Hijau, Arung Ara and Sekongkang−West Nangka and the calcic -composition
of the andesitic wall-rock.
Secondary K-feldspar is supplanted by oligoclase in the central biotite-magnetite zones in these

low-K systems. Paragonite locally supplants sericite in late-stage alteration assemblages and
advanced argillic alteration is more abundant than in porphyry deposits formed in quartz
monzonite and granodiorite systems, which are typical of continental margins. In contrast, the
presence of local K-feldspar and la ck of significant paragonite and advanced argillic alteration
at Katala is consistent with the medium-K granodioritic composition of late-mineral dykes. The
zones of actinolite, diopside and epidote veins recorded peripheral to porphyry centers in the
Batu Hijau district have analogues elsewhere (e.g. Bingham, Panguna, Island Copper and
several of the Philippine systems; Cargill et al., 1976; Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984; Clark, 1990;
Babcock et al., 1995).
A similar progression of vein types is recorded in many porphyry deposits, characterized by

early “A”, transitional “B” (+ “C”), and late “D” veins (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975). The
porphyry centers in the study area also contain these vein types. However, the preserved
abundance of hypogene chalcocite, digenite and bornite in early “A” veinlets at Batu Hijau is
atypical, because, in many porphyry deposits elsewhere, these copper sulfides are sulfidized to
an assemblage of chalcopyrite-pyrite+bornite (e.g. southwest USA). The preservation of these
early copper ore minerals reflects the relatively minor overprinting of early, magnetite-stable
alteration styles by later, pyritic alteration assemblages. Other deposits that contain significant
bornite in the ore zone include Bingham (Babcock et al., 1995), El Salvador (Gustafson and
Hunt, 1975), Panguna (Clark, 1990) and Grasberg (MacDonald and Arnold, 1994). Gold is
typically associated with early-formed bornite in porphyry systems, as indicated by empirical
and experimental results (Simon et al., 2000). However, porphyry deposits that contain
abundant transitional- to late-chalcopyrite also contain significant gold, as at Far South East
(Garcia, 1991; Hedenquist et al., 1998) and Ok Tedi (Rush and Seegers, 1990).
The metal zoning patterns in the Batu Hijau district, typified by central Fe-Cu-Au, proximal
Mo and distal Pb-Zn-Ag-Au-As, are similar to those in porphyry systems hosted by silicate-
dominant wall-rock, such as at Kalamazoo, Arizona (Chaffee, 1982), Mineral Park, Arizona
(Lang and Eastoe, 1988) and Granisle, British Columbia (Jambor, 1974). However, in the
continental systems, Mo is concentrated in the core of the deposits and reaches economic
concentrations locally (e.g. > 0.1% MoS2 at Bingham; Babcock et al., 1995). Molybdenum
commonly forms haloes to the gold-rich cores in many porphyry copper deposits, including Far
South East, Santo Thomas II, Dos Pobres and Bajo de La Alumbrera (Sillitoe, 1993).
Deposits emplaced in wall-rock that contain carbonate units, such as Bingham, Grasberg and Ok
Tedi, develop large and high-grade copper-gold skarns. Sillitoe (1994) suggests that the impermeable
carapace formed by carbonate rocks in these magmatic -hydrothermal systems acts to contain
exsolved volatiles and focus ore deposition. At Batu Hijau, metals deposition is inferred to be
localized by a relatively impermeable pre-mineral composite pluton and contact (thermal)
metamorphosed andesitic wall-rock (Turner, 1995). This isolated the central part of the
hydrothermal system from external fluids during early deposit development, when most (~
80%) of the Cu and Au were precipitated.
7.7.3 Duration of the Hydrothermal System
The estimated duration of the hydrothermal systems, for the deposits compiled in Figure 7.12
and Table 7.3, ranges from < 300 k.y. at Far South East to ~ 2 m.y. at Bingham.
Marsh et al. (1997) have compiled a comprehensive table summarizing the duration of well-
dated hydrothermal systems, which is available on the web site:
http://pangea.stanford.edu/ODEX/ odex.html. The highlights of this table indicate time spans of
100 k.y. at Round Mountain, Nevada; 230+210 (1σ) k.y. at Cobre, Potrerillos; 250 to 300 k.y.
for two separate events at Koloula, Solomon Islands; 400 to 500 k.y. at Questa, New Mexico;
and >600 k.y. at Chuquicamata, Chile. The short duration of the Batu Hijau hydrothermal
system, 80 + 80 (2σ) k.y., is consistent with the nearly coeval emplacement of the tonalite
porphyry complex at high crustal-levels and rapid cooling.
The ~ 3.5 m.y. duration of the cycle of felsic magmatism and related hydrothermal
alteration events in the Batu Hiaju district (7.1 to < 3.7 Ma), is shorter than time-
spans determined for magmatic activity in other porphyry districts. These include ~ 14 m.y. at
Potrerillos (Marsh et al, 1997), ~ 12 m.y. in the Park City−Bingham Belt (Warnaars et al.,
1978; John, 1989a) and about 9 m.y at El Muerto (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975). This difference
in cycle duration could reflect the restricted time-span of the collision events (~ 8 Ma to ~ 4 -
2.5 Ma) in the east Banda arc, which are inferred to have played a role in the timing and
localization of mineralization in the Batu Hijau district.
7.8 Linking Geologic and Exploration Models
The geologic, geochemical and geophysical data discussed in this chapter, particularly those
illustrated in the synoptic diagrams, Figures 7.1 to 7.9, can be applied to exploration for
porphyry deposits elsewhere. The potential vectors to ore include: 1) spatial and temporal
evolution of felsic intrusive complexes, 2) abundance of fractures and quartz veins, 3) zoning
of early- and late-hydrothermal alteration minerals and ore-minerals 4) zoning of metals and
Ag/Au in rock and soil, and 5) coincidence of geophysical anomalies. The exploration
significance of the geologic setting, geometry and timing of porphyry-related hydrothermal
systems, is discussed in Chapter 8.
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR EXPLORATION 285
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR

EXPLORATION
8.1 Introduction
The preceding chapter provides a synthesis of the tectonic setting, geology, physical conditions
of causal intrusion emplacement, hydrothermal alteration, mineralization, metal zoning and
geophysical signatures of the study area, with emphasis on the Batu Hijau deposit. The timing
and duration of porphyry mineralization are placed into the context of regional tectonism,
district geologic events and the cooling histories of causal intrusions. A series of synoptic plans
and cross-sections for the Batu Hijau area illustrates the relationship of the geologic attributes
that typically characterize porphyry copper-gold deposits.
This chapter presents the major characteristics of large porphyry copper-gold deposits, as based
on the data reported in this study (Chapters 2 through 6) and comparisons made with porphyry
deposits elsewhere (Chapter 7). The implications of these findings for exploration of porphyry
deposits exposed at different levels of exhumation are indicated in a schematic diagram (Figure
8.1). Finally, future exploration- and mining-related studies and academic research are
recommended, to enhance the potential of future discovery and further the geologic
understanding of the Batu Hijau district.
8.2 Conclusions
8.2.1 Batu Hijau District
The key relationships between mineralization and other geologic elements determined in the
study area include:
1) development of four porphyry centers and peripheral structurally controlled vein and
hydrothermal alteration systems over ~ 3.5 m.y. (~ 7.1 to 3.7 Ma),
2) localization and timing of mineralization related, in part, to arc-parallel extension and
dilatent movement along crustal-scale, arc-transverse fault zones prior to, and during, the
collison of the Australian Craton with the eastern Banda arc,
3) a kink, or tear, in the down-going slab beneath western Sumbawa, caused by the subduction
of the Roo Rise oceanic plateau, which facilitates the upwelling of asthensosphere and
emplacement of mantle -derived melts along arc-transverse fault zones at high crustal-levels
in the overlying arc,
4) appreciable rates of uplift and exhumation for the Batu Hijau district and porphyry systems
in other tectonically active regions (e.g. Grasberg, Irian Jaya; North Luzon, Philippines;
central Andes),
5) localization of porphyry centers in the district related to local deviations in the regional,
subduction-related stress-field due to interaction with the complex geometric margins of
pre-mineral composite plutons,
286 CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR EXPLORATION
6) the location of the Batu Hijau deposit in an inferred cupola setting above a tonalite-quartz
diorite batholith at depth (cf. Yerington; Figure 8.1),
7) a spatial and temporal coincidence of syn- to late-mineral intrusions and zones of elevated
“A” and “B” vein abundance and increased fracture intensity, in each porphyry center,
8) inferred development of porphyry centers and the Bambu and Teluk Puna vein systems in
response to north-northeasterly-directed compression related to subduction; distal,
structurally controlled zones of comb quartz veins and feldspar-destructive alteration
formed due to north-northeasterly-oriented extension related to arc-relaxation,
9) emplacement of causal intrusions at progressively higher crustal-levels through time (~3 to
4 km vs. < 2 km), which led to the efficient release of volatiles and copper-gold
mineralization early in the crystallization sequence of the tonalite melt at Batu Hijau,
10) presence of a strongly porphyritic texture and partially resorbed phenocrysts, and the
occurrence of mafic minerals in the aplitic groundmass to the causal intrusions, which are
diagnostic of the physical conditions associated with volatile release and solidification, and,
hence, provide insight as to the ore-producing capacity of the intrusions,
11) early hydrothermal alteration styles (e.g. central biotite-oligoclase) reflect wall-rock
metasomatism and the composition of the magmatic fluids,
12) zoning of late hydrothermal alteration styles, which provides a vector to porphyry copper-
gold ore, with advanced argillic and sericitic -paragonitic alteration adjacent to, and above,
the porphyry centers and intermediate argillic and illitic alteration types in more distal
settings,
13) metal zoning with respect to each porphyry center, which is characterized by central Fe,
Cu, Au and Ag; proximal Mo; and distal Pb, Zn, Ag, Au and As, and
14) geophysical signature of Batu Hijau, which includes a central magnetic high, central and
annular zones of elevated chargeability, a resistive core and conductive annulus - all of
which lie within a corridor of elevated radiometric potassium; peripheral porphyry systems
indicate a similar response, but at lower levels.
8.2.2 Comparison to Global Porphyry Deposits
The tectonic - and regional geologic -settings of the Batu Hijau district are similar to those that
characterize porphyry systems in volcanic island arc (e.g. Philippines and offshore Papua New
Guinea) and continental margin (e.g. Central Ranges, New Guinea and central Andes) settings.
In each of these regions, intrusion-related mineral deposits are localized along arc-transverse
tectonic lineaments and faults that coincide with the surface projection of inferred kinks, or
tears, in the subducting slab. A similar tectonic setting is inferred for the emplacement of
porphyry copper deposits in the western USA during the Cretaceous to Paleocene Laramide
Orogeny (cf. Dickinson and Snyder, 1978; Titley and Beane, 1981; Sillitoe, 1998; Kerrich et
al., 2000). The variations in regional stress fields caused by plate-tectonic reorganization,
which is typically due to arc-arc, continent-arc and other collisional events, facilitates intrusion-
related mineralization (cf. Solomon, 1990; Kerrich et al., 2000). The migration of the magmatic
arc subsequent to mid-Pliocene mineralization at Batu Hijau and Neogene mineralization in the
central Andes (cf. Kay et al., 1999) indicates that the deposits in these regions formed in a
dynamic tectono-magmatic setting. A similar setting is inferred in the western USA, where
many of the deposits, with ages that range from about 72 to 54 Ma, lie proximal to the inferred
retreat of the hinge of the subducted Farallon Plate at ~ 60 Ma (Bird et al., 1984; Kirkham,
1998; Kerrich et al., 2000).
The duration of the magmatic -hydrothermal events in the Batu Hijau district (~3.5 m.y.) is
slightly less protracted with respect to the longevity of intrusion-related events recorded for other
porphyry districts (e.g. 9 to 14 m.y.; cf. Potrerillos and El Muerto, Chile and Park City-
Bingham Belt, Utah). The duration of the Batu Hijau hydrothermal system (80 + 80 m.y.) is
one of the better constrained estimates of the longevity of a porphyry system documented. The
depth of emplacement (< 2 km) and characteristic hydrothermal alteration styles of the Batu
Hijau deposit are similar to those inferred for other gold-rich porphyry systems.
In contrast to many global porphyry systems, there is no compelling evidence to place the
porphyry centers of the Batu Hijau district in the subsurface setting of an andesitic
stratovolcano (cf. Sillitoe, 1973). The preferred origin involves a series of dykes, cupolas and
high-level plutons localized above a quartz dioritic batholith at depth. The low-K calc -alkaline
affinity of the tonalitic melts at Batu Hijau is responsible for the K-poor alteration types that
distinguish this deposit from others, particularly those deposits associated with quartz
monzonite in continental settings. At Batu Hijau, secondary oligoclase supplants K-feldspar in
the central biotite zone, and paragonite proxies for sericite locally. In addition, the intensity and
abundance of advanced argillic alteration at Batu Hijau exceeds that which characterizes late-
stage alteration in many other porphyry systems.
Early copper-sulfide minerals (e.g. chalcocite, digenite and bornite) are preserved at Batu
Hijau. In contrast, these minerals are commonly sulfidized and replaced by chalc opyrite and
pyrite in other deposits. Hence, the Batu Hijau deposit provides insights into the early
paragenesis of copper-gold mineralization, which is commonly obscured by later events in
other porphyry deposits. The distribution of metal zoning patterns, which are centered about the
porphyry centers in the district, is similar to that recorded in other porphyry districts.
The geophysical signature of the porphyry centers, particularly the central zones of high
magnetic susceptibility, is similar to those of porphyry deposits emplaced at high crustal-levels
elsewhere (cf. Grasberg and Island Copper).
8.3 Exploration Model
8.3.1 Vectors to Ore
The synoptic plans presented as Figures 7.1 to 7.9 summarize the key relationships between
intrusive distribution, structural setting, hydrothermal alteration, mineralization, metal zoning
and the geophysical signature of the Batu Hijau area. The inferred settings of the Batu Hijau
deposit and Santong diatreme, and the geologic, geochemical and geophysical expressions of
the porphyry deposit are illustrated in Figure 8.1. The most important vectors to copper-gold
ore are summarized below:
Lithology
1) causative intrusions are localized along the margins of pre-mineral composite plutons
hosted in andesitic basement rocks,
2) productive porphyry centers are characterized by multiple, nearly coeval, syn-mineral,
intrusions, which did not vent at surface, and
3) syn- to late-mineral dyke abundance increases with proximity to porphyry centers.
Structure
4) fault zone intersections with the margins of pre-mineral composite plutons represent
potential zones for porphyry mineralization,
5) early quartz vein and fracture abundance increase with proximity to porphyry centers, and
6) structurally controlled zones of comb quartz veins flank the Batu Hijau deposit.
Hydrothermal Alteration
7) the outer limit of epidote veinlets is significantly larger than the limits defined by central
biotite and proximal actinolite alteration styles, and
8) the distribution and mineral assemblages of late, feldspar-destructive alteration indicate
hotter and more acidic fluid conditions proximal to the porphyry centers.
Mineralization
9) magnetite veinlets and fracture-controlled chalcopyrite extend well beyond the bornite-rich
“A” and “B” veins that comprise the core of the Batu Hijau deposit, and
10) the abundance of pyritic “D” veins increases with proximity to the porphyry centers.
Metal Zoning
11) gold, Ag + base-metals + As characterize peripheral quartz vein systems that occur as far as
9 km from the nearest porphyry center, and
12) zinc forms peripheral annuli and Mo comprises proximal haloes to the Au-Cu-Ag cores of
the porphyry centers.
Geophysical Signature
13) coincident distribution of porphyry centers with airborne magnetic highs and zones of
elevated chargeability, which are located within a corridor of high radiometric -potassium.
8.3.2 Depth Considerations
The vectors to ore summarized above are illustrated as a series of synoptic plots that show the
intensity and distribution of these parameters at different crustal-levels through the Batu Hijau
deposit (Figure 8.1 C). These plots illustrate the inferred geologic -, hydrothermal alteration-,
mineralization-, metal zoning-patterns and geophysical response of the deposit that correspond
to the mid-Pliocene paleosurface, and depths of 1 km and 2.5 km. The primary aim of this
approach is to illustrate the effects that erosional level has on the near-surface expression of a
world-class porphyry copper-gold deposit and to facilitate exploration for this style of
mineralization in different geologic settings.
As illustrated in Figure 8.1, the causal stocks that form the lower portions of the deposit pass
upward through a dyke swarm to a diatreme-dome complex at surface. This transition is
paralleled by the general progression from early, bornite-bearing “A” and “B” vein-related,
biotite-magnetite alteration at depth to late, pyrite+chalcopyrite-dominant, feldspar-destructive
alteration at higher levels. The geophysical response and metal zoning patterns that characterize
the three levels reflect these changes in hydrothermal alteration types and sulfide-oxide mineral
assemblages. The integration of these parameters facilitates the assessment of the prospectivity
for a given area and provides potential vectors to ore.
8.4 Recommendations for Future Studies
8.4.1 Exploration and Mining Related Studies
In order to enhance the potential for future discoveries in the district and elsewhere in
Sumbawa, and to facilitate the mining and processing of Batu Hijau ore, it is recommended that
Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company pursue the following studies:
1) create a two-dimensional stress-simulation map for the district and other claim areas in
Sumbawa to identify if Batu Hijau-like stress anomalies characterize the margins of pre-
mineral composite plutons elsewhere,
2) undertake a study to simulate the geophysical responses of Batu Hijau at different erosional
levels, and beneath post-mineral cover sequences, to determine the potential for porphyry
deposits in regions for which the company has existing geophysical data, and
3) conduct a study of the sulfide mineralogy of Batu Hijau to determine the effects of the
varying silicate- and sulfide- mineral assemblages on the deportation of gold and ore
beneficiation.
8.4.2 Research
Additional academic research that could be accomplished to improve the geologic

understanding of the Batu Hijau deposit and surrounding district includes the following:
1) conduct a stable isotope study to determine the source of late-stage fluids (magmatic vs.
external) (cf. Far South East; Hedenquist et al., 1998),
2) determine the absolute ages of the Santong diatreme, late andesite dykes and late-stage
sericitic-illitic alteration that post-dates diatreme emplacement,
3) establish the absolute ages of late-stage feldspar-destructive alteration in the porphyry
centers peripheral to Batu Hiaju; date emplacement of the Bambu and Teluk Puna veins,
and
4) undertake a comprehensive fluid inclusion study of early “A”, transitional “B” and late “D”
veins and comb quartz veins to determine the evolution of the Batu Hijau fluids through
time and space; conduct Proton Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) analyses and melt-
inclusion studies, if warranted, to determine the siting of Au and Cu (plus other metals) in
silicate melt, hydrous liquid and vapor phases.
8.5 Concluding Statement
This thesis has made the following important advancements in the understanding of the Batu
Hijau district:
1) Tectonic -, geologic- and structural-controls on the development of major porphyry centers,

including the Batu Hijau deposit,
2) diagnostic textures and mineral assemblages of copper-bearing vs. non-productive intrusions, and
the implied physical conditions of emplacement,
3) depth of intrusion and inferred depth to parent magma chambers,
4) temporal evolution, absolute timing and duration of the intrusion-related hydrothermal
systems,
5) patterns of hydrothermal alteration and metal zoning, and
6) regional and local exploration models.
The research has also made a significant impact on how porphyry copper-gold systems are
viewed, which include:
1) regional tectonic - and local structural-controls to intrusion-related mineralization in

magmatic arc settings,
2) controls on porphyry deposit emplacement by the architecture of the pre-existing arc,
3) hydrothermal alteration style s characteristic of low-K calc -alkaline (tonalitic) porphyry
systems, and
4) an improved exploration model, which integrates geologic, geochemical and geophysical
data.
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THE SETTING, GEOMETRY AND TIMING OF INTRUSION-
RELATED HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS IN THE VICINITY OF
THE BATU HIJAU PORPHYRY COPPER-GOLD DEPOSIT,
SUMBAWA, INDONESIA
VOLUME TWO
Steven L. Garwin
B.S. Stanford University
M.Sc. University of British Columbia
This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the

University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia
Centre for Global Metallogeny,

Department of Geology and Geophysics
August, 2000
Supervisors: Professors David I. Groves and Marco T. Einaudi

APPENDICES
1 Abbreviations and formulae for common minerals in the Batu Hijau district
2 Summary of petrologic descriptions for selected rock samples
3 Operating conditions for electron microprobe analysis of silicate and oxide minerals
4 Chemical compositions of magmatic and hydrothermal minerals
5a Analytical methods and detection limits for chemical elements
5b Chemical compositions of representative rock samples
6a Summary of X-ray diffraction results
6b Results of quantitative X-ray diffraction analysis
6c X-ray diffraction peak charts
206
7a Pb/238U SHRIMP procedures for Neogene zircons
7b Summary of 206Pb/238U SHRIMP age data
8a CSIRO (U-Th)/He thermochronometry facility intstrumentation and procedures
8b CSIRO (U-Th)/He thermochronometry results
8c Length measurements, morphology and photographs of apatite grains
40
9a Ar/39Ar incremental heating experiment results – Stanford Argon laboratory
40
9b Ar/39Ar incremental heating experiment results – U.S.G.S. Argon laboratory
APPENDIX 1 − Abbreviations and formulae for common minerals in the Batu Hijau district
ab albite NaAlSi3O8 ac actinolite/tremolite Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8)22(OH)2

an anorthite CaAl2Si2O8 and andalusite Al2SiO5
anh anhydrite CaSO4 ap apatite CaPO4
bi biotite K(Mg,Fe)3(AL,Fe)Si3O10(OH,F)2 bn bornite Cu5FeS4
ca calcite CaCO3 cc chalcocite Cu2S
ch chlorite (Mg,Fe)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2∗(Mg,Fe)3(OH) 6 cm cummingtonite (Mg,Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2
cp chalcopyrite CuFeS2 dg digenite Cu9S5
di dickite Al4Si4O10(OH)8 dp diaspore AlO(OH)
en enstatite Mg2Si2O6 ep epidote Ca2(Al,Fe)Al2O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)
gn galena PbS2 hb/hbl hornblende Ca2(Mg,Fe)4Al(Si7Al)O22(OH,F)2
hm hematite Fe2O3 il illite K1-1.5Al4(SiAl)8O20(OH)4
ka kaolinite Al4Si4O10(OH)8 kf K-feldspar KalSi3O8
mo molybdenite MoS2 mt magnetite Fe3O4
py pyrite FeS2 px/di diopside CaMgSi2O6
pyp pyrophyllite Al4Si8O20(OH)4 qz quartz SiO2
se/pa sericite/paragonite (K, Na)Al2(AlSiO3O10)(OH,F)2 sl sphalerite ZnS2
sm smectite (montromillonite) (Ca,Na)0.66(Al,Mg,Fe)4∗(Si,Al)8O20(OH)4∗nH2O st stilbite NaCa2Al5Si13O36∗14H2O
tour tourmaline (Na,Ca)(Fe,Mg,Al/Li,Mn,…)(Al,Fe,Cr,Mg)6(BO3)(Si6O18)(OH,F)4
tn tennantite (Cu,Fe)12As4S13 tt titamite CaTiSiO5
zr zircon ZrSiO4 zu zunyite Al13Si5O20(OH,F)18Cl
APPENDIX 2 – Summary of petrological descriptions for selected rock samples from the
Batu Hijau district by prospect area (sample numbers correspond to locations on Map 9).
Batu Hijau rock sample descriptions
Sample No. Location Brief Description
97090901 Br. Belu Fg-mg equigranular hbl quartz diorite; st chl after hbl and
minor relict bi; 2-3% diss mt.
97091010 Br. Belu Fg-mg equigranular hbl quartz diorite; wk chl-(ep) after hbl
and wk ep after plg; ~1% diss mt and ilm/tt.
97091012A/B Br. Belu Hornfelsic volcanic sandstone; st bi alt o/p by mod-st chl alt;
5-7% diss, vt and qvt mt, trace cpy.
97091013 Br. Belu Crystal-rich volcanic sandstone; st qz-il-chl alt with complete
plg replacement and chl after relict bi; 3-5% ilm-tt and trace
py.
97091118 Br. Belu Crystal-rich volcanic sandstone with hbl and plg; wk-mod chl-
ca-(clay) after hbl and local ep-(ca) after plg; 5-7% diss and
hbl site specific mt and ilm-tt.
97091119A Br. Belu Crystal-rich volcanic sandstone(?); st qz-se/il alt with

complete replacement; 7-10% diss py with relict ilm-tt.
97091224 Br. Belu Crystal-rich volcanic lithic breccia with hbl and plg; st chl-ca-
(ep) after hbl, wk ca-(ep) after plg and ep-chl after lithics; 1-
2% diss py; minor qvt-(ca).
97091429 Br. Belu Crystal-rich coarse sandstone with hbl and plg; st chl alt of
groundmass and hbl and mod ep-fsp-(ca)-qz after plg; 3-5%
diss mt and ilm-tt, 1-2% diss py and trace cpy.
97092601 Air Merah Porphyritic hbl andesite with hbl and plg phenos in a plg-rich
groundmass; mod-st chl-(ca)-(ep) after hbl phenos and local
ep after plg phenos, groundmass phases lack alt; 3-4% diss
and hbl site specific mt and minor groundmass ilm-tt.
97092704 Air Merah Porphyritic hbl andesite(?); st qz-chl-se/il alt with complete
plg destruction; 2% lx in relict hbl sites(?), minor (<1%) py
and trace cpy assoc with se-ch in relict phenocryst sites and
along fractures.
97092706 Air Merah Bedded crystal-rich volcanic sandstone; st se/il-ch-qz alt with
complete plg destruction; 2-3% diss and site specific hm, 1-
2% py and minor cpy (assoc with hm).
97092708 Air Merah Crystal-rich volcanic lithic breccia with hbl(?) and plg; st ch-
ca-(ep) after hbl(?) and lithics, wk ep-(se/il) after plg, chl
replaces relict bio; 5-7% diss and hbl/lithic site specific mt
and ilm-tt, 1% py and trace cpy assoc with mt and ilm-tt.
97092710 Air Merah Crystal-rich volcanic lithic breccia-conglomerate with hb and

plg; mod chl after hbl and wk ep after plg; 5-7% diss and hbl
site specific mt and ilm-tt.
97092713 Air Merah Porphyritic hbl quartz diorite with hbl and plg phenos in a vfg
groundmass of plg and qz; mod chl-(ca) after hbl and wk ep
after plg; 3-4% diss mt and trace py.
Batu Hijau district by prospect area.
97092804A Br. Tembaga Hornfelsic f-co crystal-rich volcanic sandstone with hbl and
plg; st chl after hbl, fsp alt of groundmass and qz-fsp vt; ~3%
diss mt and minor fracture-controlled py.
97092806A/B Br. Tembaga Porphyritic hbl quartz diorite/tonalite with hbl, plg and qz
phenos in a vfg groundmass qz and plg; st chl after hbl and
minor ep after plg, fracture-controlled ch-ep, minor tour; 2-
3% diss and hbl site specific mt and ilm-tt, minor fracture-
controlled py.
97092807A/B Br. Tembaga Crystal-rich volcanic sandstone with plg and minor hbl; act
after hbl, act vt and late fracture-controlled chl; 5-7% mt and
ilm-tt, minor cpy assoc with chl in fractures and diss in
wallrock; qz-py-cpy vt.
97092808 Br. Tembaga Fg-mg hbl quartz diorite porphyry with qz eyes; st chl after
hbl and minor ep after plg; 1-2% mt (diss) and ilm-tt (hbl site
specific), 2-3% py and minor cpy assoc with chl and ilm-tt in
relict hbl sites.
97092809A/C/D Br. Tembaga Fg-mg hbl quartz diorite porphyry with qz eyes; chl-(se) after
hbl and local se after plg with relict ep, chl replaces relict
shreddy bi; diss mt and hbl site specific ilm-tt, rutile and
titanite, py and cpy assoc with chl along fractures and in hbl
sites.
97092912 Br. Tembaga Hornfelsic crystal-rich volcanic sandstone with plg; fg diss
and vt act and vt chl; 3-5% diss mt and trace cpy assoc with
act-chl vt.
97092913A Br. Tembaga Fg-mg equigranular hbl quartz diorite with minor fg qz eyes;
st bi after hbl with late fracture-controlled ch-se alt, local fsp-
qz after plg; diss mt, rutile assoc with bi in hbl sites.
97092914 Br. Tembaga Porphyritic hbl andesite; v wk chl-(act?) after hbl; 3-4% diss
mt and trace py.
97092915 Br. Tembaga Porphyritic hbl diorite with minor qz eyes; mod act (wk to
mod green pleo)-wt mica after hbl and wk act-(ca)-(tour) after
plg, ; 3-5% mt and ilm-tt assoc with act in hbl sites, <1/2%
py.
97100204A Br. Tongoloka Crystal-rich volcanic lithic breccia-conglomerate with

inferred plg and hbl; st chl-se after lithics and se/il-qz-(chl) alt
of groundmass, st chl after hbl(?); 1-2% rutile assoc with se-
chl alt lithics and chl alt hbl(?).
97100208A/B Br. Tongoloka Porphyritic andesite with hbl and plg; st bi after hbl and local
act-chl after hbl with both styles o/p by ch-se-(ca) alt assoc
with qz-cpy-bn-(hm) vt, early bio alt of groundmass, wk ca-
act-ch after plg; mt assoc with shreddy bi and chl mattes, cpy
assoc with qz-chl-ca vt in close relation to mt, local hm after
mt.
97100313B Br. Tongoloka Pervasively se-chl-qz alt andesitic volcaniclastic rock with
complete plg destruction, clusters of unkown radiating
mineral; 2-3% hm and trace py; fg-mg comb qz vein with
minor se.
97100313D Br. Tongoloka Crystal-rich volcanic lithic breccia with plg and inferred hbl;
st act-(chl)-(ca) after hbl(?) and ch-(se/il) after lithics(?),
minor relict bi after hbl and wk act after plg; 1-2% diss mt-
(ilm-tt), 3-4% clotty py assoc with chl mattes and in chl vt.
97100314 Br. Tongoloka Crystal-rich volcanic lithic breccia with abund plag and minor
hbl; st act-(chl)-(ca) after hbl and wk act after plg; 5-7% diss
mt, <1/2% py and trace cpy.
97100315 Br. Tongoloka Crystal-rich volcanic lithic breccia with plg; st chl-(se) after
lithics and wk ch-(ep) after plg, minor relict bi in groundmass;
~5% mt, 3-5% clotty py , minor rt and cpy assoc with chl
mattes, mt also diss.
97100317 Br. Tongoloka Pervasively ch-se-qz alt crystal-rich volcanic lithic breccia
with complete plg destruction; 3-5% hm and trace cpy assoc
with chl-se mattes.
97100617A Br. Tongoloka Hornblende tonalite porphyry with plg, hbl, qz and minor bi
phenos set in a vfg qz-plg groundmass; st bi after hbl and wk
fsp-se-bi after plg; 1-2% mt, hm and 1-2% cpy assoc with se
along fractures and qz vt, mt also assoc with bi after hbl.
97100619A Br. Tongoloka Fg-mg equigranular hbl quartz diorite; st chl-se after hbl with
relict bi and wk ca after plg; ~2% mt, minor ilm-tt and rutile
assoc with chl-se mattes, local py-cp-(hm) in chl-se mattes.
97100401 Br. Petung Crystal-rich volcanic lithic breccia with plg and inferred hbl;
st chl after hbl(?) and lithics and wk-mod ep after plg; 3-5%
mt and ilm-tt assoc with chl masses, 1-2% diss and qz-chl vt-
controlled py and trace cpy.
97100402 Br. Petung Pervasive se/il-chl alt volcanic lithic breccia with complete
destruction of plg; st chl after lithics and se/il replacement of
groundmass; ~1% rutile assoc with chl mattes, py (1/2-1%)
and cpy (<1/2%) assoc with chl mattes and qz-chl vt.
97100403A Br. Petung Crystal-rich, fg volcanic sandstone with minor plg; mod bi-
(tour) in groundmass with o/p chl, wk ca after plg; ~4% mt
and ilm-tt and local rutile assoc with groundmass bi and in chl
mattes, fracture-controlled py and cpy with haloes of se-ch
alt.
97100403C Br. Petung Porphyritic hbl andesite with hbl and plg; mod ch-act (wk
pleo) after hbl, bi alt groundmass and wk chl-(ep)-(act) after
plg; 5-7% ilm-tt and mt in hbl sites, 2-3% py and trace cpy
assoc with qz-chl vt and ch-act mattes.
97100405 Br. Petung Crystal-rich volcanic lithic breccia-conglomerate with plg and
inferred hbl; st chl-(se)-(tour) after lithics and hbl(?) and wk
fsp after plg rims(?); 3-5% py, ~2% mt, ~1% rutile assoc with
chl mattes; qz-ch-py vt.
97100406 Br. Petung Porphyritic hbl quartz diorite with hbl and plag phenos set in
a vfg plg-qz groundmass; wk-mod act (wk pleo)-chl-(ep) after
hbl and wk fsp(?)-(bio) after plg; ~2% mt and ilm-tt, ~2% py
and minor rutile assoc with act-chl mattes.
Katala rock sample descriptions
97100801A Central Katala Porphyritic hbl quartz diorite with qz, hbl and plg phenos set in a
vfg plg-qz groundmass; st bi-(act) after hbl and stable plg with
fracture-controlled o/p of se-ch and late ka after bi, anhy incl in
pyrite; ~2% mt in hbl sites assoc with bi and along fractures,
local hm after mt assoc with se-chl, and minor rt assoc with bi
and mt.
97100801B Central Katala Porphyritic hbl quartz diorite with hbl and emabyed plg phenos
set in a vfg plg-qz groundmass; wk-mod bi after hbl with late
trem and stable plg; ~2% mt assoc with bi in hbl sites and diss.
97100808A Central Katala Fg-mg equigranular bi-hbl(?) granodiorite with ~15% kspar; mod
chl after bi and st chl after relict hbl(?) and kspar after plg rims, tr
ep and tour; 1-2% py and <1% ilm/tt assoc with chl, <1% rt
intergrown with py and tr mt.
97100809A Central Katala Vf-fg bi-en quartz diorite; wk-mod se-gr bi after mafic and stable
plg, minor tour assoc with ser; 2-3% diss mt and ~1% vfg mt in
mafic sites, ~2% diss ilm/hm, <1/2% py assoc with mica alt and
tr cpy.
91100809B Central Katala Fg-mg equigranular hbl quartz dioritewith ~5% interstitial kspar;
wk-mod act and late chl-(ep) after hbl and minor ep after plg; 2-
3% mt and ~1% ilm/tt diss and in hbl sites, tr py, tr cpy in mt.
97100910 Central Katala Porphyritic hbl quartz diorite; st se-chl after hbl and st alb-se
after plg, abundant fg qz in groundmass and local qz vnlt, anhyd
incl in py;
~5% py diss and in hbl sites with se-chl, ~1% rutile assoc with
se-chl.
97100917B East Katala Crystal-rich volcanic lithic breccia with plg and inferred hbl; st
chl-ca-smec-qz after lithics and hbl(?) and st clay after plg; 2-
3%anhedral py, 1% rt and lx, and tr cpy assoc with chl-ca mattes,
~1% vfg mt as clusters with chl.
97101024A Central Katala Porphyritic hbl quartz diorite with plg, hbl and qz set in vfg qz-
plg groundmass; st brn/grn bi after hbl and fsp rims to plg, local
chl-se-(ep) o/p of bi/hbl; 2-3% diss and bi site specific mt assoc
with rt, tr ilm/tt and tr cpy; qz-mt-cpy vt .
97101030 Central Katala F-mg equigranular en-di-hbl-bi quartz diorite, crystallization

sequence- opx-ilm to hbl-(mt) to bi-mt-cpy-bn, wk-mod se-chl-
(act)-(ep) after hbl and wk se-(chl) after opx; ~2% mt assoc with
bi-(hbl), hm after ilm assoc with opx, rt assoc with se-(chl)
mattes; cpy-bn are late magmatic - early hydrothermal assoc with
bi.
97101134A West Katala Porphyritic hbl andesite with hbl and plg; st act-(ch) after hbl and
wk act after plg, act throughout groundmass; 3-4% mt and <1/2%
ilm/tt, 1/2-1% py and tr cpy assoc with act mattes.
97101135 West Katala Porphyritic hbl quartz diorite with plg and hbl set in a vfg
groundmass of qz-plg; st chl-ep after hbl and wk ep after plg; 2-
3% py and rt assoc with chl in hbl sites.
97101136 West Katala Bedded crystal-rich coarse volcanic sandstone with abund plg
and hbl; st act after hbl and wk ep after plg, act vnlts; ~5% py
and ~1% mt, rt assoc with act in hbl sites.
97101137 West Katala Porphyritic hbl quartz diorite with plg, hbl and qz set in a vfg qz-
plg groundmass; st se-qz-tour after hbl and plg; 3-5% py and rt
assoc with se in hbl sites.
97101143 West Katala Porphyritic hbl quartz diorite with plg, hbl and qz set in a vfg qz-
plg groundmass; wk bi after hbl and plg stable, rare act vnlts;
~2% mt, <1/2% ilm/tt and minor cpy incl in mt.
97101252 West Katala Crowded porphyritc hbl quartz diorite with 5-7% hbl and 25-30%
plg in a vfg plg-qz groundmass; wk act after hbl and plg stable,
act in groundmass; ~2% mt in hbl and in groundmass.
97101561 Central Katala Fg hbl(?)-plg andesite; st chl-smec(?)-act after hbl and wk ep

after plg; ~3% py assoc with chl in hbl sites, 1-2% mt and ~1%
ilm/tt.
9710562A Central Katala F-mg equigranular hbl quartz diorite with ~2% interstitial kspar;
wk-mod act-chl after hbl and local ep-act after plg; ~2% mt and
ilm/tt.
97110667B West Katala F-mg equigranular hbl quartz diorite; st ch-act-(ep) after hbl and
stable plg, ca-tt assoc with chl locally; ~3% py assoc with chl in
hbl sites, <1/2% mt.
97110675 Central Katala Fg hbl(?)-plg andesite; st act after hbl, act-(ep) vnlts; 5-7% mt
and minor ilm/tt, minor diss cpy.
97110777A East Katala Sub-porphyritic hbl(?) quartz diorite with plg set in a vfg qz-plg
groundmass; st act-ep after hbl; 2-3% mt and ilm/tt, rt assoc with
act in hbl sites.
97110777B East Katala Fg plg andesite with abundant plg microlaths; mod bi alt of
groundmass and plg; 2-3% mt; qz vnlts.
97110885A West Katala Porphyritic hbl diorite with hbl and plg set in a vfg plg
groundmass; wk-mod chl-ep-(ca) after hbl and wk ep after plg;
~2% mt and ilm/tt, minor py and tr cpy in hbl sites and in
groundmass.
Sekongkang rock sample descriptions
97091605B Agang F-mg hbl diorite porphyry with hbl and plg set in a vfg plg
groundmass; st act after hbl and decussate bi after hbl and plg,
plg stable; 3-4% diss and hbl site specific mt, 1-2% py and tr cpy;
graphic kspar-qz vnlt with mt.
97091607A/B Agang Mottled hornfelsic andesite with vfg granoblastic groundmass of

plg and relict glomeroporphyritic texture; patchy dist of act-di-bi-
(ca) in wallrock to gt-di-(ep)-qz-mt-(hm) vnlt; 2-3% diss and vnlt
mt, mt and ilm/tt assoc with act and minor rt assoc with bi, diss tr
py and cpy.
97091609 Agang Massive to glomeroporphyritc mod plg-phyric, fg andesite; st act

after hbl and local act-(ca)-sec plg(?) after plg, rare bi assoc with
act; 3-5% diss mt, tr py and cpy.
97091610 Agang F-mg equigranular hbl quartz diorite with interstitial quartz; mod-
st act-(chl) after hbl and stable plg; ~2% mt and ilm/tt assoc with
act and hbl, rt assoc with act.
97091713A Agang F-mg equigranular bi granodiorite with interstitial qz , plg and

kspar; wk ser after bi and plg; ~3% py and minor rt assoc with
clusters of bi.
97091715B Agang Hornfelsic(?) volcaniclastic rock with vfg granoblastic

groundmass of plg-qz and relict plg phenocrysts; decussate bi-
opx and minor act, local se after bi; ~2% ilm/hm, ~2% mt, ~1%
py and minor cpy.
97091824 Agang Massive strong plg-phyric, fg-mg andesite to andesite porphyry;

st act and relict bi after hbl; 3-4% diss mt, 1/2% py and 1/2%
cpy; qz-act-mt-cpy vnlt.
97091828 Tatuk F-mg bi-px quartz diorite porphyry with embayed plg set in a
groundmass of vfg plg-qz-opx-cpx-bi; wk pale grn to wt mica
after bi; ~2% mt in mafic sites and ~2% ilm/hm, rt assoc with wt
mica.
97091930 Tatuk Hornfelsic volcaniclastic breccia with vfg granoblastic

groundmass of plg-qz; act assoc with decussate and secondary bi
in groundmass; 3-4% mt, minor ilm/hm and py, tr cpy, local hm.
Sekongkang rock sample descriptions
97091937 Agang F-mg equigranular hbl quartz diorite with interstitial qz; mod-st
chl-ca-(act) after hbl and local ca after plg cores; ~2% mt and
~2%ilm/tt, diss and hbl site specific, rt assoc with chl-ca, tr py
and local hm.
97092043 Agang Porphyritic hbl(?) quartz diorite with plg, hbl and qz eyes set in a
vfg groundmass of qz-plg; st bi after hbl with chl o/p of bi and
local bi after plg; rt assoc with mt-bi and py-chl; tr cpy adjacent
to mt; qz-bi-mt-cpy vt.
97092452 Agang F-mg equigranular cpx-hbl quartz diorite; mod-st chl-ep after hbl
and local ep after plg; ~1% diss mt and 1-2% ilm/tt, rt assoc with
chl.
97092454 Agang Hbl quartz diorite porphyry with plg, hbl and qz phenocrysts set
in vfg qz-plg groundmass; st bi after hbl and chl-act-ca-(sm) after
hbl/bi, local sm after plg cores, local tour; 2-3% mt, ~1% ilm/tt,
minor py assoc with chl and tr cpy assoc with mt, rt assoc with bi
and chl; bi-mt-cpy vt.
Nangka rock sample descriptions
97111102B W. Nangka Porphyritic andesite with pilotaxitic texture; st chl-ca after relict
mafics and abundant ca and lx in plg-rich groundmass; 5-7% py,
~1% mt, minor hm and tr cpy.
97111214 W. Nangka Strongly altered ?porphyritic andesite; st chl-clay after hbl and wk
clay after plg; relict mt (~1%) and minor py.
97111215A W. Nangka Fg-mg equigranular quartz diorite; st bi after hbl with late se-chl
alt and wk bi-se after plg; abundant secondary mt, yellow rt (?cu-
bearing) assoc with se-chl, minor hm and tr cpy; qz-mt veinlets.
97111215B W. Nangka Fg-mg equigranular quartz diorite; st se-chl after bi replaced hbl
and st se/il after plg; 0.5-1% cpy with cv rims, reddish yellow rt
(?cu-bearing) assoc with se-chl, relict mt; qz-cpy veinlets.
97111216 W. Nangka Fg-mg hbl quartz diorite porphyry with plg and hbl phenos in a
vfg qz-plg groundmass; st chl+se/il after hbl and wk se-clay after
plg; 1-2% mt, ~0.5% ilm/tt, local py and cpy assoc with chl and rt
in hbl sites.
97111217 W. Nangka Intrusive contact between hornfelsic (cpx-opx-bi)

glomeroporphyritic andesite and fg-mg equigranular bi-hbl quartz
diorite to porphyry with interstitial qz-plg; st ac+chl after hbl, wk-
mod chl after bi and stable plg; ~2% mt- diss and as fractures,
minor ilm/tt and tr cpy.
Nangka rock sample descriptions
97111220 W. Nangka Fg equigranular bi-hbl-cpx quartz diorite with rare granophyric

intergrowth between qz and feldspar; local act+chl after hbl and se
after bi; 2-3% mt, tr py and cpy.
97111325 C. Nangka Polymictic crystal-rich volcanic lithic breccia with hbl and plg; wk
chl+act after hbl, wk ca after plg and abundant chl in matrix; 5-7%
mt.
97111327 C. Nangka Polymictic crystal-rich volcanic lithic breccia with stubby hbl and
plg; mod act+chl+ep+?sm after hbl, mod ep after plg and abund
brown clay (?sm) and ca in matrix; ~2% mt; minor py and tr cpy
assoc with ep-qz veinlets.
97111433A E. Nangka Quartz vein breccia with angular fragments of il-minor se-qz alt
volcanic wallrock; galena-sphalerite margins to vein with internal
?barite assoc with qz.
97111437 E. Nangka Bedded crystal-rich fine to coarse volcanic lithic sandstone to

pebble conglomerate; st chl after ?hbl and mod-st ep after plg;
abund vfg ?lx.
97111543 E. Nangka Strongly altered ?crystal-rich volcaniclastic rock; st chl-ep-ca after

mafics and st ca-ep after plg; tr-0.5% hm, tr py and relict mt.
97111546A E. Nangka Bimictic volcanic lithic breccia-conglomerate with detrital qz

grains; chl after lithics and in matrix, ca after plg; 3-4% mt and tr
py.
Abbreviations for sample descriptions:
Minerals: act-actinolite, alb-albite, bi-biotite, bn-bornite, ca-calcite, chl-chlorite, cpx-clionpyroxene

(diopside), cpy-chalcopyrite, cv-covellite, di-diopside, en-enstatite, ep-epidote, fsp-feldspar, hbl-hornblende,
hm-hematite, il-illite, ilm-ilmenite, kspar-potassium feldspar, lx- leucoxene, mt-magnetite, opx-orthopyroxene
(enstatite), plg-plagioclase, py-pyrite, qz-quartz, rt-rutile, se-sericite, sm-smectite, tt-titanite
Grain size: cg-coarse, fg-fine, mg-medium, vfg-very fine
Intensity and Abundance: mod-moderate, st-strong, wk-weak, tr-trace
Other: abund-abundant, alt- alteration or altered, assoc-associated, diss-disseminated, pheno-phenocryst,

pleo-pleochroic, %- volume percent
APPENDIX 3 − Operating conditions for EDS analysis of silicate and oxide minerals
SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Cr2O3, V2O3, FeOtotal, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, P2O5 (major constituent
oxides) and Cl and F can determined by EDS analysis using a Link Analytical Si(Li) detector
and MCA. The SEM is operated at 15 kV, with a beam current of 3 nA. Spectra are collected
for 60 seconds live time, and intensities of characteristic lines calculated from these using the
empirical correction factors of Bence aand Albee (1968) and the peak integration and
background subtraction technique (‘PIBS’) of Ware and Reed (1973). Intensities obtained in
this way are compared with data obtained from reference standards using the same methods.
Standards for the oxides and elements are as follows:

SiO2 Wollastonite
TiO2 Synthetic rutile
Al2O3 Synthetic CaAl2O4
Cr2O3 Specpure Cr (>99.9%)
V2O3 Specpure V (>99.9%)
FeO Specpure Fe (>99.9%)
MnO Electrolytic Mn (>99.9%)
MgO Synthetic periclase (>99.9% MgO)
CaO Wollastonite
Na2O Albite
K2O Orthoclase
P2O5 Apatite
Cl Halite
F Fluorite
Precisions for the range of compositions normally encountered are as follows:

SiO2 ±0.25 - 0.26 % by weight
TiO2 ±0.15 - 0.20 % by weight
Al2O3 ±0.18 - 0.20 % by weight
Cr2O3 ±0.15 - 0.20 % by weight
FeO ±0.19 - 0.21 % by weight
MnO ±0.12 - 0.16 % by weight
MgO ±0.21 - 0.22 % by weight
CaO ±0.10 - 0.12 % by weight
Na2O ±0.15 - 0.17 % by weight
K2O ±0.09 - 0.12 % by weight
P2O5 ±0.10 - 0.12 % by weight
Cl ±0.08 - 0.16 % by weight
F ±0.08 - 0.12 % by weight
APPENDIX 4 − Chemical compositions of magmatic and hydrothermal minerals as
determined by electron microprobe
APPENDIX 4a - Electron microprobe analysis of feldspar in rocks from the Batu Hijau district.
Major-Oxide Elements (Wt. %)

Sample No. - Analysis Rock Type Origin (Alt. Zone) SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeO* MgO CaO Na2O K2O Total
98091612-1PLG1 volcanic sandstone magmatic 47.08 bd 32.74 0.98 bd 17.40 1.72 bd 99.92
98091612-1PLG3A volcanic sandstone magmatic 44.97 bd 34.44 0.60 bd 19.24 0.71 bd 99.96
98091612-1PLG4 volcanic sandstone magmatic 54.58 bd 27.23 0.83 bd 11.13 5.17 0.19 99.13
970914291-PL1 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 53.96 bd 28.22 bd bd 10.77 5.01 0.21 98.17
970914291-PL2 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 55.32 bd 26.58 0.21 bd 9.78 5.77 0.10 97.76
970914291-PL3 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 55.30 bd 26.74 0.17 bd 9.89 5.91 0.09 98.10
970914292-PL1 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 57.48 bd 25.56 bd bd 8.58 6.91 bd 98.53
98100402-1PLG1 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 54.05 bd 27.83 0.97 bd 12.11 4.85 bd 99.81
98100402-1PLG4 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 51.62 bd 29.88 0.89 0.24 11.43 3.78 1.12 98.96
97091012A-1PLG1 biotite hornfels (vsst) magmatic 58.28 bd 24.62 0.22 bd 7.51 7.40 0.22 98.25
98100301A-1PLG1 micro-gabbro magmatic 46.77 bd 32.66 0.54 bd 16.92 1.76 bd 98.65
98100301A-1PLG4 micro-gabbro magmatic 56.50 bd 26.38 0.49 bd 9.67 5.84 0.46 99.34
Notes: bd = below limit of detection

FeO* = Total Fe as FeO


98071101B-1PLG1 phyric hbl andesite magmatic 51.14 bd 29.40 0.84 bd 13.21 3.89 bd 98.48
98071101B-2PLG1 phyric hbl andesite magmatic 53.28 0.22 27.92 0.69 bd 12.49 4.06 bd 98.66
98071101B-3PLG2 phyric hbl andesite magmatic 50.76 bd 27.86 1.86 2.32 14.65 2.49 bd 99.94
98071101B-3UNK1 phyric hbl andesite magmatic 53.38 bd 29.40 0.42 bd 12.49 4.49 bd 100.18
98071101B-APLG1 phyric hbl andesite magmatic 44.04 bd 34.58 0.45 bd 19.45 0.58 bd 99.10
97091012A-1PLG2 biotite hornfels (vsst) magmatic 58.70 bd 24.85 0.36 bd 7.49 7.27 0.09 98.76
97091715B-2PL1 biotite hornfels (vlb) magmatic 60.76 bd 24.84 0.30 bd 7.23 7.60 0.45 101.18
97091715B-2PL2 biotite hornfels (vlb) magmatic 60.54 bd 24.37 0.22 bd 6.93 7.31 0.50 99.87
97091937-1PLG1 quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 56.03 bd 27.00 0.45 bd 10.34 5.62 0.20 99.64
97091937-1PLG2 quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 63.58 bd 21.54 bd bd 3.71 8.86 0.49 98.18
97091937-1PLG3 quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 68.22 bd 19.23 bd bd 0.46 11.14 bd 99.05
97092452-1PLG3 quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 54.39 bd 28.55 0.51 bd 11.86 5.00 bd 100.31

970919372aksp2a quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 65.29 0.15 18.43 bd bd bd 1.42 16.25 101.54
970919372aplg1a quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 55.80 bd 27.84 0.42 bd 10.44 5.25 0.23 100.21
970919372aplg1b quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 59.15 0.16 25.88 0.49 bd 8.12 6.77 0.40 100.97
970919372aplg2a quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 62.56 bd 22.54 0.38 bd 4.48 8.39 0.54 98.89
970919372aplg2b quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 65.26 bd 21.77 0.29 bd 3.13 9.53 0.32 100.30
970919372plg1a quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 54.46 bd 28.30 0.50 bd 11.65 4.61 0.28 99.80
970919373plg1b quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 54.80 bd 27.81 0.52 bd 11.09 4.95 0.21 99.38
970919374plag1a quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 58.63 bd 25.63 bd bd 8.11 6.99 0.42 99.78
970919374plg2a quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 45.09 bd 35.03 0.34 bd 18.96 0.68 bd 100.10
971010301plg2a quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 59.17 0.13 24.86 bd bd 7.07 6.95 0.43 98.61
971010302plg2a quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 59.97 bd 24.08 bd bd 6.43 7.39 0.49 98.36
971010302plg3a quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 59.33 bd 25.66 0.41 0.30 7.66 6.67 0.44 100.47
971010303plg2a quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 57.31 0.14 27.11 0.53 bd 9.71 5.55 0.30 100.65
97091010-1PLG3 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 53.65 bd 27.43 0.53 0.37 11.87 4.70 0.27 98.82


97091713A-1KSP1 granodiorite dyke magmatic 64.84 0.32 18.49 0.16 bd bd 0.79 15.71 100.31
97091713A-1KSP2 granodiorite dyke magmatic 66.29 bd 18.30 bd bd bd 0.84 16.00 101.43
97091713A-1PLG1 granodiorite dyke magmatic 64.59 bd 22.42 0.22 bd 3.41 9.67 0.45 100.76
97091713A-2KSP1 granodiorite dyke magmatic 64.20 0.13 17.79 0.18 bd bd 1.54 14.82 98.66
97091713A-2KSP2 granodiorite dyke magmatic 64.52 0.39 18.06 bd bd bd 1.12 15.17 99.26
97091713A-3KSP1 granodiorite dyke magmatic 64.91 0.30 18.07 bd bd bd 0.49 16.66 100.43
97091713A-3PLG5 granodiorite dyke magmatic 54.30 bd 27.95 0.28 bd 11.09 5.08 bd 98.70
97091713A-3PLG6 granodiorite dyke magmatic 68.28 bd 19.93 bd bd 1.82 10.13 0.20 100.36

97101143-1hbl3b porphyritic tonalite magmatic 55.07 bd 27.51 0.37 bd 10.50 4.98 0.25 98.68
971011431plg1a porphyritic tonalite magmatic 56.25 0.19 27.84 0.47 bd 10.16 5.23 0.37 100.51
971011431plg2a porphyritic tonalite magmatic 54.84 bd 27.80 0.26 bd 10.89 4.98 0.31 99.08
971011431plg3a porphyritic tonalite magmatic 64.44 0.25 22.94 bd bd 4.42 8.90 0.14 101.09
971011432plg2a porphyritic tonalite magmatic 57.82 bd 26.57 0.25 bd 8.79 6.44 bd 99.87
971011432plg3a porphyritic tonalite magmatic 56.77 bd 27.34 bd bd 10.02 5.88 bd 100.01
971011433plg1a porphyritic tonalite magmatic 53.88 bd 29.32 0.54 0.23 12.12 4.29 0.19 100.57
971011433plg1b porphyritic tonalite magmatic 52.82 bd 29.83 bd bd 12.70 4.13 bd 99.48
971011433plg3a porphyritic tonalite magmatic 55.46 bd 27.95 0.39 bd 10.27 5.41 0.21 99.69
971011434plg1b porphyritic tonalite magmatic 57.88 0.14 26.39 bd bd 8.86 6.00 bd 99.27
971011435plg1a porphyritic tonalite magmatic 54.96 bd 27.79 bd bd 10.74 4.95 0.15 98.59
971011435plg1b porphyritic tonalite magmatic 63.19 bd 23.13 bd bd 4.93 8.06 0.18 99.49
971011435plg2b porphyritic tonalite magmatic 60.42 bd 25.00 0.27 bd 6.78 7.24 0.12 99.83
97100801A-2PLG1 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 53.86 bd 27.95 bd bd 10.93 5.15 0.13 98.02
97100801A-2PLG2 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 54.64 bd 26.73 bd bd 10.52 5.67 bd 97.56
97100801A-3PLG1 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 55.32 bd 26.68 0.18 bd 10.21 5.72 0.09 98.20
97100801A-3PLG2 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 54.82 bd 27.59 0.46 bd 10.46 5.74 0.10 99.17
97101024A-3PLG1 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 55.66 bd 27.96 0.16 bd 11.08 5.49 bd 100.35
97101024A-3PLG2 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 55.43 bd 28.21 bd 0.15 11.35 5.45 0.07 100.66
97101024A-3PLG3 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 53.08 bd 29.32 0.15 bd 12.80 4.36 bd 99.71
97101143-1PLG1r porphyritic tonalite magmatic 58.25 bd 25.49 0.26 bd 7.72 6.80 bd 98.52
97101143-1PLG2c porphyritic tonalite magmatic 54.26 bd 28.64 0.26 bd 11.94 4.94 0.11 100.15
97101143-2PLG1r_og porphyritic tonalite magmatic 64.24 bd 22.07 bd bd 3.90 9.16 0.08 99.45
97101143-2PLG2 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 50.38 bd 30.83 0.24 bd 14.82 3.01 bd 99.28


97101143-2PLG4 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 50.11 bd 31.40 0.32 bd 15.28 3.04 0.08 100.23
97101143-2PLG5r porphyritic tonalite magmatic 58.17 bd 25.70 bd bd 8.50 6.67 0.14 99.18
97101143-2PLG6 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 55.29 bd 27.75 0.27 bd 11.00 5.49 0.19 99.99
97101143-3PLG1 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 52.66 bd 29.67 0.39 bd 13.37 3.94 bd 100.03
97101143-3PLG3r porphyritic tonalite magmatic 60.39 bd 24.52 0.33 bd 6.99 7.50 0.13 99.86
97101143-4PLG1c porphyritic tonalite magmatic 51.23 bd 30.77 0.24 bd 13.90 3.44 bd 99.58
97101143-4PLG2r porphyritic tonalite magmatic 55.95 bd 27.38 0.31 bd 10.62 5.53 0.12 99.91
97101143-4PLG3c porphyritic tonalite magmatic 56.98 bd 27.33 bd bd 10.02 5.41 0.20 99.94
97101143A-PLG1r_og porphyritic tonalite magmatic 57.53 bd 25.89 0.31 bd 8.68 6.46 0.39 99.26
97101143A-PLG2 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 51.66 bd 30.95 0.57 bd 14.70 3.45 0.08 101.41
97101143A-PLG3ir porphyritic tonalite magmatic 55.95 bd 26.91 0.24 bd 9.71 5.04 1.29 99.14
97101143A-PLG6c porphyritic tonalite magmatic 55.20 bd 27.63 0.24 bd 10.82 5.21 0.22 99.32
SRD024A-PLG1 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 54.13 bd 28.44 0.34 bd 11.83 4.62 0.13 99.49
SRD024A-PLG5 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 56.30 bd 27.96 0.30 bd 10.99 5.13 bd 100.68
SRD024A-PLG6 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 56.86 bd 27.18 bd bd 9.76 5.93 0.15 99.88
SRD025-PLG1 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 57.80 bd 25.61 0.35 bd 8.39 6.46 0.15 98.76
SRD025-PLG2 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 55.41 bd 28.01 0.34 bd 11.22 5.13 bd 100.11
SRD025-PLG3 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 55.91 bd 27.89 0.41 bd 10.83 5.48 0.17 100.69
SRD025-PLG4 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 54.56 bd 27.47 0.28 bd 11.14 4.79 bd 98.24
SBD41414M-1PLG1 Young Tonalite magmatic 56.61 bd 24.63 0.28 bd 7.64 6.74 0.11 96.01
SBD41414M-1PLG4 Young Tonalite magmatic 55.77 bd 26.96 0.23 bd 9.54 5.90 bd 98.40

SBD41414M-6PLG3 Young Tonalite magmatic 66.70 bd 20.86 bd bd 1.98 10.59 0.13 100.26
SBD41414M-6PLG4 Young Tonalite magmatic 58.07 bd 25.51 bd bd 8.37 6.81 0.15 98.91
SBD41414M-6PLG6 Young Tonalite magmatic 60.15 0.12 24.75 0.18 bd 6.79 7.72 0.28 99.99
980707361plg1a porphyritic andesite magmatic 55.89 bd 27.71 0.43 bd 10.88 4.93 0.17 100.01
980707361plg3a porphyritic andesite magmatic 57.84 0.19 26.12 0.51 bd 9.26 5.69 0.31 99.92
980707361plg4a porphyritic andesite magmatic 52.03 bd 29.13 0.96 0.27 12.81 3.52 0.27 98.99
980707363plg1a porphyritic andesite magmatic 54.07 bd 28.64 0.26 bd 12.00 4.49 bd 99.46
98070736-1PLG1 porphyritic andesite magmatic 56.53 bd 27.65 0.35 bd 10.52 5.34 0.14 100.53
98070736-3PLG1 porphyritic andesite magmatic 53.50 bd 28.10 0.44 bd 11.39 4.73 bd 98.16


97091827A2KSP1 phyric hbl andesite hydro. (biotite) 65.41 bd 17.51 bd bd bd bd 17.36 100.28
971010305plg1a quartz diorite (QD3) hydro. (biotite) 67.74 bd 20.71 bd bd 1.56 10.14 0.27 100.42
98091612-2PLG1 volcanic sandstone hydro. (ep-ch) 67.51 bd 19.97 0.30 bd 1.03 11.12 0.13 100.06
98091612-2PLG2 volcanic sandstone hydro. (ep-ch) 68.82 bd 19.48 bd bd 0.77 11.22 bd 100.29
98091612-2PLG3 volcanic sandstone hydro. (ep-ch) 67.60 bd 19.67 bd bd 0.95 11.06 0.07 99.35
98091612-2PLG5 volcanic sandstone hydro. (ep-ch) 67.86 bd 19.47 bd bd 0.50 11.07 bd 98.90
98091612-2PLG6 volcanic sandstone hydro. (ep-ch) 68.21 bd 19.79 bd bd 0.97 11.20 0.07 100.24
98091612-2PLG7 volcanic sandstone hydro. (ep-ch) 64.36 bd 22.25 0.22 bd 3.80 9.21 bd 99.84
98062708-2PLG1 quartz diorite (QD3) hydro. (ep-ch) 66.71 bd 20.46 bd bd 1.71 10.54 0.08 99.50
98070736-2PLG2 porphyritic andesite hydro. (mod. epidote) 65.67 bd 21.90 bd bd 3.05 9.99 bd 100.61
98070736-3PLG5 porphyritic andesite hydro. (mod. epidote) 66.98 bd 20.62 bd bd 1.60 10.76 bd 99.96

Number of Cations Based on 32 Oxygens Mol. %

Sample No. - Analysis Si Ti Al Fe* Mg Ca Na K Sum Cations Ab An Or
98091612-1PLG1 8.70 bd 7.12 0.15 bd 3.45 0.62 bd 20.04 15.2 84.8 bd

98091612-1PLG2 8.74 bd 7.07 0.13 bd 3.42 0.72 bd 20.08 17.4 82.6 bd
98091612-1PLG3A 8.34 bd 7.52 0.09 bd 3.82 0.26 bd 20.02 6.3 93.7 bd
98091612-1PLG4 9.98 bd 5.86 0.13 bd 2.18 1.83 0.04 20.02 45.2 53.7 1.1
98091612-1PLG5 8.92 bd 6.96 0.11 bd 3.18 0.83 bd 20.00 20.7 79.3 bd
98091612-1PLG6 8.96 bd 6.87 0.09 bd 3.24 0.86 bd 20.02 20.9 79.1 bd
98091612-1PLG7 9.33 bd 6.53 0.13 bd 2.83 1.14 bd 19.96 28.7 71.3 bd
98091612-1PLG8 8.89 bd 6.97 0.12 bd 3.29 0.68 bd 19.95 17.1 82.9 bd
98091612-2PLG4 9.36 bd 6.54 0.09 bd 2.75 1.23 bd 19.98 30.9 69.1 bd
98091612-2PLG8 8.67 bd 7.18 0.10 bd 3.52 0.52 bd 19.99 12.8 87.2 bd
970914291-PL1 9.90 bd 6.10 bd bd 2.12 1.78 0.05 19.95 45.1 53.6 1.2
970914291-PL2 10.18 bd 5.76 0.03 bd 1.93 2.06 0.02 19.98 51.3 48.1 0.6
970914291-PL3 10.15 bd 5.78 0.03 bd 1.94 2.10 0.02 20.02 51.7 47.8 0.5
970914292-PL1 10.45 bd 5.47 bd bd 1.67 2.44 bd 20.03 59.3 40.7 bd
98100402-1PLG1 9.84 bd 5.97 0.15 bd 2.36 1.71 bd 20.03 42.0 58.0 bd
98100402-1PLG2 8.34 bd 7.56 0.10 bd 3.76 0.23 bd 19.99 5.7 94.3 bd
98100402-1PLG3 9.90 bd 6.00 0.10 bd 2.20 1.78 bd 19.98 44.7 55.3 bd
98100402-1PLG4 9.50 bd 6.48 0.14 0.07 2.26 1.35 0.26 20.05 34.9 58.3 6.8
98100402-2PLG1 8.67 bd 7.25 0.07 bd 3.43 0.55 bd 19.97 13.9 86.1 bd
98100402-2PLG2 8.47 bd 7.39 0.09 bd 3.68 0.40 bd 20.02 9.8 90.2 bd
98100402-3PLG1 8.84 bd 7.05 0.12 bd 3.31 0.59 bd 19.92 15.2 84.8 bd
98100402-3PLG2 8.45 bd 7.44 0.09 bd 3.62 0.45 bd 20.04 11.0 89.0 bd
98100402-3PLG3 8.61 bd 7.25 0.13 bd 3.46 0.61 bd 20.06 15.0 85.0 bd
98100402-4PLG1 8.63 bd 7.28 0.05 bd 3.45 0.61 bd 20.02 15.0 85.0 bd
97091012A-1PLG1 10.62 bd 5.28 0.03 bd 1.47 2.61 0.05 20.07 63.3 35.5 1.2
98100301A-1PLG1 8.72 bd 7.17 0.08 bd 3.38 0.64 bd 20.00 15.8 84.2 bd
98100301A-1PLG2 8.37 bd 7.49 0.07 bd 3.83 0.26 bd 20.00 6.3 93.8 bd
98100301A-1PLG3 8.69 bd 7.18 0.08 bd 3.45 0.59 bd 20.00 14.5 85.5 bd
98100301A-1PLG4 10.25 bd 5.64 0.07 bd 1.88 2.06 0.11 20.00 50.9 46.5 2.6
98100301A-1PLG5 8.20 bd 7.62 0.08 bd 4.01 0.15 bd 20.05 3.6 96.4 bd
98100301A-2PLG1 9.97 bd 5.95 0.09 bd 2.16 1.72 0.04 19.92 43.8 55.2 0.9
98100301A-2PLG2 9.86 bd 5.98 0.12 bd 2.30 1.72 0.06 20.03 42.2 56.4 1.4
98100301A-3PLG1 9.88 bd 6.05 0.07 bd 2.30 1.54 0.06 19.88 39.5 59.0 1.5
Fe* = Total iron as Fe2+

98100301A-3PLG2 8.38 bd 7.47 0.11 bd 3.78 0.31 bd 20.04 7.6 92.4 bd

98100301A-3PLG3 8.20 bd 7.67 0.07 bd 3.93 0.18 bd 20.05 4.5 95.5 bd
98100301A-5PLG2 8.60 bd 7.28 0.16 bd 3.48 0.47 bd 19.99 12.0 88.0 bd
98100301A-5PLG3 8.52 bd 7.33 0.12 bd 3.59 0.48 bd 20.04 11.8 88.2 bd
98071101B-1PLG1 9.47 bd 6.41 0.13 bd 2.62 1.40 bd 20.02 34.8 65.2 bd
98071101B-1PLG2 9.23 bd 6.66 0.08 bd 2.87 1.20 bd 20.04 29.6 70.4 bd
98071101B-1PLG3 9.80 bd 6.08 0.14 bd 2.31 1.64 bd 19.97 41.5 58.5 bd
98071101B-1PLG4 8.91 bd 7.00 0.10 bd 3.19 0.77 bd 19.96 19.4 80.6 bd
98071101B-2PLG1 9.79 0.03 6.04 0.11 bd 2.46 1.45 bd 19.87 37.0 63.0 bd
98071101B-2PLG2 9.59 bd 6.30 0.08 bd 2.57 1.42 bd 19.96 35.7 64.3 bd
98071101B-3PLG2 9.34 bd 6.04 0.29 0.64 2.89 0.89 bd 20.08 23.5 76.5 bd
98071101B-3UNK1 9.66 bd 6.27 0.06 bd 2.42 1.58 bd 19.99 39.4 60.6 bd
98071101B-4PLG1 9.24 bd 6.63 0.09 bd 2.89 1.20 bd 20.04 29.4 70.6 bd
98071101B-4PLG2 9.69 bd 6.21 0.10 bd 2.40 1.58 bd 19.98 39.7 60.3 bd
98071101B-4PLG3 8.89 bd 7.00 0.10 bd 3.19 0.85 bd 20.03 21.1 78.9 bd
98071101B-4PLG4 9.69 bd 6.20 0.10 bd 2.36 1.70 bd 20.05 41.9 58.1 bd
98071101B-4PLG5 8.21 bd 7.67 0.10 bd 3.88 0.18 bd 20.04 4.4 95.6 bd
98071101B-APLG1 8.24 bd 7.62 0.07 bd 3.90 0.21 bd 20.04 5.1 94.9 bd
98071101B-APLG2 8.29 bd 7.58 0.08 bd 3.84 0.24 bd 20.03 5.8 94.2 bd
98071101B-APLG3 8.24 bd 7.63 0.08 bd 3.89 0.21 bd 20.04 5.1 94.9 bd
97091012A-1PLG2 10.63 bd 5.30 0.06 bd 1.45 2.55 0.02 20.01 63.4 36.1 0.5
97091715B-2PL1 10.74 bd 5.17 0.04 bd 1.37 2.60 0.10 20.02 63.9 33.6 2.5
97091715B-2PL2 10.81 bd 5.13 0.03 bd 1.33 2.53 0.11 19.94 63.7 33.4 2.9
97091937-1PLG1 10.14 bd 5.75 0.07 bd 2.01 1.97 0.05 19.98 49.0 49.8 1.1
97091937-1PLG2 11.42 bd 4.56 bd bd 0.71 3.09 0.11 19.89 78.9 18.3 2.9
97091937-1PLG3 12.01 bd 3.99 bd bd 0.09 3.80 bd 19.89 97.8 2.2 bd
97092452-1PLG1 9.89 bd 6.04 0.06 bd 2.18 1.78 0.03 19.99 44.7 54.7 0.7
97092452-1PLG2 9.82 bd 6.09 0.06 bd 2.30 1.69 0.03 19.99 42.0 57.3 0.7
97092452-1PLG3 9.82 bd 6.07 0.08 bd 2.29 1.75 bd 20.01 43.3 56.7 bd
97092452-1PLG4 9.79 bd 6.11 0.08 bd 2.34 1.64 0.02 19.98 40.9 58.6 0.5
97092452-3PLG1 10.44 bd 5.47 0.08 bd 1.69 2.21 0.08 19.96 55.6 42.5 1.9
97092452-3PLG2 9.80 bd 6.13 0.07 bd 2.29 1.68 bd 19.97 42.3 57.7 bd
97092452-4PLG1 9.74 bd 6.13 0.08 bd 2.40 1.57 0.04 19.99 39.2 59.8 1.0

97092452-4PLG2 10.82 bd 5.13 0.06 bd 1.27 2.55 0.11 19.94 64.9 32.4 2.7
97092452-4PLG3 10.06 bd 5.83 0.07 bd 2.11 1.87 0.02 19.96 46.8 52.8 0.4
97092452-4PLG4 10.12 bd 5.81 0.05 bd 2.04 1.89 bd 19.91 48.1 51.9 bd
97092452-4PLG5 10.01 bd 5.89 0.07 bd 2.11 1.89 0.02 19.99 46.9 52.6 0.6
97092452-4PLG6 10.10 bd 5.81 0.06 bd 2.05 1.91 0.04 19.96 47.8 51.3 0.9
97092452-4PLG7 9.64 bd 6.29 0.06 bd 2.43 1.54 bd 19.97 38.8 61.2 bd
970919372aksp2a 11.93 0.02 3.97 bd bd bd 0.50 3.79 20.21 11.7 bd 88.3
970919372aplg1a 10.04 bd 5.90 0.06 bd 2.01 1.83 0.05 19.94 47.0 51.6 1.4
970919372aplg1b 10.50 0.02 5.41 0.07 bd 1.55 2.33 0.09 19.97 58.8 38.9 2.3
970919372aplg2a 11.21 bd 4.76 0.06 bd 0.86 2.92 0.12 19.92 74.8 22.1 3.2
970919372aplg2b 11.47 bd 4.51 0.04 bd 0.59 3.25 0.07 19.93 83.1 15.1 1.8
970919372plg1a 9.87 bd 6.04 0.08 bd 2.26 1.62 0.07 19.94 41.0 57.3 1.6
970919372plg2a 10.83 bd 5.11 0.05 bd 1.28 2.57 0.11 19.95 64.9 32.2 2.9
970919372plg3a 11.10 bd 4.91 0.05 bd 0.94 2.80 0.10 19.89 73.0 24.5 2.5
970919373plg1a 11.42 bd 4.53 0.06 bd 0.62 3.26 0.13 20.01 81.3 15.5 3.2
970919373plg1b 9.96 bd 5.95 0.08 bd 2.16 1.75 0.05 19.95 44.1 54.6 1.2
970919373plg2a 10.94 bd 5.01 0.05 bd 1.14 2.70 0.10 19.94 68.6 29.0 2.5
970919373plg2b 10.80 bd 5.17 0.04 bd 1.25 2.53 0.10 19.93 65.2 32.3 2.5
970919374plag1a 10.52 bd 5.42 bd bd 1.56 2.43 0.10 20.03 59.5 38.1 2.3
970919374plg1b 10.32 bd 5.62 0.05 bd 1.86 1.97 0.07 19.88 50.5 47.7 1.7
970919374plg2a 8.32 bd 7.61 0.05 bd 3.75 0.24 bd 19.98 6.1 93.9 bd
971010301plg1a 10.13 bd 5.82 0.04 bd 2.03 1.80 0.08 19.89 46.0 52.0 2.0
971010301plg2a 10.69 0.02 5.29 bd bd 1.37 2.44 0.10 19.90 62.4 35.1 2.5
971010302plg1a 10.97 bd 4.99 0.05 bd 1.14 2.66 0.12 19.92 67.9 29.1 3.1
971010302plg2a 10.85 bd 5.13 bd bd 1.25 2.59 0.11 19.93 65.6 31.5 2.9
971010302plg3a 10.56 bd 5.38 0.06 0.08 1.46 2.30 0.10 19.94 59.6 37.8 2.6
971010302plg4a 10.56 bd 5.40 0.05 bd 1.54 2.29 0.08 19.92 58.6 39.4 2.0
971010303plg1a 10.77 bd 5.20 0.05 bd 1.34 2.42 0.10 19.88 62.6 34.7 2.7
971010303plg2a 10.24 0.02 5.70 0.08 bd 1.86 1.92 0.07 19.88 49.9 48.3 1.8
971010305plg2a 10.62 bd 5.32 0.05 bd 1.44 2.48 0.08 19.99 62.0 36.1 1.9
97091010-1PLG1 8.88 bd 6.97 0.06 bd 3.35 0.73 0.02 20.01 17.8 81.7 0.4
97091010-1PLG2 10.09 bd 5.79 0.07 bd 2.04 1.98 0.05 20.02 48.7 50.1 1.3
97091010-1PLG3 9.85 bd 5.93 0.08 0.10 2.34 1.67 0.06 20.04 41.1 57.4 1.5

97091010-2PLG1 9.95 bd 5.93 0.04 bd 2.18 1.91 0.05 20.06 46.2 52.6 1.2
97091010-2PLG2 10.00 bd 5.87 0.07 bd 2.16 1.87 0.06 20.02 45.7 52.9 1.4
97091010-2PLG3 9.90 bd 5.99 0.06 bd 2.23 1.80 0.05 20.03 44.2 54.6 1.2
97101030-2PLG1 10.02 bd 5.87 0.05 bd 2.18 1.80 0.07 19.97 44.5 53.9 1.6
97101030-2PLG2 9.92 bd 5.97 0.07 bd 2.16 1.89 0.06 20.06 46.1 52.5 1.4
98062708-1PLG1 11.08 bd 4.88 0.05 bd 1.05 2.77 0.07 19.89 71.3 27.0 1.7
98062708-1PLG2 9.79 bd 6.14 0.04 bd 2.32 1.63 0.06 19.97 40.7 57.8 1.5
98062708-1PLG3 11.01 bd 4.94 0.05 bd 1.08 2.76 0.10 19.94 70.0 27.5 2.5
98062708-1PLG4 9.80 bd 6.14 0.05 bd 2.31 1.59 0.05 19.94 40.3 58.4 1.3
98062708-2PLG2 9.90 bd 5.99 0.06 bd 2.19 1.78 0.07 20.02 44.0 54.2 1.8
98062708-2PLG3 10.02 bd 5.89 0.05 bd 2.07 1.93 0.06 20.02 47.5 51.0 1.5
98062708-2PLG4 9.89 bd 6.00 0.04 bd 2.24 1.79 0.07 20.03 43.8 54.5 1.7
98062708-2PLG5 11.17 bd 4.74 0.07 bd 0.94 2.96 0.09 19.97 74.2 23.6 2.2
98062708-2PLG6 9.65 bd 6.28 0.04 bd 2.43 1.54 0.04 19.99 38.3 60.6 1.1
98062708-3PLG1 10.95 bd 4.99 0.06 bd 1.10 2.83 0.07 20.00 70.9 27.5 1.7
98062708-3PLG2 9.56 bd 6.32 0.08 bd 2.53 1.52 0.05 20.05 37.0 61.8 1.2
97091713A-1KSP1 11.94 0.04 4.01 0.03 bd bd 0.28 3.69 19.99 7.1 bd 92.9
97091713A-1KSP2 12.06 bd 3.92 bd bd bd 0.30 3.71 19.98 7.4 bd 92.6
97091713A-1PLG1 11.34 bd 4.63 0.03 bd 0.64 3.29 0.10 20.04 81.6 15.9 2.5
97091713A-1PLG2 10.47 bd 5.45 0.06 bd 1.57 2.43 0.08 20.05 59.6 38.5 1.9
97091713A-1PLG3 9.80 bd 6.15 0.05 bd 2.23 1.75 0.03 20.01 43.7 55.6 0.7
97091713A-2KSP1 12.00 0.02 3.92 0.03 bd bd 0.56 3.54 20.06 13.6 bd 86.4
97091713A-2KSP2 11.98 0.05 3.95 bd bd bd 0.40 3.59 19.98 10.1 bd 89.9
97091713A-3KSP1 11.98 0.04 3.93 bd bd bd 0.18 3.92 20.05 4.3 bd 95.7
97091713A-3PLG1 10.04 bd 5.89 0.06 bd 2.09 1.82 0.03 19.94 46.2 53.0 0.8
97091713A-3PLG2 10.09 bd 5.84 0.06 bd 1.99 1.94 0.05 19.97 48.7 50.0 1.3
97091713A-3PLG3 10.94 bd 5.02 0.05 bd 1.13 2.67 0.13 19.94 67.9 28.8 3.3
97091713A-3PLG4 9.95 bd 5.96 0.08 bd 2.13 1.85 0.04 20.01 46.0 53.0 1.0
97091713A-3PLG5 9.93 bd 6.02 0.04 bd 2.17 1.80 bd 19.96 45.3 54.7 bd
97091713A-3PLG6 11.89 bd 4.09 bd bd 0.34 3.42 0.04 19.79 89.9 8.9 1.2
97091713A-3PLG7 10.45 bd 5.52 0.03 bd 1.64 2.24 0.05 19.93 56.9 41.7 1.3
97091713A-3PLG8 10.97 bd 4.97 0.03 bd 1.14 2.75 0.10 19.96 68.9 28.6 2.5
97091713A-3PLG9 9.92 bd 5.98 0.08 bd 2.18 1.80 0.04 20.00 44.8 54.2 1.0

97101143-1hbl3b 10.05 bd 5.91 0.06 bd 2.05 1.76 0.06 19.89 45.5 53.0 1.5
971011431plg1a 10.08 0.03 5.87 0.07 bd 1.95 1.82 0.09 19.90 47.2 50.6 2.2
971011431plg2a 9.99 bd 5.96 0.04 bd 2.12 1.76 0.07 19.94 44.5 53.7 1.8
971011431plg3a 11.25 0.03 4.72 bd bd 0.83 3.01 0.03 19.87 77.8 21.4 0.8
971011432plg1a 10.01 0.02 5.96 0.04 bd 1.99 1.89 0.04 19.94 48.2 50.7 1.0
971011432plg2a 10.37 bd 5.61 0.04 bd 1.69 2.24 bd 19.94 57.0 43.0 bd
971011432plg3a 10.19 bd 5.78 bd bd 1.93 2.05 bd 19.94 51.5 48.5 bd
971011433plg1a 9.71 bd 6.22 0.08 0.06 2.34 1.50 0.04 19.95 38.6 60.3 1.1
971011433plg1b 9.60 bd 6.39 bd bd 2.47 1.46 bd 19.92 37.0 63.0 bd
971011433plg2a 10.18 0.02 5.74 0.07 bd 1.83 2.11 0.04 20.00 53.0 45.9 1.1
971011433plg3a 10.02 bd 5.95 0.06 bd 1.99 1.90 0.05 19.97 48.2 50.6 1.2
971011434plg1a 9.73 bd 6.24 0.04 bd 2.35 1.56 bd 19.92 39.8 60.2 bd
971011434plg1b 10.41 0.02 5.59 bd bd 1.71 2.09 bd 19.82 55.1 44.9 bd
971011435plg1a 10.02 bd 5.97 bd bd 2.10 1.75 0.04 19.88 45.1 54.0 0.9
971011435plg1b 11.20 bd 4.83 bd bd 0.94 2.77 0.04 19.78 73.9 25.0 1.1
971011435plg2a 9.66 bd 6.30 0.06 bd 2.38 1.56 bd 19.96 39.6 60.4 bd
971011435plg2b 10.76 bd 5.25 0.04 bd 1.29 2.50 0.03 19.87 65.4 33.9 0.7
97100801A-2PLG1 9.91 bd 6.06 bd bd 2.16 1.84 0.03 19.99 45.7 53.6 0.8
97100801A-2PLG2 10.09 bd 5.81 bd bd 2.08 2.03 bd 20.01 49.4 50.6 bd
97100801A-2PLG3 10.02 bd 5.95 bd bd 2.10 1.89 bd 19.95 47.4 52.6 bd
97100801A-3PLG1 10.14 bd 5.76 0.03 bd 2.01 2.03 0.02 20.00 50.1 49.4 0.5
97100801A-3PLG2 9.99 bd 5.92 0.07 bd 2.04 2.03 0.02 20.07 49.5 49.9 0.6
97100801A-4PLG1 10.18 bd 5.76 bd bd 1.94 2.08 0.03 19.98 51.3 48.0 0.6
97100801A-4PLG2 9.71 bd 6.23 bd bd 2.44 1.60 bd 19.97 39.6 60.4 bd
97101024A-1PLG2 9.90 bd 6.03 bd bd 2.22 1.81 0.02 19.99 44.7 54.8 0.5
97101024A-3PLG1 10.00 bd 5.92 0.02 bd 2.13 1.91 bd 19.99 47.3 52.7 bd
97101024A-3PLG2 9.94 bd 5.96 bd 0.04 2.18 1.90 0.02 20.03 46.3 53.3 0.4
97101024A-3PLG3 9.65 bd 6.28 0.02 bd 2.49 1.54 bd 19.97 38.1 61.9 bd
97101143-1PLG1r 10.55 bd 5.44 0.04 bd 1.50 2.39 bd 19.92 61.5 38.5 bd
97101143-1PLG2c 9.81 bd 6.10 0.04 bd 2.31 1.73 0.03 20.01 42.6 56.8 0.6
97101143-2PLG1r_og 11.38 bd 4.61 bd bd 0.74 3.15 0.02 19.89 80.6 19.0 0.5
97101143-2PLG2 9.25 bd 6.67 0.04 bd 2.92 1.07 bd 19.94 26.9 73.1 bd
97101143-2PLG3c 10.07 bd 5.85 0.04 bd 2.05 1.91 0.06 19.99 47.5 50.9 1.6

97101143-2PLG4 9.14 bd 6.75 0.05 bd 2.99 1.08 0.02 20.02 26.4 73.2 0.5
97101143-2PLG5r 10.49 bd 5.46 bd bd 1.64 2.33 0.03 19.95 58.2 41.0 0.8
97101143-2PLG6 9.99 bd 5.91 0.04 bd 2.13 1.92 0.04 20.03 46.9 52.0 1.1
97101143-3PLG1 9.56 bd 6.34 0.06 bd 2.60 1.39 bd 19.95 34.8 65.2 bd
97101143-3PLG2c 9.91 bd 6.01 0.04 bd 2.21 1.78 0.02 19.97 44.3 55.2 0.4
97101143-3PLG3r 10.78 bd 5.16 0.05 bd 1.34 2.60 0.03 19.95 65.5 33.7 0.8
97101143-4PLG1c 9.35 bd 6.62 0.04 bd 2.72 1.22 bd 19.94 30.9 69.1 bd
97101143-4PLG2r 10.09 bd 5.82 0.05 bd 2.05 1.93 0.03 19.97 48.2 51.1 0.7
97101143-4PLG3c 10.22 bd 5.77 bd bd 1.93 1.88 0.05 19.85 48.8 50.0 1.2
97101143A-PLG1r_og 10.41 bd 5.52 0.05 bd 1.68 2.27 0.09 20.01 56.1 41.7 2.2
97101143A-PLG2 9.30 bd 6.57 0.09 bd 2.84 1.21 0.02 20.02 29.7 69.9 0.4
97101143A-PLG3ir 10.18 bd 5.77 0.04 bd 1.89 1.78 0.30 19.96 44.8 47.7 7.6
97101143A-PLG4 9.35 bd 6.58 0.06 bd 2.73 1.25 0.02 19.99 31.2 68.2 0.6
97101143A-PLG5 10.07 bd 5.88 0.04 bd 2.03 1.88 0.05 19.94 47.4 51.4 1.2
97101143A-PLG6c 10.02 bd 5.91 0.04 bd 2.11 1.83 0.05 19.96 46.0 52.8 1.3
SRD024A-PLG1 9.84 bd 6.09 0.05 bd 2.30 1.63 0.03 19.94 41.1 58.2 0.8
SRD024A-PLG2 9.94 bd 5.96 0.06 bd 2.23 1.75 0.02 19.96 43.8 55.6 0.6
SRD024A-PLG3 10.02 bd 5.90 0.07 bd 2.09 1.86 0.03 19.97 46.8 52.4 0.8
SRD024A-PLG4 10.44 bd 5.52 0.03 bd 1.74 2.09 0.02 19.84 54.3 45.2 0.4
SRD024A-PLG5 10.06 bd 5.89 0.05 bd 2.11 1.78 bd 19.88 45.8 54.2 bd
SRD024A-PLG6 10.22 bd 5.75 bd bd 1.88 2.07 0.03 19.95 51.9 47.2 0.9
SRD024A-PLG7 10.17 bd 5.73 0.06 bd 1.95 2.03 0.06 20.00 50.3 48.1 1.6
SRD024A-PLG8 10.11 bd 5.81 0.06 bd 2.02 1.94 0.03 19.96 48.6 50.7 0.6
SRD025-PLG1 10.48 bd 5.47 0.05 bd 1.63 2.27 0.04 19.93 57.7 41.4 0.9
SRD025-PLG2 9.98 bd 5.94 0.05 bd 2.17 1.79 bd 19.93 45.3 54.7 bd
SRD025-PLG3 10.02 bd 5.89 0.06 bd 2.08 1.91 0.04 20.00 47.3 51.7 1.0
SRD025-PLG4 10.01 bd 5.93 0.04 bd 2.19 1.70 bd 19.87 43.8 56.2 bd
SBD41414M-1PLG1 10.55 bd 5.40 0.04 bd 1.53 2.43 0.03 19.98 61.1 38.3 0.7
SBD41414M-1PLG2 10.51 bd 5.40 0.05 bd 1.52 2.55 0.04 20.07 62.2 36.9 0.9
SBD41414M-1PLG3 10.80 bd 5.13 0.03 bd 1.31 2.68 0.05 19.99 66.4 32.4 1.2
SBD41414M-1PLG4 10.18 bd 5.79 0.04 bd 1.87 2.09 bd 19.96 52.8 47.2 bd
SBD41414M-1PLG5 10.19 bd 5.75 0.03 bd 1.91 2.05 0.03 19.97 51.5 47.9 0.6
SBD41414M-2PLG1 10.45 bd 5.53 0.03 bd 1.66 2.19 0.04 19.90 56.3 42.6 1.1

SBD41414M-2PLG2 10.46 bd 5.50 0.04 bd 1.62 2.29 0.05 19.96 57.7 40.9 1.3
SBD41414M-2PLG3 10.56 bd 5.38 0.03 bd 1.50 2.48 0.04 20.00 61.7 37.4 1.0
SBD41414M-2PLG4 10.38 bd 5.58 0.04 bd 1.72 2.20 0.03 19.94 55.8 43.6 0.6
SBD41414M-3PLG1 10.80 bd 5.16 0.03 bd 1.23 2.75 0.06 20.02 68.1 30.5 1.4
SBD41414M-3PLG2 11.72 bd 4.25 0.04 bd 0.29 3.65 0.04 19.99 91.7 7.3 1.0
SBD41414M-3PLG3 11.68 bd 4.28 0.03 bd 0.37 3.60 0.02 19.98 90.3 9.2 0.5
SBD41414M-3PLG4 10.61 bd 5.34 0.03 bd 1.51 2.43 0.03 19.95 61.2 38.0 0.8
SBD41414M-3PLG5 10.61 bd 5.37 0.03 bd 1.46 2.44 0.04 19.94 61.9 37.0 1.1
SBD41414M-4PLG1 11.35 bd 4.60 0.02 bd 0.71 3.25 0.06 20.00 80.7 17.7 1.6
SBD41414M-4PLG2 10.56 bd 5.38 0.03 bd 1.53 2.41 0.06 19.97 60.4 38.2 1.4
SBD41414M-6PLG1 10.79 bd 5.18 0.04 bd 1.26 2.61 0.08 19.95 66.1 32.0 1.9
SBD41414M-6PLG2 10.56 bd 5.38 0.05 bd 1.48 2.46 0.06 20.01 61.5 36.9 1.5
SBD41414M-6PLG3 11.68 bd 4.30 bd bd 0.37 3.60 0.03 19.98 90.0 9.3 0.7
SBD41414M-6PLG4 10.50 bd 5.43 bd bd 1.62 2.39 0.04 19.98 59.0 40.1 0.9
SBD41414M-6PLG5 10.59 bd 5.34 0.03 bd 1.47 2.56 0.05 20.04 62.7 36.1 1.2
SBD41414M-6PLG6 10.73 0.02 5.20 0.03 bd 1.30 2.67 0.06 20.01 66.2 32.2 1.6
980707361plg1a 10.07 bd 5.88 0.07 bd 2.10 1.72 0.04 19.87 44.6 54.4 1.0
980707361plg2a 10.00 bd 5.94 0.08 bd 2.10 1.74 0.06 19.92 44.6 53.9 1.5
980707361plg3a 10.39 0.03 5.52 0.08 bd 1.78 1.98 0.07 19.85 51.7 46.5 1.9
980707361plg4a 9.56 bd 6.31 0.15 0.07 2.52 1.26 0.06 19.93 32.7 65.7 1.6
980707363plg1a 9.82 bd 6.13 0.04 bd 2.34 1.58 bd 19.90 40.4 59.6 bd
980707363plg2a 9.84 bd 6.11 0.05 bd 2.23 1.67 0.03 19.95 42.4 56.7 0.9
980707363plg3a 9.88 bd 6.02 0.08 bd 2.23 1.74 0.04 19.98 43.5 55.7 0.9
980707363plg4a 9.79 bd 6.15 0.08 bd 2.31 1.56 0.05 19.94 39.8 58.9 1.3
98070736-1PLG1 10.12 bd 5.83 0.05 bd 2.02 1.85 0.03 19.90 47.5 51.7 0.8
98070736-1PLG2 9.87 bd 6.03 0.07 bd 2.28 1.70 0.02 19.96 42.5 57.1 0.4
98070736-2PLG1 10.02 bd 5.84 0.07 bd 2.16 1.90 0.03 20.02 46.4 52.9 0.7
98070736-3PLG1 9.85 bd 6.09 0.07 bd 2.25 1.69 bd 19.94 42.9 57.1 bd
98070736-3PLG2 9.90 bd 6.02 0.05 bd 2.25 1.75 bd 19.96 43.7 56.3 bd
98070736-3PLG3 10.02 bd 5.91 0.07 bd 2.12 1.81 bd 19.93 46.0 54.0 bd
98070736-3PLG4 9.58 bd 6.35 0.06 bd 2.51 1.48 bd 19.97 37.0 63.0 bd
98070736-4PLG1 9.92 bd 5.93 0.09 bd 2.28 1.78 bd 20.00 43.8 56.2 bd
98070736-4PLG2 9.79 bd 6.15 0.06 bd 2.30 1.64 0.02 19.95 41.4 58.1 0.5

98070736-4PLG3 9.82 bd 6.07 0.06 bd 2.38 1.63 bd 19.95 40.7 59.3 bd

98070736-4PLG4 9.75 bd 6.16 0.06 bd 2.36 1.64 0.02 19.99 40.8 58.7 0.5
97091827A2KSP1 12.11 bd 3.82 bd bd bd bd 4.10 20.03 bd bd 100.0
971010305plg1a 11.80 bd 4.25 bd bd 0.29 3.42 0.06 19.82 90.7 7.7 1.6
98091612-2PLG1 11.83 bd 4.12 0.04 bd 0.19 3.78 0.03 20.00 94.5 4.8 0.7
98091612-2PLG2 11.98 bd 3.99 bd bd 0.14 3.79 bd 19.91 96.3 3.7 bd
98091612-2PLG3 11.90 bd 4.08 bd bd 0.18 3.78 0.02 19.95 95.1 4.5 0.4
98091612-2PLG5 11.97 bd 4.04 bd bd 0.09 3.79 bd 19.89 97.6 2.4 bd
98091612-2PLG6 11.90 bd 4.07 bd bd 0.18 3.79 0.02 19.96 95.1 4.5 0.4
98091612-2PLG7 11.36 bd 4.63 0.03 bd 0.72 3.15 bd 19.89 81.4 18.6 bd
98062708-2PLG1 11.75 bd 4.24 bd bd 0.32 3.60 0.02 19.93 91.3 8.2 0.5
98070736-2PLG2 11.48 bd 4.51 bd bd 0.57 3.39 bd 19.95 85.6 14.4 bd
98070736-3PLG5 11.74 bd 4.26 bd bd 0.30 3.66 bd 19.95 92.4 7.6 bd

APPENDIX 4b - Electron microprobe analyses of amphibole in rocks from the Batu Hijau district.

Sample no. - Analysis Rock Type Origin (Alt. Zone) SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeO* MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O Total
98100402-1HBL1 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 41.45 1.82 14.52 9.38 0.15 15.31 12.32 2.59 0.30 97.84
98100402-1HBL2 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 41.48 1.70 14.24 9.07 bd 15.36 12.11 2.30 0.17 96.43
98100402-4HBL4 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 43.12 2.37 11.83 12.24 0.14 14.27 11.39 2.45 bd 97.81
98090213-1HBL1 phyric hbl andesite magmatic 41.40 1.96 13.97 10.77 bd 14.64 11.90 2.15 0.17 96.96
98090213-1HBL2 phyric hbl andesite magmatic 41.30 2.12 14.26 10.98 0.14 14.53 11.95 2.34 0.19 97.81
98090213-4HBL3 phyric hbl andesite magmatic 41.59 1.87 14.06 11.22 0.14 15.01 11.68 2.41 0.17 98.15
98071101B-1HBL1 phyric hbl andesite magmatic 41.11 1.80 14.20 11.18 bd 14.17 11.79 2.17 bd 96.42
98071101B-1HBL2 phyric hbl andesite magmatic 42.29 1.84 15.26 10.17 bd 14.78 12.38 2.56 0.24 99.52
98071101B-2HBL3 phyric hbl andesite magmatic 41.75 1.84 15.08 9.53 0.15 15.13 12.14 2.48 0.14 98.24

970919372ahbl1a quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 52.03 0.84 3.75 9.18 0.38 17.73 11.75 0.63 0.40 96.69
970919372ahbl1b quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 51.99 1.24 4.23 9.25 0.36 17.97 11.90 0.92 0.40 98.26
970919372ahbl2a quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 49.42 1.47 4.63 11.58 0.42 15.90 11.28 1.27 0.41 96.38
970919372ahbl2b quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 50.06 1.54 5.61 11.64 0.30 16.23 11.38 1.70 0.43 98.89
970919372hbl1a quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 51.74 1.03 4.26 9.83 bd 17.81 11.11 0.99 0.52 97.29
970919372hbl2a quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 50.68 1.42 5.07 11.21 0.22 16.46 11.27 1.22 0.70 98.25
97091937-2HBL1 quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 50.26 1.31 4.29 10.55 0.25 16.52 11.38 1.28 0.44 96.28
97091010-1HBL1A quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 49.34 1.34 5.14 11.90 0.19 16.05 11.65 1.64 0.35 97.60
97091010-1HBL3A quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 48.93 1.45 5.63 12.48 0.44 15.79 11.51 1.42 0.39 98.04
97091010-AHBL2 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 49.34 1.03 5.12 11.79 0.44 16.12 11.22 1.54 0.32 96.92
97091010-BHBL1 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 49.61 1.44 4.83 11.70 0.26 16.03 11.48 1.34 0.27 96.96
97091010-BHBL2 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 50.67 1.31 4.99 11.43 0.30 16.02 11.59 1.13 0.25 97.69
97091010-BHBL3A quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 50.11 1.55 5.22 10.97 0.34 16.93 11.64 1.78 0.36 98.90
97091010-BHBL3B quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 49.47 1.53 5.10 10.80 0.25 16.45 11.46 1.90 0.40 97.36
971010301hbl2b quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 49.33 1.40 5.28 9.95 0.33 16.53 11.48 0.84 0.63 95.77

971010302hbl1 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 48.42 1.01 5.49 9.88 0.36 16.36 11.72 1.18 0.61 95.03
971010302hbl2 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 48.98 0.52 5.09 9.82 0.33 17.19 11.67 1.13 0.47 95.20
98062708-1HBL1 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic (subsol.) 53.12 bd 3.39 11.61 0.38 15.87 12.55 bd bd 96.92
98062708-1HBL6 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic (subsol.) 54.09 0.16 2.08 12.47 0.48 15.97 12.55 0.21 bd 98.01
98062708-2HBL1 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic (subsol.) 48.55 0.19 5.58 14.09 0.62 16.24 9.79 bd bd 95.06
98062708-2HBL2 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic (subsol.) 55.44 0.40 1.19 9.43 0.60 18.91 12.43 0.27 0.13 98.80
98062708-2HBL3 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic (subsol.) 53.17 bd 3.17 12.82 0.47 15.86 12.40 0.31 bd 98.20
98062708-2HBL4 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic (subsol.) 53.04 0.16 2.45 14.96 0.57 14.36 12.53 0.21 0.15 98.43
971011431hbl1a porphyritic tonalite magmatic 48.17 0.81 7.49 12.47 0.91 15.03 10.63 0.90 0.23 96.64
971011435hbl1a porphyritic tonalite magmatic 49.55 0.94 6.97 11.77 0.94 16.09 10.49 0.92 bd 97.67
97101143-1HBL1r porphyritic tonalite magmatic 47.67 0.68 7.73 12.74 0.66 15.03 10.66 1.23 0.11 96.51
97101143-1HBL2c porphyritic tonalite magmatic 47.25 1.16 7.87 13.58 0.56 14.62 10.69 1.39 0.11 97.23
97101143-1HBL3nr porphyritic tonalite magmatic 48.60 0.91 7.31 12.36 0.38 15.67 10.54 1.09 bd 96.86
97101143-2HBL1c porphyritic tonalite magmatic 47.38 1.19 7.55 12.48 0.45 15.31 10.79 1.47 bd 96.62

97101143-2HBL2c porphyritic tonalite magmatic 49.72 1.00 6.44 12.39 0.44 16.31 10.47 1.21 bd 97.98
97101143-5HBL2r porphyritic tonalite magmatic 48.01 1.07 7.72 13.14 0.61 14.85 10.50 1.47 bd 97.37
97100801A-1HBL1 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 48.00 0.82 6.80 11.79 0.45 15.98 10.56 0.78 bd 95.18
97100801A-1HBL3 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 46.99 0.90 7.52 12.69 0.59 15.15 10.50 1.02 0.13 95.49
97100801-ABHBL1 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 47.84 0.93 6.68 12.54 0.45 15.70 10.43 1.22 bd 95.79
SRD02-3051HBL1 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 49.34 1.08 6.82 13.12 0.37 15.52 11.22 1.26 0.13 98.86
SRD02-3051HBL2 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 48.18 1.06 6.92 13.01 0.18 15.42 10.92 1.51 bd 97.20
980707361hbl1a porphyritic andesite magmatic 50.12 1.51 4.14 13.33 0.49 14.88 11.27 0.87 0.51 97.12
980707361hbl3a porphyritic andesite magmatic 50.59 0.20 4.45 14.33 0.54 14.75 11.10 bd 0.17 96.13
980707363hbl2a porphyritic andesite magmatic 49.26 1.82 4.65 14.34 bd 14.47 10.81 1.13 0.46 96.94
980707363hbl4b porphyritic andesite magmatic 49.20 1.40 6.76 12.43 0.25 15.41 11.06 0.92 0.28 97.71
98070736-1HBL1 porphyritic andesite magmatic 46.82 1.55 7.14 13.54 0.28 14.24 11.08 1.26 0.30 96.21
98070736-3HBL1A porphyritic andesite magmatic 48.38 1.51 6.69 12.55 0.35 15.61 11.61 1.21 0.21 98.12

98070736-3HBL4 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 48.55 1.44 5.73 13.15 0.61 15.24 11.50 1.20 0.22 97.64
97100801A-2ACT1 porphyritic tonalite hydro. (biotite) 55.09 bd 0.61 14.75 1.43 22.74 0.54 0.29 bd 95.45
97100801A-2ACT2 porphyritic tonalite hydro. (biotite) 54.98 bd 0.99 14.88 1.31 22.79 0.51 bd bd 95.46
97100801A-4ACT1 porphyritic tonalite hydro. (biotite) 54.93 bd 0.26 15.88 1.78 22.03 0.40 bd bd 95.28
97092913A-4HBL1 quartz diorite (QD3) hydro. (actinolite) 54.02 bd 1.88 9.30 0.29 18.05 12.46 0.22 0.07 96.29
97092913A-4HBL2 quartz diorite (QD3) hydro. (actinolite) 55.08 bd 1.50 8.22 bd 18.98 12.54 0.18 bd 96.50

Number of Cations Based on 23 Oxygens

Sample no. - Analysis Si Ti Al Fe3+ Fe2+ Mn Mg Ca Na K Sum Cations Fe/(Fe+Mg)
98100402-1HBL1 5.94 0.20 2.45 0.72 0.41 0.02 3.27 1.89 0.72 0.06 15.67 0.26
98100402-1HBL2 5.99 0.19 2.42 0.80 0.29 bd 3.31 1.87 0.65 0.03 15.55 0.25
98100402-1HBL3 5.99 0.19 2.39 0.86 0.28 bd 3.29 1.86 0.64 0.02 15.53 0.26
98100402-2HBL1 5.90 0.20 2.52 0.87 0.20 bd 3.32 1.87 0.64 0.03 15.54 0.24
98100402-2HBL2 6.04 0.16 2.43 0.77 0.35 bd 3.26 1.85 0.66 0.05 15.56 0.26
98100402-2HBL3 5.97 0.17 2.44 0.92 0.21 bd 3.29 1.83 0.65 0.05 15.53 0.26
98100402-3HBL1 5.97 0.23 2.33 0.92 0.39 bd 3.16 1.85 0.62 0.03 15.50 0.29
98100402-3HBL2 5.96 0.22 2.39 0.80 0.45 0.02 3.16 1.87 0.68 0.04 15.58 0.28
98100402-4HBL1 6.34 0.24 1.79 0.88 0.58 0.03 3.14 1.75 0.65 0.03 15.43 0.32
98100402-4HBL2 6.45 0.22 1.70 0.88 0.52 0.03 3.21 1.73 0.60 0.03 15.36 0.30
98100402-4HBL3 6.23 0.26 1.96 0.76 0.73 0.04 3.04 1.81 0.68 0.02 15.51 0.33
98100402-4HBL4 6.20 0.26 2.00 0.90 0.57 0.02 3.06 1.75 0.69 bd 15.44 0.32
98100402-4HBL5 6.24 0.26 1.93 0.81 0.67 0.03 3.06 1.78 0.69 0.02 15.48 0.33
98090213-1HBL1 5.97 0.21 2.37 0.95 0.34 bd 3.15 1.84 0.60 0.03 15.47 0.29
98090213-1HBL2 5.92 0.23 2.41 0.93 0.39 0.02 3.11 1.84 0.65 0.04 15.52 0.30
98090213-1HBL3 5.93 0.25 2.32 1.03 0.26 bd 3.21 1.83 0.62 0.02 15.47 0.29
98090213-2HBL1 5.99 0.21 2.35 0.93 0.38 bd 3.14 1.83 0.64 0.02 15.49 0.29
98090213-2HBL2 5.93 0.24 2.37 0.99 0.27 bd 3.20 1.83 0.61 0.03 15.47 0.28
98090213-2HBL3 5.88 0.23 2.43 1.06 0.23 bd 3.17 1.83 0.60 0.03 15.46 0.29
98090213-3HBL1 6.14 0.21 2.10 0.97 0.50 bd 3.08 1.83 0.54 0.03 15.40 0.32
98090213-3HBL2 5.98 0.23 2.35 0.95 0.37 bd 3.12 1.84 0.60 0.01 15.45 0.30
98090213-3HBL3 5.92 0.22 2.35 1.15 0.27 bd 3.11 1.78 0.65 0.03 15.46 0.31
98090213-4HBL1 5.93 0.19 2.45 0.89 0.44 bd 3.10 1.87 0.65 0.02 15.54 0.30
98090213-4HBL2 5.96 0.19 2.39 0.91 0.40 bd 3.15 1.88 0.62 0.03 15.52 0.29
98090213-4HBL3 5.91 0.20 2.36 1.17 0.17 0.02 3.18 1.78 0.66 0.03 15.48 0.30
98090213-4HBL4 5.95 0.19 2.38 0.98 0.30 bd 3.20 1.86 0.62 0.03 15.50 0.29
98090213-4HBL5 5.91 0.19 2.49 0.93 0.34 bd 3.14 1.86 0.63 0.03 15.52 0.29
98071101B-1HBL1 5.96 0.20 2.43 0.99 0.37 bd 3.06 1.83 0.61 bd 15.44 0.31
98071101B-1HBL2 5.96 0.20 2.54 0.66 0.54 bd 3.11 1.87 0.70 0.04 15.61 0.28
98071101B-1HBL3 5.92 0.19 2.51 0.89 0.36 bd 3.14 1.85 0.66 0.02 15.53 0.28
98071101B-1HBL4 5.92 0.20 2.49 0.91 0.46 bd 3.02 1.85 0.64 0.02 15.51 0.31
98071101B-2HBL1 5.90 0.21 2.50 0.79 0.37 bd 3.23 1.88 0.69 0.03 15.60 0.26
98071101B-2HBL2 5.88 0.20 2.48 0.87 0.37 bd 3.21 1.93 0.64 bd 15.57 0.28


98071101B-2HBL3 5.93 0.20 2.52 0.83 0.31 0.02 3.20 1.85 0.68 0.03 15.56 0.26
98071101B-2HBL4 5.92 0.20 2.50 0.76 0.39 0.02 3.21 1.89 0.69 0.03 15.61 0.26
98071101B-3HBL2 5.91 0.21 2.45 0.84 0.45 0.02 3.13 1.86 0.73 0.02 15.62 0.29
98071101B-3HBL3 5.92 0.20 2.44 0.94 0.36 0.02 3.12 1.85 0.67 0.02 15.53 0.29
98071101B-5HBL1 5.89 0.22 2.51 0.82 0.35 0.02 3.18 1.87 0.70 0.02 15.58 0.27
98071101B-5HBL2 5.91 0.20 2.49 0.89 0.31 bd 3.21 1.89 0.63 bd 15.52 0.27
98071101B-5HBL3 5.92 0.18 2.54 0.84 0.31 bd 3.20 1.90 0.62 bd 15.52 0.27
970919372ahbl1a 7.39 0.09 0.63 0.59 0.50 0.05 3.76 1.79 0.17 0.07 15.04 0.23
970919372ahbl1b 7.29 0.13 0.70 0.56 0.52 0.04 3.76 1.79 0.25 0.07 15.11 0.22
970919372ahbl2a 7.16 0.16 0.79 0.63 0.77 0.05 3.43 1.75 0.36 0.08 15.18 0.29
970919372ahbl2b 7.07 0.16 0.94 0.60 0.77 0.04 3.42 1.72 0.47 0.08 15.27 0.29
970919372hbl1a 7.29 0.11 0.71 0.79 0.37 bd 3.74 1.68 0.27 0.09 15.04 0.24
970919372hbl2a 7.18 0.15 0.85 0.62 0.71 0.03 3.47 1.71 0.34 0.13 15.17 0.28
970919372hbl3a 7.29 0.12 0.68 0.63 0.44 0.04 3.80 1.77 0.26 0.07 15.10 0.22
970919372hbl1a 7.37 0.11 0.58 0.59 0.49 bd 3.87 1.79 0.26 0.06 15.11 0.22
97091937-2HBL1 7.26 0.14 0.73 0.50 0.78 0.03 3.56 1.76 0.36 0.08 15.20 0.26
97091937-2HBL2 7.30 0.13 0.71 0.36 0.80 0.02 3.69 1.83 0.34 0.08 15.24 0.24
97092452-1HBL1 7.16 0.13 0.74 0.49 0.65 0.04 3.80 1.77 0.54 0.11 15.42 0.23
97091010-1HBL1A 7.09 0.15 0.87 0.55 0.88 0.02 3.44 1.79 0.46 0.06 15.32 0.29
97091010-1HBL3A 6.99 0.16 0.95 0.77 0.72 0.05 3.36 1.76 0.40 0.07 15.23 0.31
97091010-4HBL1 7.00 0.15 0.94 0.78 0.70 0.04 3.40 1.75 0.44 0.06 15.25 0.30
97091010-AHBL2 7.10 0.11 0.87 0.78 0.64 0.05 3.46 1.73 0.43 0.06 15.22 0.29
97091010-AHBL3 7.04 0.14 0.85 0.78 0.63 0.04 3.52 1.77 0.42 0.05 15.24 0.28
97091010-AHBL4 7.13 0.13 0.83 0.49 0.84 0.04 3.54 1.81 0.49 0.07 15.36 0.27
97091010-AHBL5 7.10 0.14 0.89 0.55 0.79 0.03 3.51 1.78 0.48 0.05 15.31 0.28
97091010-BHBL1 7.14 0.16 0.82 0.62 0.79 0.03 3.44 1.77 0.38 0.05 15.20 0.29
97091010-BHBL2 7.22 0.14 0.84 0.54 0.82 0.04 3.40 1.77 0.31 0.05 15.13 0.29
97091010-BHBL3A 7.07 0.17 0.87 0.59 0.71 0.04 3.56 1.76 0.49 0.07 15.31 0.27
97091010-BHBL3B 7.12 0.17 0.86 0.44 0.86 0.03 3.53 1.77 0.53 0.07 15.37 0.27
971010301hbl1a 7.13 0.10 0.90 0.71 0.53 0.04 3.60 1.76 0.30 0.12 15.18 0.26
971010301hbl2b 7.14 0.15 0.90 0.61 0.60 0.04 3.57 1.78 0.24 0.12 15.13 0.25
971010302hbl1a 7.31 0.12 0.78 0.57 0.55 0.04 3.64 1.78 0.13 0.11 15.02 0.23
971010302hbl2a 7.19 0.13 0.90 0.67 0.50 bd 3.62 1.73 0.26 0.10 15.09 0.24


971010302hbl3a 7.03 0.15 1.06 0.63 0.52 bd 3.60 1.76 0.30 0.14 15.19 0.24
971010302hbl4a 7.24 0.10 0.76 0.67 0.48 0.05 3.71 1.77 0.29 0.08 15.13 0.24
971010303hbl1a 7.18 0.11 0.87 0.67 0.49 0.04 3.65 1.78 0.22 0.11 15.11 0.24
971010303hbl2a 7.17 0.13 0.91 0.70 0.46 0.05 3.58 1.77 0.14 0.10 15.02 0.24
971010302hbl1 7.10 0.11 0.95 0.49 0.73 0.05 3.58 1.84 0.34 0.11 15.29 0.25
971010302hbl2 7.12 0.06 0.87 0.74 0.45 0.04 3.72 1.82 0.32 0.09 15.22 0.24
98062708-1HBL1 7.61 bd 0.58 0.37 1.02 0.05 3.39 1.93 bd bd 14.93 0.29
98062708-1HBL5 7.88 bd 0.11 0.42 0.71 0.05 3.85 1.86 bd bd 14.86 0.23
98062708-1HBL6 7.70 0.02 0.35 0.33 1.16 0.06 3.39 1.92 0.06 bd 14.97 0.30
98062708-2HBL1 6.88 0.02 0.93 1.67 bd 0.07 3.43 1.49 bd bd 14.49 0.33
98062708-2HBL2 7.69 0.04 0.19 0.56 0.54 0.07 3.91 1.85 0.07 0.02 14.94 0.22
98062708-2HBL3 7.54 bd 0.53 0.54 0.99 0.06 3.35 1.88 0.09 bd 14.97 0.31
98062708-2HBL4 7.62 0.02 0.42 0.36 1.44 0.07 3.08 1.93 0.06 0.03 15.02 0.37
98062708-2HBL5 7.75 0.02 0.27 0.34 0.77 0.04 3.81 1.92 bd bd 14.92 0.23
98062708-2HBL6 7.72 0.04 0.25 0.37 0.78 0.05 3.79 1.90 0.07 bd 14.97 0.23
98062708-2HBL7 7.62 0.02 0.29 0.83 0.14 0.03 4.08 1.81 bd bd 14.81 0.19
98062708-3HBL1 7.79 0.02 0.13 0.53 0.16 0.04 4.34 1.86 bd bd 14.86 0.14
98062708-3HBL2 7.89 bd 0.09 0.46 0.24 0.03 4.30 1.84 bd bd 14.84 0.14
98062708-3HBL3 7.73 0.04 0.17 0.63 0.17 0.03 4.24 1.83 bd bd 14.83 0.16
98062708-3HBL4 7.64 0.02 0.33 0.64 0.87 0.04 3.47 1.83 0.06 bd 14.90 0.30
98062708-3HBL5 7.74 0.03 0.19 0.41 0.99 0.05 3.58 1.93 bd bd 14.93 0.28
971011431hbl1a 6.87 0.09 1.25 1.30 0.19 0.11 3.19 1.62 0.25 0.04 14.91 0.32
971011431hbl2a 6.93 0.09 1.23 0.96 0.42 0.12 3.25 1.70 0.27 0.09 15.06 0.30
971011431hbl3a 6.80 0.10 1.29 1.28 0.10 0.12 3.31 1.63 0.32 0.05 15.00 0.29
971011432hbl1a 6.90 0.12 1.30 0.97 0.49 0.09 3.15 1.68 0.30 0.05 15.03 0.32
971011432hbl2a 6.89 0.12 1.23 1.30 0.14 0.05 3.28 1.55 0.35 0.03 14.92 0.31
971011432hbl4a 6.89 0.13 1.23 1.18 0.30 0.06 3.22 1.63 0.27 0.03 14.94 0.31
971011433hbl1a 7.04 0.10 1.04 1.13 0.21 0.09 3.39 1.66 0.19 0.03 14.88 0.28
971011433hbl3a 6.97 0.13 1.10 1.35 0.06 0.09 3.31 1.54 0.25 0.03 14.82 0.30
971011434hbl1a 6.96 0.10 1.09 1.34 0.04 0.10 3.38 1.59 0.26 0.03 14.88 0.29
971011435hbl1a 6.92 0.10 1.15 1.38 bd 0.11 3.35 1.57 0.25 bd 14.82 0.29
97101143-1HBL1r 6.82 0.07 1.30 1.29 0.23 0.08 3.20 1.63 0.34 0.02 14.99 0.32
97101143-1HBL2c 6.75 0.13 1.32 1.25 0.37 0.07 3.11 1.64 0.38 0.02 15.04 0.34


97101143-1HBL3nr 6.87 0.10 1.22 1.35 0.12 0.05 3.30 1.60 0.30 bd 14.90 0.31
97101143-1HBL4r 6.64 0.14 1.35 1.41 0.19 0.08 3.20 1.63 0.41 0.03 15.06 0.33
97101143-2HBL1c 6.78 0.13 1.28 1.19 0.31 0.06 3.27 1.66 0.41 bd 15.06 0.31
97101143-2HBL2c 6.94 0.11 1.06 1.39 0.06 0.05 3.40 1.57 0.33 bd 14.89 0.30
97101143-2HBL3c 6.78 0.12 1.25 1.31 0.19 0.06 3.29 1.61 0.41 0.03 15.04 0.31
97101143-3HBL1r 6.95 0.12 1.05 1.32 0.06 0.08 3.43 1.59 0.30 0.01 14.90 0.29
97101143-3HBL2c 6.89 0.11 1.17 1.28 0.18 0.07 3.30 1.59 0.34 0.01 14.95 0.31
97101143-4HBL1r 6.88 0.10 1.09 1.43 0.08 0.06 3.37 1.59 0.33 0.02 14.94 0.31
97101143-4HBL2c 6.89 0.11 1.16 1.15 0.33 0.07 3.29 1.67 0.33 0.03 15.03 0.31
97101143-5HBL1c 7.00 0.10 1.02 1.17 0.24 0.06 3.42 1.64 0.32 0.02 14.98 0.29
97101143-5HBL2r 6.82 0.11 1.29 1.25 0.31 0.07 3.14 1.60 0.40 bd 15.00 0.33
97100801A-1HBL1 6.88 0.09 1.15 1.41 bd 0.06 3.42 1.62 0.22 bd 14.84 0.29
97100801A-1HBL3 6.77 0.10 1.28 1.44 0.09 0.07 3.25 1.62 0.29 0.02 14.93 0.32
97100801-ABHBL1 6.86 0.10 1.13 1.41 0.09 0.06 3.36 1.60 0.34 bd 14.94 0.31
SRD02-3051HBL1 6.93 0.11 1.12 1.05 0.49 0.04 3.25 1.69 0.34 0.02 15.05 0.32
SRD02-3051HBL2 6.87 0.11 1.16 1.11 0.44 0.02 3.28 1.67 0.42 bd 15.09 0.32
SRD02-3052HBL1 6.97 0.11 1.06 1.16 0.33 0.04 3.34 1.63 0.37 bd 15.00 0.31
SRD02-3052HBL2 6.86 0.10 1.13 1.42 0.14 0.06 3.31 1.61 0.33 bd 14.94 0.32
SRD02-3052HBL3 6.82 0.11 1.17 1.33 0.24 0.05 3.28 1.64 0.34 0.02 15.00 0.32
SRD02-3053HBL1 6.89 0.12 1.17 1.15 0.43 0.03 3.21 1.67 0.30 0.02 14.99 0.33
SRD02-3053HBL2 6.83 0.15 1.16 1.03 0.48 0.05 3.30 1.73 0.37 0.02 15.13 0.31
SRD02-3054HBL1 6.83 0.17 1.18 1.09 0.47 0.04 3.21 1.70 0.34 bd 15.03 0.33
980707361hbl1a 7.25 0.16 0.71 0.64 0.98 0.06 3.21 1.75 0.24 0.09 15.09 0.33
980707361hbl2a 6.80 0.18 1.27 0.98 0.68 0.05 3.04 1.68 0.33 0.10 15.10 0.35
980707361hbl3a 7.27 0.02 0.76 1.20 0.52 0.07 3.16 1.71 bd 0.03 14.74 0.35
980707361hbl4a 7.19 0.18 0.72 0.82 0.91 0.06 3.12 1.63 0.38 0.08 15.09 0.36
980707363hbl2a 7.14 0.20 0.79 0.76 0.97 bd 3.13 1.68 0.32 0.09 15.08 0.36
980707363hbl3a 7.19 0.16 0.67 0.86 0.89 0.04 3.20 1.67 0.36 0.08 15.10 0.35
980707363hbl4a 6.95 0.17 1.10 0.76 0.67 0.03 3.32 1.74 0.36 0.05 15.16 0.30
980707363hbl4b 6.97 0.15 1.13 0.98 0.49 0.03 3.25 1.68 0.25 0.05 14.98 0.31
98070736-1HBL1 6.83 0.17 1.23 0.91 0.74 0.04 3.09 1.73 0.36 0.06 15.14 0.35
98070736-1HBL2 6.80 0.18 1.23 0.81 0.82 0.04 3.12 1.76 0.41 0.08 15.25 0.34
98070736-1HBL3 6.81 0.18 1.21 0.85 0.85 0.05 3.06 1.78 0.36 0.06 15.20 0.36


98070736-1HBL4 6.84 0.17 1.23 0.89 0.78 0.04 3.07 1.74 0.35 0.05 15.13 0.35
98070736-1HBL5 6.84 0.15 1.19 1.02 0.61 0.02 3.17 1.72 0.34 0.03 15.09 0.34
98070736-3HBL1A 6.88 0.16 1.12 0.89 0.60 0.04 3.31 1.77 0.33 0.04 15.14 0.31
98070736-3HBL2 6.96 0.14 1.00 0.92 0.55 0.05 3.38 1.76 0.32 0.04 15.12 0.30
98070736-3HBL4 6.97 0.16 0.97 0.89 0.70 0.07 3.26 1.77 0.33 0.04 15.14 0.33
97100801A-2ACT1 7.96 bd 0.10 bd 1.78 0.18 4.90 0.08 0.08 bd 15.08 0.27
97100801A-2ACT2 7.91 bd 0.17 0.01 1.78 0.16 4.89 0.08 bd bd 15.00 0.27
97100801A-4ACT1 7.98 bd 0.04 bd 1.93 0.22 4.77 0.06 bd bd 15.00 0.29
97092913A-4HBL1 7.70 bd 0.32 0.40 0.71 0.04 3.84 1.90 0.06 0.01 14.98 0.22
97092913A-4HBL2 7.78 bd 0.25 0.34 0.63 bd 4.00 1.90 0.05 bd 14.95 0.20

APPENDIX 4c - Electron microprobe analysis of biotite in rocks from the Batu Hijau district.

Sample no. - Analysis Rock Type Origin SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeO* MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O Cl Total
97091713-1BI2 granodiorite dyke magmatic 38.90 5.00 13.38 10.93 0.35 18.13 bd bd 9.67 0.26 96.62
97091713-1BIO2 granodiorite dyke magmatic 39.77 4.94 13.15 9.68 0.28 18.85 bd bd 9.80 0.23 96.70
97091713-1bio1a quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 39.60 4.19 13.38 11.28 bd 18.29 bd bd 10.44 bd 97.18
97091713-3bio1a quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 39.09 4.64 13.30 11.73 bd 17.64 0.13 bd 10.00 bd 96.53
97101030-4BI1 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 39.07 4.31 12.10 9.33 bd 18.06 bd bd 9.25 0.34 92.46
SBD41414M-1BIO1 Young Tonalite magmatic 37.80 3.67 13.46 12.48 bd 17.68 bd bd 8.97 0.15 94.21
SBD41414M-1BIO4 Young Tonalite magmatic 38.55 4.03 13.93 13.22 0.23 17.21 bd 0.23 9.10 0.23 96.73
SBD41414M-3BIO1 Young Tonalite magmatic 38.37 3.47 14.31 12.56 0.14 17.49 bd bd 9.16 0.10 95.60
SBD41414M-3BIO3 Young Tonalite magmatic 38.74 3.75 13.88 12.94 0.28 17.32 bd 0.23 9.27 0.22 96.63
97091012A-121BI volcanic sandstone biotite hornfels 39.10 2.65 12.30 9.50 bd 20.48 bd 0.30 7.31 0.16 91.80
97091012A-1BI1 volcanic sandstone biotite hornfels 38.12 3.46 13.21 9.29 bd 18.77 bd 0.33 8.52 0.20 91.90
97091715B-2BI1 volcanic lithic breccia biotite hornfels 38.65 4.38 13.43 10.92 bd 17.41 bd bd 9.92 0.16 94.87
97091715B-3BI2 volcanic lithic breccia biotite hornfels 39.45 3.33 12.95 9.31 bd 19.39 0.10 bd 9.83 0.08 94.44
97091827A-2BI1 quartz diorite (QD1) hydrothermal 38.28 4.28 13.06 14.09 bd 15.46 bd bd 9.80 0.38 95.35
97091827A-4BI1 quartz diorite (QD1) hydrothermal 37.45 5.33 13.22 13.55 0.20 15.15 bd bd 9.50 0.32 94.72
97091827A-4BI2 quartz diorite (QD1) hydrothermal 37.61 5.62 13.09 13.30 0.23 15.47 bd bd 9.57 0.31 95.20


Sample no. - Analysis Rock Type Origin SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeO* MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O Cl Total
97092913A-1BI1 quartz diorite (QD3) hydrothermal 37.47 3.60 14.82 14.47 bd 14.33 bd bd 8.92 0.13 93.74
97092913A-1BI2 quartz diorite (QD3) hydrothermal 35.40 4.34 15.16 14.58 bd 14.69 0.26 bd 5.67 0.16 90.26
97100801A-4BI1 porphyritic tonalite hydrothermal 37.08 3.50 13.58 11.38 bd 16.95 bd bd 8.68 0.22 91.39

Number of Cations Based on 24 (O, Cl, F)

Sample no. - Analysis Si AlIV AlVI Ti Fe2+ Mn Mg Ca Na K Sum Cations Cl Fe/(Fe+Mg)
97091713-1BI2 5.90 2.10 0.29 0.57 1.39 0.05 4.10 bd bd 1.87 16.27 0.13 0.25
97091713-1BIO2 5.98 2.02 0.31 0.56 1.22 0.04 4.23 bd bd 1.88 16.23 0.12 0.22
97091713-1BIO3 6.01 1.99 0.41 0.51 1.35 0.06 4.02 bd bd 1.85 16.20 0.10 0.25
97091713-1BIO4 6.06 1.94 0.33 0.49 1.37 0.05 4.15 bd bd 1.85 16.23 0.09 0.25
97091713-2BIO1 6.14 1.86 0.38 0.40 1.18 0.05 4.36 bd bd 1.90 16.28 0.12 0.21
97091713-2BIO2 6.10 1.90 0.33 0.42 1.30 0.04 4.34 bd bd 1.87 16.30 0.05 0.23
97091713-2BIO3 6.09 1.91 0.37 0.41 1.19 0.05 4.37 bd bd 1.94 16.33 0.09 0.21
97091713-2BIO4 5.96 2.04 0.33 0.51 1.44 0.05 4.09 bd bd 1.87 16.28 0.11 0.26
97091713-2BIO5 6.10 1.90 0.36 0.42 1.21 0.05 4.34 bd bd 1.92 16.31 0.13 0.22
97091713-4BIO1 6.10 1.90 0.43 0.30 1.17 0.04 4.56 bd bd 1.89 16.38 0.12 0.20
97091713-1bio1a 5.97 2.03 0.35 0.48 1.42 bd 4.11 bd bd 2.01 16.37 bd 0.26
97091713-3bio1a 5.94 2.06 0.32 0.53 1.49 bd 4.00 0.02 bd 1.94 16.30 bd 0.27
97101030-4BI1 6.13 1.87 0.36 0.51 1.22 bd 4.22 bd bd 1.85 16.17 0.18 0.22
97101030-4BI2 6.09 1.91 0.33 0.51 1.20 bd 4.30 bd bd 1.88 16.22 0.17 0.22
97101030-4BI3 6.05 1.95 0.32 0.52 1.26 bd 4.23 bd bd 1.95 16.27 0.18 0.23
SBD41414M-1BIO1 5.90 2.10 0.37 0.43 1.63 bd 4.11 bd bd 1.79 16.33 0.08 0.28
SBD41414M-1BIO2 5.93 2.07 0.46 0.41 1.58 bd 4.06 bd bd 1.77 16.28 0.05 0.28
SBD41414M-1BIO3 5.94 2.06 0.46 0.41 1.63 bd 4.00 bd bd 1.78 16.28 0.04 0.29
SBD41414M-1BIO4 5.88 2.12 0.39 0.46 1.69 0.03 3.92 bd 0.07 1.77 16.32 0.12 0.30
SBD41414M-3BIO1 5.89 2.11 0.48 0.40 1.61 0.02 4.00 bd bd 1.79 16.31 0.05 0.29
SBD41414M-3BIO2 5.97 2.03 0.53 0.40 1.60 bd 3.94 bd bd 1.75 16.22 0.07 0.29
SBD41414M-3BIO3 5.91 2.09 0.41 0.43 1.65 0.04 3.94 bd 0.07 1.81 16.34 0.11 0.30
SBD41414M-5BIO1 6.01 1.99 0.43 0.45 1.59 bd 3.96 bd bd 1.80 16.23 0.06 0.29
SBD41414M-5BIO2 6.04 1.96 0.44 0.36 1.42 bd 4.28 bd bd 1.82 16.31 0.04 0.25
97091012A-121BI 6.10 1.90 0.36 0.31 1.24 bd 4.77 bd 0.09 1.46 16.23 0.09 0.21
97091012A-1BI1 5.99 2.01 0.44 0.41 1.22 bd 4.40 bd 0.10 1.71 16.28 0.11 0.22
97091715B-2BI1 5.96 2.04 0.41 0.51 1.41 bd 4.01 bd bd 1.95 16.28 0.08 0.26
97091715B-2BI2 5.97 2.03 0.39 0.53 1.41 bd 4.00 bd bd 1.93 16.25 0.09 0.26
97091715B-3BI1 6.03 1.97 0.44 0.38 1.19 bd 4.40 bd bd 1.94 16.35 0.04 0.21
97091715B-3BI2 6.05 1.95 0.39 0.38 1.20 bd 4.44 0.02 bd 1.92 16.35 0.04 0.21
97091827A-2BI1 5.98 2.02 0.39 0.50 1.84 bd 3.60 bd bd 1.95 16.29 0.20 0.34
97091827A-4BI1 5.88 2.12 0.33 0.63 1.78 0.03 3.55 bd bd 1.90 16.22 0.17 0.33
97091827A-4BI2 5.87 2.13 0.28 0.66 1.74 0.03 3.60 bd bd 1.91 16.21 0.16 0.33
97092913A-1BI1 5.91 2.09 0.67 0.43 1.91 bd 3.37 bd bd 1.80 16.17 0.07 0.36
97092913A-1BI2 5.73 2.27 0.62 0.53 1.97 bd 3.54 0.05 bd 1.17 15.88 0.09 0.36


Sample no. - Analysis Si AlIV AlVI Ti Fe2+ Mn Mg Ca Na K Sum Cations Cl Fe/(Fe+Mg)
97100801A-4BI1 5.93 2.07 0.49 0.42 1.52 bd 4.04 bd bd 1.77 16.25 0.12 0.27
97100801A-4BI2 6.02 1.98 0.55 0.39 1.46 bd 4.06 bd bd 1.74 16.20 0.09 0.27
97101024A-4BI1 6.02 1.98 0.64 0.30 1.51 bd 4.06 bd bd 1.69 16.21 0.10 0.27

APPENDIX 4d - Electron microprobe analysis of olivine in rocks from the Batu Hijau district.

Sample No. - Analysis Rock Type Origin SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 MnO MgO CaO Total
98100301A-1OL1 micro-gabbro magmatic 39.36 bd 19.75 0.41 41.16 bd 100.68


APPENDIX 4d - Electron microprobe analysis of olivine in rocks from the Batu Hijau district.

Sample No. - Analysis Si Al Fe2+ Mn Mg Ca Sum Cations Fe/(Fe+Mg)
98100301A-1OL1 1.00 bd 0.42 0.01 1.56 bd 3.00 0.21

98100301A-1OL2 1.00 bd 0.43 0.01 1.57 bd 3.00 0.21
98100301A-1OL3 1.00 bd 0.43 0.01 1.56 bd 3.00 0.22
98100301A-4OL1 1.00 bd 0.42 0.01 1.57 bd 3.00 0.21
98100301A-4OL2 1.00 bd 0.42 0.01 1.57 bd 3.00 0.21

APPENDIX 4e - Electron microprobe analysis of pyroxene in rocks from the Batu Hijau district.

Sample no. - Analysis Rock Type Origin (Alt. Zone) SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Cr2O3 FeO* MnO MgO CaO Na2O Total
98100402-2PYX1 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 50.82 0.79 2.74 bd 8.58 0.34 15.07 21.59 bd 99.93
98100402-2PYX2 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 48.57 0.74 6.24 bd 6.95 bd 14.03 23.12 bd 99.65
98100402A-PYX1 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 48.91 0.65 5.77 bd 7.04 0.21 13.66 22.65 bd 98.89
98100402A-PYX2 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 49.69 0.74 4.98 bd 7.11 bd 13.86 22.41 bd 98.79
97092452-1PYX1 quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 53.01 0.22 0.78 bd 8.62 0.39 14.98 21.94 0.25 100.19
97092452-1PYX3 quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 52.82 0.23 0.76 bd 9.13 0.32 14.89 21.72 bd 99.87
97101030-2CPX1 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 52.61 bd 0.31 bd 6.72 0.55 14.74 22.63 0.29 97.85
97101030-2OPX1 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 53.03 bd 0.21 bd 18.76 1.22 23.82 0.98 bd 98.02
97101030-3OPX1 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 51.21 0.19 4.81 bd 14.09 0.42 27.02 0.27 bd 98.01
98100301A-1PYX1 micro-gabbro magmatic 52.35 0.46 1.15 0.14 8.69 0.39 14.67 21.58 0.18 99.61
98100301A-1PYX2 micro-gabbro magmatic 49.08 0.62 4.96 0.17 8.92 0.38 13.64 21.84 0.20 99.81
98100301A-2PYX1 micro-gabbro magmatic 53.82 0.24 0.34 bd 17.62 0.64 25.69 1.07 bd 99.42
98100301A-2PYX2 micro-gabbro magmatic 55.30 bd 0.40 bd 12.18 0.33 29.95 0.43 bd 98.59
98100301A-4PYX3 micro-gabbro magmatic 55.19 bd 0.61 bd 14.37 0.41 28.38 0.62 bd 99.58
98070736-1PYX1 porphyritic andesite magmatic 52.68 0.20 0.77 bd 9.09 0.38 14.55 21.86 bd 99.53
98070736-1PYX2 porphyritic andesite magmatic 52.48 bd 0.85 bd 9.27 0.37 14.24 21.64 bd 98.85
98070736-2PYX1 porphyritic andesite magmatic 53.42 bd 0.56 bd 8.71 0.42 14.73 21.95 bd 99.79
98070736-2PYX2 porphyritic andesite magmatic 52.51 0.24 1.07 bd 9.38 0.48 14.41 22.27 0.18 100.54
98070736-5PYX2 porphyritic andesite magmatic 52.84 0.16 0.74 0.17 9.49 0.50 14.59 22.07 bd 100.56
97091715B-3OPX1 biotite hornfels (vlb) metamorphic (hornfels) 54.64 0.22 1.03 bd 17.91 1.11 25.80 0.23 0.26 101.20
97091715B-3OPX2 biotite hornfels (vlb) metamorphic (hornfels) 54.50 bd 0.72 bd 17.42 1.02 25.81 0.14 bd 99.61
99090501-10pyx2 quartz diorite (QD3) hydro. (actinolite) 53.39 bd 1.03 bd 21.04 1.04 22.47 0.90 0.34 100.21
99090501-1pyx1 diopside-magnetite veinhydro. (actinolite) 52.33 bd 0.55 0.19 10.83 0.69 11.90 22.42 0.46 99.37
99090501-1pyx2 diopside-magnetite veinhydro. (actinolite) 53.32 bd 0.43 bd 8.76 0.96 13.52 22.83 bd 99.82
99090501-2pyx1 diopside-magnetite veinhydro. (actinolite) 52.36 bd bd bd 7.44 0.63 13.96 22.52 bd 96.91
99090501-4pyx2 diopside-magnetite veinhydro. (actinolite) 52.00 bd 1.01 bd 12.37 0.54 11.48 22.65 0.37 100.42


Sample no. - Analysis Rock Type Origin (Alt. Zone) SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Cr2O3 FeO* MnO MgO CaO Na2O Total
99090501-5pyx1 diopside-magnetite veinhydro. (actinolite) 51.52 bd 0.54 0.26 9.45 0.49 12.24 22.61 0.72 97.83
99090501-5pyx2 diopside-magnetite veinhydro. (actinolite) 50.14 0.21 0.82 bd 12.69 0.77 10.18 22.07 0.49 97.37
99090501-6pyx3 diopside-magnetite veinhydro. (actinolite) 51.10 0.16 1.04 bd 12.30 0.62 10.79 22.35 0.41 98.77
99090501-8pyx1 diopside-magnetite veinhydro. (actinolite) 51.70 0.17 0.75 0.31 11.77 0.64 11.14 23.09 0.36 99.93


Sample no. - Analysis Si Ti Al Cr Fe3+ Fe2+ Mn Mg Ca Na Sum Cations WO EN FS Fe/(Fe+Mg)
98100402-2PYX1 1.89 0.02 0.12 bd 0.06 0.21 0.01 0.83 0.86 bd 4.00 43.60 42.34 14.07 0.25
98100402-2PYX2 1.80 0.02 0.27 bd 0.09 0.13 bd 0.78 0.92 bd 4.00 48.10 40.61 11.29 0.22
98100402A-PYX1 1.83 0.02 0.26 bd 0.05 0.18 0.01 0.76 0.91 bd 4.00 47.87 40.17 11.96 0.23
98100402A-PYX2 1.86 0.02 0.22 bd 0.01 0.21 bd 0.77 0.90 bd 4.00 47.43 40.82 11.75 0.22
97092452-1PYX1 1.96 0.01 0.03 bd 0.04 0.23 0.01 0.83 0.87 0.02 4.00 44.04 41.84 14.12 0.25
97092452-1PYX2 1.94 0.01 0.05 bd 0.08 0.22 0.01 0.83 0.86 0.02 4.00 43.09 41.75 15.16 0.27
97092452-1PYX3 1.97 0.01 0.03 bd 0.01 0.27 0.01 0.83 0.87 bd 4.00 43.60 41.59 14.81 0.26
97092452-2PYX1 1.95 0.01 0.05 bd 0.06 0.22 0.01 0.80 0.88 0.02 4.00 44.45 40.80 14.75 0.27
97092452-2PYX4 1.98 0.01 0.04 bd bd 0.27 0.02 0.82 0.86 bd 4.00 43.73 41.75 14.53 0.26
97092452-2PYX5 1.96 0.01 0.05 bd 0.03 0.25 0.01 0.81 0.86 0.02 4.00 43.61 41.29 15.10 0.27
97092452-3PYX1 1.95 0.01 0.06 bd 0.05 0.25 0.02 0.79 0.85 0.03 4.00 43.36 40.54 16.10 0.28
97092452-3PYX2 1.97 0.01 0.06 bd bd 0.28 0.01 0.81 0.87 bd 4.00 44.13 41.23 14.65 0.26
97101030-2CPX1 1.99 bd 0.01 bd 0.03 0.19 0.02 0.83 0.92 0.02 4.00 46.36 42.01 11.64 0.22
97101030-2OPX1 1.99 bd 0.01 bd 0.01 0.58 0.04 1.33 0.04 bd 4.00 1.97 66.65 31.38 0.32
97101030-2OPX2 2.00 bd 0.01 bd bd 0.58 0.05 1.33 0.04 bd 4.00 1.91 66.63 31.46 0.32
97101030-3OPX1 1.87 0.01 0.20 bd 0.05 0.38 0.01 1.47 0.01 bd 4.00 0.55 76.42 23.03 0.23
97101030-3OPX2 1.90 bd 0.17 bd 0.05 0.40 0.01 1.49 bd bd 4.00 0.21 76.25 23.54 0.24
98100301A-1PYX1 1.96 0.01 0.06 bd 0.02 0.25 0.01 0.82 0.86 0.01 4.00 43.97 41.59 14.45 0.26
98100301A-1PYX2 1.83 0.02 0.22 0.01 0.10 0.17 0.01 0.76 0.87 0.01 4.00 45.42 39.47 15.11 0.28
98100301A-2PYX1 1.97 0.01 0.02 bd 0.02 0.51 0.02 1.40 0.04 bd 4.00 2.10 69.99 27.92 0.29
98100301A-2PYX2 1.99 bd 0.01 bd 0.01 0.36 0.01 1.61 0.02 bd 4.00 0.83 80.34 18.83 0.19
98100301A-4PYX1 1.96 0.01 0.04 bd 0.02 0.44 0.02 1.49 0.03 bd 4.00 1.65 74.86 23.49 0.24
98100301A-4PYX2 1.98 bd 0.03 bd 0.01 0.39 0.01 1.56 0.03 bd 4.00 1.50 78.03 20.47 0.21
98100301A-4PYX3 1.98 bd 0.03 bd 0.01 0.43 0.01 1.53 0.02 bd 4.00 1.20 76.46 22.35 0.23
98100301A-5PYX1 1.89 0.03 0.12 bd 0.03 0.20 0.01 0.81 0.91 bd 4.00 46.33 41.56 12.11 0.23
98100301A-5PYX2 1.95 0.01 0.05 bd 0.03 0.40 0.01 1.51 0.05 bd 4.00 2.27 75.75 21.98 0.22
98100301A-5PYX3 1.92 0.02 0.09 bd 0.03 0.20 0.01 0.84 0.90 bd 4.00 45.53 42.75 11.72 0.22
98070736-1PYX1 1.97 0.01 0.04 bd 0.01 0.28 0.01 0.81 0.88 bd 4.00 44.16 40.90 14.94 0.27
98070736-1PYX2 1.98 bd 0.04 bd bd 0.29 0.01 0.80 0.88 bd 4.00 44.18 40.45 15.37 0.28
98070736-2PYX1 1.99 bd 0.03 bd bd 0.27 0.01 0.82 0.88 bd 4.00 44.28 41.34 14.38 0.26
98070736-2PYX2 1.95 0.01 0.05 bd 0.06 0.23 0.02 0.80 0.89 0.01 4.00 44.52 40.08 15.40 0.28
98070736-5PYX1 1.95 0.01 0.06 bd 0.04 0.27 0.01 0.79 0.85 0.02 4.00 43.30 40.20 16.51 0.29
98070736-5PYX2 1.96 bd 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.27 0.02 0.81 0.88 bd 4.00 43.99 40.46 15.55 0.28
98070736-5PYX3 1.95 0.01 0.05 bd 0.05 0.23 0.02 0.81 0.87 0.02 4.00 43.89 40.76 15.36 0.27
97091715B-3OPX1 1.97 0.01 0.04 bd 0.03 0.51 0.03 1.38 0.01 0.02 4.00 0.45 70.41 29.14 0.29
97091715B-3OPX2 1.99 bd 0.03 bd bd 0.53 0.03 1.41 0.01 bd 4.00 0.28 71.18 28.55 0.29
99090501-10pyx2 1.97 bd 0.05 bd 0.03 0.62 0.03 1.24 0.04 0.02 4.00 1.82 63.28 34.90 0.36
99090501-1pyx1 1.99 bd 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.31 0.02 0.67 0.91 0.03 4.00 46.73 34.51 18.76 0.35
99090501-1pyx2 2.00 bd 0.02 bd bd 0.28 0.03 0.76 0.92 bd 4.00 46.37 38.21 15.43 0.29
99090501-2pyx1 2.01 bd bd bd bd 0.24 0.02 0.80 0.93 bd 4.00 46.67 40.26 13.07 0.25
99090501-3pyx1 1.99 bd 0.02 bd bd 0.25 0.02 0.78 0.94 bd 4.00 47.19 39.05 13.76 0.26
99090501-4pyx2 1.96 bd 0.05 bd 0.06 0.33 0.02 0.65 0.92 0.03 4.00 46.50 32.80 20.70 0.39


Sample no. - Analysis Si Ti Al Cr Fe3+ Fe2+ Mn Mg Ca Na Sum Cations WO EN FS Fe/(Fe+Mg)
99090501-5pyx1 1.97 bd 0.02 0.01 0.08 0.22 0.02 0.70 0.93 0.05 4.00 47.70 35.93 16.38 0.31
99090501-5pyx2 1.96 0.01 0.04 bd 0.06 0.35 0.03 0.59 0.93 0.04 4.00 47.21 30.30 22.49 0.43
99090501-6pyx1 1.98 bd 0.03 bd 0.04 0.32 0.02 0.64 0.93 0.03 4.00 47.40 32.76 19.85 0.38
99090501-6pyx2 1.97 bd 0.06 bd 0.03 0.35 0.02 0.61 0.93 0.03 4.00 47.87 31.36 20.77 0.40
99090501-6pyx3 1.96 0.01 0.05 bd 0.05 0.35 0.02 0.62 0.92 0.03 4.00 47.10 31.64 21.27 0.40
99090501-7pyx1 1.99 bd 0.02 bd bd 0.27 0.01 0.77 0.94 bd 4.00 47.16 38.68 14.16 0.27
99090501-7pyx2 1.99 bd 0.03 bd bd 0.30 0.02 0.72 0.94 bd 4.00 47.30 36.22 16.49 0.31
99090501-7pyx3 1.98 bd 0.02 bd 0.05 0.21 0.02 0.76 0.93 0.03 4.00 47.20 38.46 14.34 0.27
99090501-8pyx1 1.96 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.32 0.02 0.63 0.94 0.03 4.00 47.82 32.10 20.08 0.38

APPENDIX 4f - Electron microprobe analysis of chlorite in rocks from the Batu Hijau district.

Sample No. - Analysis Rock Type Alteration Zone SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeO* MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O Total
97091010-3CHL1 quartz diorite (QD3) mod. epidote 29.13 bd 16.72 18.00 0.65 20.49 0.47 bd bd 85.46
97091010-3CHL2 quartz diorite (QD3) mod. epidote 31.86 bd 15.77 18.17 0.60 18.75 1.85 0.19 bd 87.19
97091010-3CHL3 quartz diorite (QD3) mod. epidote 27.75 bd 17.76 18.25 0.57 19.95 0.13 bd bd 84.41
97091429-2CHL1 volcanic lithic breccia mod. epidote 26.25 bd 20.82 19.31 0.73 19.78 bd bd bd 86.89
97091429-3CHL1 volcanic lithic breccia mod. epidote 26.25 bd 20.83 18.43 0.63 20.17 0.11 bd bd 86.42
97091429-3CHL2 volcanic lithic breccia mod. epidote 25.56 bd 20.95 18.72 0.59 19.65 bd bd bd 85.47
97091937-1CHL1 quartz diorite (QD1) actinolite 27.68 bd 19.01 17.77 0.35 21.35 bd bd bd 86.16
97091937-2CHL1 quartz diorite (QD1) actinolite 28.08 bd 18.59 16.78 0.58 21.79 bd bd bd 85.82
97092913A-3CHL1 quartz diorite (QD3) actinolite 29.54 bd 19.39 13.80 0.23 22.38 bd bd bd 85.34
97101024A-4BI3 porphyritic tonalite biotite 30.02 0.22 17.61 14.96 0.62 22.27 0.08 bd 0.19 85.97

APPENDIX 4f - Electron microprobe analysis of chlorite in rocks from the Batu Hijau district.

Sample No. - Analysis Si Ti AlIV AlVI Fe2+ Mn Mg Ca Na K Sum Cations Fe/(Fe+Mg)
97091010-3CHL1 6.066 bd 1.94 2.17 3.13 0.12 6.36 0.11 bd bd 19.88 0.33
97091010-3CHL2 6.491 bd 1.51 2.28 3.10 0.10 5.70 0.40 0.08 bd 19.65 0.35
97091010-3CHL3 5.862 bd 2.14 2.28 3.23 0.10 6.28 0.03 bd bd 19.92 0.34
97091429-2CHL1 5.423 bd 2.58 2.49 3.34 0.13 6.09 bd bd bd 20.04 0.35
97091429-3CHL1 5.426 bd 2.57 2.50 3.19 0.11 6.22 0.02 bd bd 20.03 0.34
97091429-3CHL2 5.357 bd 2.64 2.53 3.28 0.11 6.14 bd bd bd 20.05 0.35
97091937-1CHL1 5.701 bd 2.30 2.31 3.06 0.06 6.56 bd bd bd 19.99 0.32
97091937-2CHL1 5.779 bd 2.22 2.29 2.89 0.10 6.69 bd bd bd 19.96 0.30
97092913A-3CHL1 5.973 bd 2.03 2.59 2.33 0.04 6.75 bd bd bd 19.71 0.26
97101024A-4BI3 6.093 0.03 1.91 2.30 2.54 0.11 6.74 0.02 bd 0.05 19.79 0.27

APPENDIX 4g- Electron microprobe analysis of epidote in rocks from the Batu Hijau district.
Sample No. - Analysis Rock Type Alteration SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO* MnO MgO CaO Oxide total Fe2O3* Total*
97091429-1EP1 volcanic lithic breccia mod. epidote 37.90 bd 24.29 bd 10.72 bd bd 23.53 96.44 11.91 97.63
97091429-1EP2 volcanic lithic breccia mod. epidote 37.45 0.17 22.15 bd 12.88 bd 0.18 23.96 96.79 14.31 98.22
97091010-3EP1 quartz diorite (QD3) mod. epidote 37.48 bd 22.78 bd 12.07 0.18 0.16 23.91 96.58 13.41 97.92
97091010-3EP2 quartz diorite (QD3) mod. epidote 37.32 bd 22.30 bd 12.77 bd bd 23.79 96.18 14.19 97.60
Fe2O3* = Total Fe recalculated as Fe3+

Total* = Oxide total recalculated for total Fe as Fe3+

APPENDIX 4g- Electron microprobe analysis of epidote in rocks from the Batu Hijau district.
Sample No. - Analysis Si Ti Al Fe3+ Fe2+ Mn Mg Ca Sum Cations Pistacite

97091429-1EP1 6.019 bd 4.55 1.42 bd bd bd 4.00 16.00 71.20
97091429-1EP2 5.985 0.02 4.17 1.72 bd bd 0.04 4.10 16.05 86.10
97091010-3EP1 5.991 bd 4.29 1.61 bd 0.02 0.04 4.10 16.06 80.70
97091010-3EP2 5.997 bd 4.22 1.72 bd bd bd 4.10 16.03 85.80

APPENDIX 4h - Electron microprobe analysis of magnetite in rocks from the Batu Hijau district.

Sample No. - Analysis Rock Type Origin (Alt. Zone) TiO2 Al2O3 Cr2O3 V2O3 Fe2O3* FeO* MnO MgO Total*
98091612-BMT1 volcanic sandstone magmatic 3.50 2.53 bd 0.71 57.51 34.29 bd bd 98.54
98091612-BMT2 volcanic sandstone magmatic 4.70 0.51 bd 0.79 57.01 34.51 bd 0.19 97.71
98100402-2MT1 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 6.66 0.26 0.41 0.19 53.38 36.16 bd 0.17 97.24
98100402-2MT2 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 8.31 5.07 0.30 0.78 42.74 38.27 bd bd 95.47
98100402-2MT3 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 9.31 5.77 bd 0.92 39.62 39.08 bd bd 94.70
98100402-2MT4 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 9.32 1.06 0.21 0.27 48.34 39.09 bd 0.22 98.51
98100402-4MT1 volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 7.71 3.80 bd 0.38 47.64 37.66 bd 0.28 97.47
98100301A-2MT1 micro-gabbro magmatic 0.28 0.43 bd 0.79 67.32 31.47 bd bd 100.29
98100301A-2MT2 micro-gabbro magmatic bd 0.27 bd 0.26 68.86 30.30 bd 0.56 100.24
98100301A-4MT1 micro-gabbro magmatic bd 0.28 bd bd 68.52 30.60 bd 0.24 99.64
98100301A-5MT1 micro-gabbro magmatic 0.28 0.19 bd 0.88 67.34 31.36 bd bd 100.05
98100301A-5MT2 micro-gabbro magmatic 0.70 0.46 bd 1.00 65.61 31.09 bd 0.28 99.14
98071101B-3MT1 phyric hbl andesite magmatic bd bd bd bd 68.15 30.24 bd 0.24 98.62
98071101B-4MT1 phyric hbl andesite magmatic 0.51 0.37 bd 0.34 66.26 30.62 bd 0.30 98.39
98071101B-4MT2 phyric hbl andesite magmatic bd 0.16 bd 0.57 68.66 31.28 bd bd 100.66
98071101B-BMT1 phyric hbl andesite magmatic bd 0.31 bd 0.26 67.80 30.22 bd 0.35 98.94
98071101B-BMT2 phyric hbl andesite magmatic 0.39 0.87 bd 0.70 67.56 31.55 bd 0.28 101.34
97091937-1MT1 quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 0.24 0.21 bd 0.60 68.47 31.29 0.38 bd 101.20
97092452-2MT1 quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 0.74 0.43 bd 0.69 67.28 32.24 bd bd 101.38
97091010-1MT1 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 4.55 0.81 0.14 0.74 57.23 33.70 1.21 bd 98.38
97101030-1MT1 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic bd 0.33 bd 0.64 66.24 30.13 0.21 bd 97.55
97101030-3MT1 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic bd 0.78 0.29 bd 66.34 30.27 0.26 bd 97.94
97101030-3MT2 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 2.96 1.35 bd 0.75 59.81 32.26 0.81 0.26 98.20
98062708-1MT1 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 0.81 bd 0.21 0.50 66.28 31.33 0.28 bd 99.42
98062708-1MT2 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 5.66 0.46 bd 0.67 57.30 33.89 2.33 0.20 100.51
FeO* and Fe2O3* = Fe2+ and Fe3+ calculated on the basis of 3 cations and 4 oxygens
Total* = Oxide total recalculated for FeO* and Fe2O3*


Sample No. - Analysis Rock Type Origin (Alt. Zone) TiO2 Al2O3 Cr2O3 V2O3 Fe2O3* FeO* MnO MgO Total*
98062708-2MT2 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 0.35 bd bd 0.62 68.45 31.35 bd 0.21 100.98
98062708-2MT3 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 0.45 bd bd 0.57 67.44 31.43 bd bd 99.88
98062708-3MT1 quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 0.95 bd bd 0.46 67.64 31.56 0.39 0.23 101.23
97101143-1MT1 porphyritic tonalite magmatic bd bd bd 0.43 68.55 31.05 bd bd 100.02
97101143-1MT2 porphyritic tonalite magmatic bd bd bd 0.38 68.85 31.16 bd bd 100.39
97101143-CMT1 porphyritic tonalite magmatic bd 0.28 bd 0.52 69.11 30.97 0.25 0.18 101.31
97101143-CMT2 porphyritic tonalite magmatic bd bd bd 0.34 68.33 30.91 bd bd 99.58
97101143-CMT3 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 0.33 0.29 bd 0.52 68.57 31.90 bd bd 101.61
97101143-CMT4 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 0.30 bd bd 0.53 67.59 31.21 bd bd 99.63
SRD024-AMT1 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 0.22 0.30 bd 0.40 67.95 31.37 bd bd 100.24
SRD024-AMT2 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 0.31 0.22 bd 0.38 67.83 31.41 bd bd 100.15
SRD024-AMT3 porphyritic tonalite magmatic 0.42 0.58 bd 0.31 67.78 31.65 0.16 bd 100.90
980707361MT1 porphyritic andesite magmatic 3.91 1.96 bd 0.67 59.43 35.13 bd 0.19 101.29
97091012A-1MT1 volcanic sandstone biotite hornfels 1.31 1.84 bd 0.67 64.25 31.88 0.53 0.26 100.74
97091012A-1MT2 volcanic sandstone biotite hornfels 0.70 1.02 bd 0.43 65.57 31.44 0.24 bd 99.41
97091715B-1MT1 volcanic lithic breccia biotite hornfels bd 1.00 bd bd 67.11 29.78 0.31 0.45 98.65
SBD41414M-3MT1 Young Tonalite hydro. (biotite) 0.15 0.43 bd 0.16 68.48 31.46 bd bd 100.68
SBD41414M-4MT1 Young Tonalite hydro. (biotite) bd 0.18 bd 0.17 68.74 31.14 bd bd 100.22
SBD41414M-4MT2 Young Tonalite hydro. (biotite) bd 0.48 bd 0.23 68.49 31.27 bd bd 100.47
97100801A-3MT1 porphyritic tonalite hydro. (biotite) 2.20 0.79 bd 0.51 62.95 32.18 0.48 0.23 99.34
97100801A-4MT2 porphyritic tonalite hydro. (biotite) 0.93 0.19 bd 0.43 65.08 31.00 0.29 bd 97.92
97092913A-1MT1 quartz diorite (QD3) hydro. (actinolite) 0.21 0.16 0.33 0.41 66.94 30.77 0.19 bd 99.01
97092913A-3MT1 quartz diorite (QD3) hydro. (actinolite) 0.86 0.20 0.21 0.37 65.50 31.19 0.24 bd 98.58
97092913A-3MT2 quartz diorite (QD3) hydro. (actinolite) 0.39 bd 0.14 0.19 65.93 30.52 bd bd 97.17
98091612-1MT1 volcanic sandstone hydro. (ep-ch) 0.58 bd bd 0.38 67.55 31.62 bd bd 100.12
98091612-2MT1 volcanic sandstone hydro. (ep-ch) 1.09 0.21 bd 0.25 66.40 31.64 bd 0.26 99.85
98091612-AMT1 volcanic sandstone hydro. (ep-ch) 0.30 bd bd bd 67.47 30.90 bd bd 98.67
97091429-2MT1 volcanic lithic breccia hydro. (mod. epidote) bd bd 0.15 0.23 67.23 30.23 0.20 bd 98.03
97091429-3MT1 volcanic lithic breccia hydro. (mod. epidote) bd 0.23 bd 0.41 67.37 30.42 0.25 bd 98.68


Sample No. - Analysis Ti Al Cr Fe3+ V Fe2+ Mn Mg Ulvospinel Spinel Chromite Magnetite
98091612-BMT1 0.10 0.12 bd 1.66 0.02 1.10 bd bd 10.11 5.73 bd 84.17

98091612-BMT2 0.14 0.02 bd 1.68 0.03 1.13 bd 0.01 13.80 1.17 bd 85.02
98100402-2MT1 0.20 0.01 0.01 1.58 0.01 1.19 bd 0.01 19.65 0.60 0.64 79.11
98100402-2MT2 0.24 0.23 0.01 1.25 0.02 1.24 bd bd 24.27 11.60 0.46 63.67
98100402-2MT3 0.27 0.27 bd 1.16 0.03 1.27 bd bd 27.27 13.24 bd 59.49
98100402-2MT4 0.27 0.05 0.01 1.40 0.01 1.26 bd 0.01 26.94 2.40 0.32 70.33
98100402-4MT1 0.22 0.17 bd 1.37 0.01 1.21 bd 0.02 22.20 8.58 bd 69.22
98100402-4MT2 0.24 0.16 bd 1.36 0.01 1.24 bd bd 23.51 7.80 bd 68.70
98100402-4MT3 0.23 0.16 bd 1.36 0.02 1.23 bd bd 23.30 7.77 bd 68.94
98100301A-2MT1 0.01 0.02 bd 1.94 0.02 1.01 bd bd 0.81 0.97 bd 98.22
98100301A-2MT2 bd 0.01 bd 1.98 0.01 0.97 bd 0.03 bd 0.61 bd 99.39
98100301A-4MT1 bd 0.01 bd 1.99 bd 0.99 bd 0.01 bd 0.64 bd 99.36
98100301A-5MT1 0.01 0.01 bd 1.95 0.03 1.01 bd bd 0.81 0.43 bd 98.76
98100301A-5MT2 0.02 0.02 bd 1.91 0.03 1.00 bd 0.02 2.03 1.05 bd 96.92
98071101B-3MT1 bd bd bd 2.00 bd 0.99 bd 0.01 bd bd bd 100.00
98071101B-4MT1 0.02 0.02 bd 1.94 0.01 1.00 bd 0.02 1.49 0.85 bd 97.66
98071101B-4MT2 bd 0.01 bd 1.98 0.02 1.00 bd bd bd 0.36 bd 99.64
98071101B-BMT1 bd 0.01 bd 1.98 0.01 0.98 bd 0.02 bd 0.71 bd 99.29
98071101B-BMT2 0.01 0.04 bd 1.92 0.02 1.00 bd 0.02 1.11 1.93 bd 96.96
97091937-1MT1 0.01 0.01 bd 1.96 0.02 1.00 0.01 bd 0.69 0.47 bd 98.84
97092452-2MT1 0.02 0.02 bd 1.92 0.02 1.02 bd bd 2.11 0.96 bd 96.93
97091010-1MT1 0.13 0.04 bd 1.67 0.02 1.09 0.04 bd 13.27 1.85 0.21 84.66
97091010-1MT2 0.17 0.10 bd 1.55 0.02 1.11 0.06 bd 16.85 4.99 bd 78.15
97091010-2MT1 0.15 0.04 bd 1.65 0.02 1.11 0.04 bd 14.45 2.04 bd 83.51
97091010-2MT2 0.15 0.03 bd 1.65 0.02 1.12 0.03 bd 15.36 1.54 bd 83.11
97101030-1MT1 bd 0.02 bd 1.96 0.02 0.99 0.01 bd bd 0.77 bd 99.23
97101030-3MT1 bd 0.04 0.01 1.96 bd 0.99 0.01 bd bd 1.80 0.45 97.75
97101030-3MT2 0.09 0.06 bd 1.74 0.02 1.05 0.03 0.02 8.62 3.08 bd 88.30
98062708-1MT1 0.02 bd 0.01 1.93 0.02 1.01 0.01 bd 2.36 bd 0.32 97.32
98062708-1MT2 0.16 0.02 bd 1.64 0.02 1.08 0.08 0.01 16.15 1.03 bd 82.82
98062708-2MT1 0.03 0.01 bd 1.92 0.01 1.02 0.01 bd 3.01 0.34 bd 96.65


98062708-2MT2 0.01 bd bd 1.96 0.02 1.00 bd 0.01 1.00 bd bd 99.00

98062708-2MT3 0.01 bd bd 1.96 0.02 1.01 bd bd 1.30 bd bd 98.70
98062708-3MT1 0.03 bd bd 1.93 0.01 1.00 0.01 0.01 2.71 bd bd 97.29
98062708-3MT2 0.40 0.03 bd 1.16 0.02 1.22 0.18 bd 39.54 1.55 bd 58.91
98062708-3MT3 0.06 0.02 bd 1.84 0.02 1.03 0.03 bd 6.03 1.13 bd 92.84
97101143-1MT1 bd bd bd 1.99 0.01 1.00 bd bd bd bd bd 100.00
97101143-1MT2 bd bd bd 1.99 0.01 1.00 bd bd bd bd bd 100.00
97101143-CMT1 bd 0.01 bd 1.97 0.02 0.98 0.01 0.01 bd 0.63 bd 99.37
97101143-CMT2 bd bd bd 1.99 0.01 1.00 bd bd bd bd bd 100.00
97101143-CMT3 0.01 0.01 bd 1.95 0.02 1.01 bd bd 0.94 0.65 bd 98.41
97101143-CMT4 0.01 bd bd 1.97 0.02 1.01 bd bd 0.87 bd bd 99.13
SRD024-AMT1 0.01 0.01 bd 1.96 0.01 1.01 bd bd 0.63 0.68 bd 98.69
SRD024-AMT2 0.01 0.01 bd 1.96 0.01 1.01 bd bd 0.90 0.50 bd 98.61
SRD024-AMT3 0.01 0.03 bd 1.94 0.01 1.01 0.01 bd 1.20 1.30 bd 97.50
980707361MT1 0.11 0.09 bd 1.67 0.02 1.10 bd 0.01 11.00 4.32 bd 84.67
980707361MT2 0.11 0.06 bd 1.71 0.02 1.10 bd 0.01 10.76 2.73 bd 86.51
980707363MT1 0.14 0.12 bd 1.57 0.02 1.13 bd 0.01 14.35 5.90 bd 79.75
97091012A-1MT1 0.04 0.08 bd 1.82 0.02 1.01 0.02 0.02 3.72 4.09 bd 92.19
97091012A-1MT2 0.02 0.05 bd 1.90 0.01 1.01 0.01 bd 2.03 2.31 bd 95.66
97091715B-1MT1 bd 0.05 bd 1.95 bd 0.96 0.01 0.03 bd 2.28 bd 97.72
SBD41414M-3MT1 bd 0.02 bd 1.97 0.01 1.00 bd bd 0.43 0.97 bd 98.60
SBD41414M-4MT1 bd 0.01 bd 1.99 0.01 1.00 bd bd bd 0.41 bd 99.59
SBD41414M-4MT2 bd 0.02 bd 1.97 0.01 1.00 bd bd bd 1.08 bd 98.92
97100801A-3MT1 0.06 0.04 bd 1.82 0.02 1.04 0.02 0.01 6.36 1.79 bd 91.85
97100801A-3MT2 0.06 0.01 bd 1.86 0.02 1.03 0.01 0.01 5.77 0.59 bd 93.64
97100801A-4MT1 0.02 0.01 bd 1.93 0.01 1.00 0.01 0.01 2.08 0.55 bd 97.36
97100801A-4MT2 0.03 0.01 bd 1.92 0.01 1.02 0.01 bd 2.75 0.44 bd 96.81
97092913A-1MT1 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.96 0.01 1.00 0.01 bd 0.61 0.37 0.51 98.51
97092913A-3MT1 0.03 0.01 0.01 1.92 0.01 1.02 0.01 bd 2.52 0.46 0.32 96.69
97092913A-3MT2 0.01 bd bd 1.97 0.01 1.01 bd bd 1.16 bd 0.22 98.62
98091612-1MT1 0.02 bd bd 1.96 0.01 1.02 bd bd 1.68 bd bd 98.32


98091612-2MT1 0.03 0.01 bd 1.92 0.01 1.02 bd 0.02 3.15 0.48 bd 96.38
98091612-AMT1 0.01 bd bd 1.98 bd 1.01 bd bd 0.88 bd bd 99.12
97091429-2MT1 bd bd 0.01 1.99 0.01 0.99 0.01 bd bd bd 0.23 99.77
97091429-3MT1 bd 0.01 bd 1.98 0.01 0.99 0.01 bd bd 0.53 bd 99.47

APPENDIX 4i - Electron microprobe analysis of ilmenite and hematite in rocks from the Batu Hijau district.

Sample No. - Analysis Mineral Rock Type Origin (Alt. Zone) TiO2 Cr2O3 V2O3 FeO* MnO MgO CaO Oxide Total Fe2O3* FeO* Total*
97091429-3IL1 ilmenite volcanic lithic breccia magmatic 51.12 bd bd 39.75 8.65 bd 0.77 100.42 1.45 38.45 100.56
98071101B-4IL1 ilmenite phyric hbl andesite magmatic 45.96 bd bd 46.30 6.84 bd 0.29 99.39 5.45 41.39 99.94
970910102-FE1 ilmenite quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 51.94 bd bd 39.39 8.68 bd bd 100.01 0.66 38.80 100.08
970910102-FE3 ilmenite quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 52.79 bd bd 36.64 10.36 0.16 0.59 100.54 0.31 36.36 100.57
97091937-1IL1 ilmenite quartz diorite (QD1) magmatic 50.88 bd bd 33.34 16.90 bd 0.34 101.46 2.28 31.28 101.69
97101030-1IL1 ilmenite quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 41.65 bd bd 51.81 4.26 0.31 bd 98.03 8.54 44.12 98.89
97101030-1IL2 hematite quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 20.08 bd 0.46 70.62 1.78 bd bd 92.94 23.87 49.14 95.33
97101030-1IL3 ilmenite quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 40.04 bd bd 52.80 4.10 0.40 bd 97.34 9.63 44.14 98.30
97101030-1IL4 hematite quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 20.30 bd 0.45 71.24 1.53 bd bd 93.52 23.95 49.68 95.92
97101030-1IL5 hematite quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 22.04 bd 0.40 69.10 1.75 0.21 bd 93.50 22.60 48.76 95.76
98062708-1IL1 ilmenite quartz diorite (QD3) magmatic 53.66 bd bd 25.45 21.88 0.19 0.36 101.54 0.07 25.39 101.55
SRD02-3IL1 ilmenite porphyritic tonalite magmatic 33.75 bd bd 63.20 1.02 0.17 bd 98.14 15.20 49.53 99.66
SRD02-4AIL1 ilmenite porphyritic tonalite magmatic 49.89 bd bd 38.39 12.07 bd bd 100.35 2.56 36.09 100.61
97091715B-1IL1 hematite volcanic lithic breccia biotite hornfels 19.56 0.23 2.61 69.31 2.98 0.18 0.17 95.04 22.76 48.83 97.32
97091715B-1IL1 ilmenite volcanic lithic breccia biotite hornfels 41.65 bd bd 51.81 4.26 0.31 bd 98.03 8.54 44.12 98.89
FeO* and Fe2O3* = Fe2+ and Fe3+ calculated on the basis of 2 cations and 3 oxygens
Total* = Oxide total recalculated for FeO* and Fe2O3*
Notes: bd = below detection limit

APPENDIX 4i - Electron microprobe analysis of ilmenite and hematite in rocks from the Batu Hijau district.

Sample No. - Analysis Ti Cr Fe3+ V Fe2+ Mn Mg Ca Sum Cations XTiO3 Hematite Ilmenite Pyrophanite
97091429-3IL1 0.97 bd 0.03 bd 0.81 0.19 bd 0.02 2.02 96.87 2.74 77.28 17.61
98071101B-4IL1 0.89 bd 0.11 bd 0.90 0.15 bd 0.01 2.05 89.39 10.61 75.99 12.72
970910102-FE1 0.99 bd 0.01 bd 0.82 0.19 bd bd 2.01 98.75 1.25 80.51 18.24
970910102-FE3 0.99 bd 0.01 bd 0.76 0.22 0.01 0.02 2.00 99.41 0.59 75.47 21.78
97091937-1IL1 0.96 bd 0.04 bd 0.65 0.36 bd 0.01 2.02 95.70 4.30 61.31 33.54
97101030-1IL1 0.83 bd 0.17 bd 0.98 0.10 0.01 bd 2.09 82.97 17.03 74.72 7.31
97101030-1IL2 0.45 bd 0.54 0.01 1.23 0.05 bd bd 2.27 45.17 53.73 43.57 1.60
97101030-1IL3 0.81 bd 0.19 bd 0.99 0.09 0.02 bd 2.10 80.61 19.40 72.60 6.83
97101030-1IL4 0.45 bd 0.54 0.01 1.24 0.04 bd bd 2.27 45.36 53.57 43.99 1.37
97101030-1IL5 0.49 bd 0.50 0.01 1.20 0.04 0.01 bd 2.26 48.88 50.17 46.82 1.70
98062708-1IL1 1.00 bd 0.00 bd 0.53 0.46 0.01 0.01 2.00 99.87 0.13 52.44 45.78
SRD02-3IL1 0.69 bd 0.31 bd 1.13 0.02 0.01 bd 2.16 68.94 31.06 67.13 1.40
SRD02-4AIL1 0.95 bd 0.05 bd 0.77 0.26 bd bd 2.02 95.12 4.88 71.05 24.07
97091715B-1IL1 0.43 0.01 0.50 0.06 1.20 0.07 0.01 0.01 2.28 43.12 50.21 40.20 2.48
97091715B-1IL1 0.83 bd 0.17 bd 0.98 0.10 0.01 bd 2.09 82.97 17.03 74.72 7.31

APPENDIX 4j - Electron microprobe analysis of apatite in rocks from the Batu Hijau district.

Sample no. - Analysis Rock Type Wall-rock Alt. SiO2 MnO MgO CaO K2O P2O5 F Cl Total
99050901-4ap1 diopside-magnetite vein actinolite 0.60 bd bd 53.83 0.16 40.00 bd bd 94.59
99050901-4ap2 diopside-magnetite vein actinolite 0.53 0.24 0.18 54.12 bd 39.88 bd bd 94.95
99050901-4ap3 diopside-magnetite vein actinolite 0.68 bd bd 54.08 bd 39.86 bd bd 94.62
99050901-5ap1 diopside-magnetite vein actinolite 0.44 bd 0.23 55.04 bd 40.93 bd bd 96.64
99050901-6ap1 diopside-magnetite vein actinolite 0.77 bd bd 54.43 bd 40.37 bd bd 95.57

APPENDIX 4j - Electron microprobe analysis of apatite in rocks from the Batu Hijau district.

Sample no. - Analysis Mn Mg Ca K Si P Sum Cations F Cl
99050901-4ap1 bd bd 4.82 0.02 0.05 2.83 7.71 bd bd
99050901-4ap2 0.02 0.02 4.84 bd 0.04 2.82 7.73 bd bd
99050901-4ap3 bd bd 4.84 bd 0.06 2.82 7.72 bd bd
99050901-5ap1 bd 0.03 4.82 bd 0.04 2.83 7.72 bd bd
99050901-6ap1 bd bd 4.82 bd 0.06 2.82 7.70 bd bd

APPENDIX 5a − Analytical methods and detection limits for chemical elements
Fusion − ICPOES Total Digestion − ICPMS
SiO2 0.01 wt. % Rb 0.5 ppm (2 ppm)

TiO2 “ Nb 0.1 ppm
Al2O3 “ Mo “
Fe2O3* “ In “
MnO “ Sn 0.2 ppm
MgO “ La 0.01 ppm
CaO “ Ce 0.1 ppm
Na2O “ Pr 0.01 ppm
K2O “ Nd “
P2O5 “ Sm “
LOI “ Eu 0.005 ppm
Gd 0.01 ppm
Ba 2 ppm Tb “
Sr 2 ppm Dy “
Y 2 ppm Ho “
Sc 2 ppm Er “
Zr 2 ppm Tm “
Be 1 ppm Yb “
V 5 ppm Lu “
Hf 0.1 ppm
Neutron Activation Ta 0.05 ppm
W 0.1 ppm
Au 1 ppb Tl 0.01 ppm
As 1 ppm Bi “
Br 0.5 ppm Th “
Co 0.1 ppm U “
Cr 0.5 ppm
Cs 0.2 ppm
Se 0.5 ppm
Fusion − ICPMS Note: Fe2O3* = total Fe
Cu 1 ppm Refer to Section 1.3.2.3 for

Pb 5 ppm details of analytical methods
Zn 1 ppm and sample preparation.
Ag 0.4 ppm
Ni 1 ppm
Co 0.5 ppm
Leco
C 0.01 wt. %
S 0.01 wt. %
APPENDIX 5b - Chemical analytical results for rock samples from the Batu Hijau district.
Sample No. Rock Type Alteration SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3* MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 LOI Total C S
98070121 andesitic lava least-altered 51.73 1.27 17.26 10.04 0.14 2.80 9.41 2.70 0.36 0.26 4.33 100.30 0.70 0.02
98091209 volcanic sandstone least-altered 50.01 0.68 17.73 8.24 0.16 4.08 8.30 2.95 0.30 0.13 6.02 98.60 0.88 0.02
SBD 123 325.8 volcanic sandstone least-altered 54.44 0.70 18.90 9.51 0.12 4.49 7.90 2.23 0.11 0.12 1.82 100.34 0.03 0.57
98110702 volcanic sandstone least-altered* 52.55 0.84 17.65 8.98 0.16 5.65 7.44 2.70 0.04 0.08 3.76 99.85 0.19 0.02
97101136 volcanic sandstone ch-py (~4 vol%)1 49.69 1.03 15.05 13.33 0.38 6.75 7.87 1.13 0.09 0.10 4.76 100.18 0.07 3.74
98091103 volcanic sandstone FSD - AA 59.06 0.73 20.75 6.94 0.01 0.08 0.10 0.26 0.78 0.13 9.79 98.63 0.01 6.25
98100402 volcanic lithic breccia least-altered 47.72 0.92 16.72 11.22 0.18 6.50 9.38 2.34 0.08 0.09 5.40 100.55 0.35 0.03
99050605 volcanic lithic breccia least-altered 51.50 0.75 19.10 8.33 0.18 4.63 8.26 2.22 0.15 0.14 4.26 99.52 0.21 0.14
PND 09 28.0-31.9 volcanic lithic breccia least-altered 52.12 0.76 16.70 8.72 0.22 4.28 7.44 2.83 0.41 0.10 5.07 98.65 0.36 0.56
99050603 volcanic lithic breccia least-altered* 57.06 0.67 17.65 7.96 0.18 3.90 5.62 3.66 0.02 0.13 3.50 100.35 0.02 0.16
98082906B volcanic lithic breccia ep-ch-sm1 45.95 1.07 15.01 12.03 0.23 6.88 7.76 1.90 0.11 0.16 6.96 98.06 0.75 0.09
SBD 94 110.4 volcanic lithic breccia biotite 54.48 0.81 18.38 9.73 0.13 5.25 5.39 2.51 1.16 0.12 2.99 100.95 0.11 0.08
98112602 volcanic lithic breccia FSD - IA 59.34 0.83 18.58 9.03 0.04 4.61 0.30 1.70 0.60 0.06 4.91 100.00 0.01 1.00
98112604 volcanic lithic breccia FSD - IA 55.83 0.80 21.05 8.10 0.03 3.25 0.20 0.46 0.62 0.05 9.49 99.88 0.01 0.19
98112605 volcanic lithic breccia FSD - Pa 58.40 0.89 20.92 6.92 0.01 1.63 0.07 0.16 0.70 0.07 10.23 100.00 0.01 5.30
98112601 volcanic lithic breccia FSD - se-di-qz 69.50 0.86 13.83 6.41 0.01 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.92 0.18 7.91 100.01 0.02 5.60
98100301 micro-grabbo least-altered 49.91 0.79 19.18 9.55 0.16 6.04 10.25 2.55 0.46 0.08 1.35 100.32 0.18 0.07
97092453 phyric hbl andesite least-altered 49.96 1.07 19.81 10.78 0.22 5.28 6.80 2.37 0.12 0.13 3.55 100.09 0.01 0.06
98071101A phyric hbl andesite least-altered 53.28 0.85 17.75 9.52 0.14 5.04 9.15 2.79 0.09 0.09 2.08 100.78 0.16 0.01
98112314B phyric hbl andesite least-altered 55.93 0.73 17.83 8.54 0.11 3.35 6.95 3.40 0.34 0.15 3.55 100.88 0.17 0.04
SBD 102 151# phyric hbl andesite least-altered 54.78 0.79 17.20 9.18 0.10 4.28 5.67 0.74 0.75 0.13 5.01 98.63 na 0.30
SGD 01 383.8 phyric hbl andesite least-altered 52.86 0.82 17.85 10.01 0.32 4.62 8.67 3.05 0.03 0.14 1.40 99.77 0.09 0.06
PND 01 68.8 phyric hbl andesite biotite 53.16 1.15 16.67 11.49 0.28 4.42 4.18 1.68 1.00 0.22 5.77 100.02 0.50 0.75
PND 04 104.5 phyric hbl andesite FSD - Pa 53.20 0.95 20.00 12.72 0.07 1.72 1.72 1.66 0.88 0.12 7.25 100.29 0.27 5.00
98070333 phyric cpx andesite least-altered 48.90 0.95 19.10 9.86 0.14 5.38 10.47 2.40 0.22 0.11 2.70 100.23 0.06 0.02
99050503 micro-quartz diorite least-altered 56.04 0.73 17.39 8.42 0.22 4.20 6.10 3.10 0.21 0.11 3.46 99.98 0.14 0.61
97092452 quartz diorite (QD1) least-altered 60.24 0.58 16.88 6.47 0.11 2.88 6.26 3.58 1.21 0.14 2.14 100.49 0.02 0.04
99050606 quartz diorite (QD2) least-altered* 58.97 0.59 17.03 6.74 0.22 2.89 7.36 2.78 0.02 0.12 3.44 100.16 0.02 0.70
Notes: Sample analytical results are arranged in chronological order by rock type and altertation style. Least-altered samples contain chlorite-calcite-magnetite+epidote+pyrite, unless indicated otherwise.
Major-oxide elements in wt. %; trace elements in ppm, except for Au, which is in ppb. Refer to APPENDIX 5a for analytical methods and detection limits. Results below detection are expressed as the detection limit.
* - sample is moderately epidote-altered (refer to Chapter 6), considered to be "least-altered" for data presentation in Chapter 4. # - sample result compiled from Mitchell et al . (1998). na - not analyzed.
1 - sample analytical result not included in data presentations of Chapters 4 and 6, as the sample composition is not considered to be representatitive (alteration mineral assemblage indicated).
Fe2O3* - total Fe
Sample No. Rock Type Alteration SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3* MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 LOI Total C S
SAD 04 232.1 quartz diorite (QD1) biotite 63.80 0.55 15.72 5.95 0.20 2.72 4.96 3.17 0.81 0.14 1.79 99.81 0.09 0.31
SBD 086 392 quartz diorite (QD3) biotite 58.31 0.57 16.47 11.70 0.13 2.57 1.70 5.12 1.23 0.16 2.41 100.37 0.06 0.30
SKD 02 110-111 quartz diorite (QD3) biotite 61.97 0.57 17.30 5.61 0.15 2.93 4.97 3.81 1.04 0.22 1.32 99.89 0.03 0.11
99050701 quartz diorite (QD3) FSD - IA 67.70 0.34 15.08 7.04 0.01 1.70 0.53 5.52 0.73 0.08 1.77 100.50 0.02 0.41
99050702 quartz diorite (QD3) FSD - IA 64.44 0.38 16.81 7.29 0.02 1.90 0.73 5.21 0.81 0.08 2.54 100.21 0.04 0.02
99050703 quartz diorite (QD3) FSD - IA/Se 65.20 0.43 17.95 5.11 0.01 2.15 0.41 4.93 0.61 0.18 3.33 100.31 0.03 0.27
99050704 quartz diorite (QD3) FSD - halloysite1 60.05 0.49 25.22 1.84 0.01 0.11 0.07 0.21 0.37 0.11 11.73 100.21 0.03 0.22
99050705 quartz diorite (QD3) FSD - Pa (illite) 60.63 0.54 24.75 2.45 0.01 0.06 0.06 0.21 0.17 0.04 11.21 100.13 0.04 0.49
99050706 quartz diorite (QD3) FSD - AA 72.55 0.58 20.10 0.77 0.01 0.03 0.09 0.31 0.39 0.10 5.63 100.56 0.02 1.04
SAD 02 175.7 quartz diorite (QD1) FSD - AA 64.73 0.70 16.29 9.40 0.01 0.12 0.15 0.41 0.12 0.07 7.73 99.73 0.01 7.80
SAD 04 311.5 tonalite dyke least-altered 65.09 0.51 15.41 5.61 0.15 2.49 3.20 3.49 0.58 0.11 4.02 100.66 0.08 2.30
97091713A granodiorite dyke least-altered 68.98 0.46 14.08 3.43 0.04 1.35 2.26 3.73 2.39 0.09 2.34 99.15 0.01 1.60
97100808A granodiorite dyke least-altered 69.68 0.38 14.80 3.78 0.08 1.20 2.28 3.43 2.60 0.09 2.35 100.67 0.02 0.07
97092041 granodiorite dyke? FSD - Se/Pa 77.16 0.36 12.79 2.24 0.01 0.82 0.28 1.47 2.44 0.07 2.38 100.02 0.01 0.71
SBD 120 404 porphyritic dacite least-altered 64.54 0.41 17.71 4.35 0.03 1.64 3.75 4.82 0.56 0.18 2.31 100.30 0.08 0.18
SBD 012 329 porphyritic dacite biotite 63.63 0.44 17.70 4.67 0.01 1.95 0.98 6.10 0.76 0.69 3.08 100.01 0.03 0.20
98112102A Teluk Puna volcaniclastic ca-sm 55.49 0.61 17.02 6.88 0.14 2.78 4.61 4.79 0.40 0.12 7.76 100.60 0.82 0.03
98112310 Teluk Puna tonalite dyke ca-sm 62.12 0.53 15.37 5.43 0.10 1.44 5.05 3.03 0.45 0.11 7.32 100.95 0.25 0.01
97101143 porphyritic tonalite least-altered 65.87 0.44 15.98 4.94 0.13 2.39 5.35 3.57 0.67 0.15 0.91 100.40 0.02 0.03
97101144 porphyritic tonalite least-altered 62.06 0.52 17.95 5.98 0.15 2.36 5.36 3.80 0.71 0.20 1.40 100.49 0.01 0.02
BHD 017 47 porphyritic tonalite least-altered 62.85 0.38 16.11 4.85 0.12 2.08 4.87 3.72 0.49 0.12 4.50 100.09 0.51 0.02
SRD 02 304.7 porphyritic tonalite least-altered 65.86 0.43 15.97 4.48 0.11 2.34 5.52 3.88 1.03 0.37 1.11 101.10 0.07 0.01
SRD 02 319-320 porphyritic tonalite least-altered 65.31 0.46 15.45 4.46 0.11 2.67 5.49 3.50 0.98 0.13 1.04 99.60 0.04 0.01
SKD 01 276.0 porphyritic tonalite biotite 62.28 0.46 19.02 6.00 0.10 2.58 2.27 4.94 1.47 0.23 1.63 100.98 0.03 0.40
SRD 02 366.3 porphyritic tonalite biotite 64.18 0.47 16.44 5.38 0.14 2.49 5.34 3.74 0.83 0.17 1.12 100.30 0.04 0.05
97101137 porphyritic tonalite FSD - Se (illite) 64.45 0.42 15.56 4.41 0.15 2.56 3.31 2.55 1.17 0.12 5.83 100.53 0.33 2.70
SBD 091 416 Old Tonalite biotite 68.09 0.31 14.17 7.32 0.05 1.39 1.98 4.99 0.68 0.10 0.93 100.01 0.03 0.19
SBD 014 612 Intermediate Tonalite least-altered 67.43 0.29 14.66 6.24 0.05 1.35 3.60 4.55 0.30 0.15 1.45 100.07 0.08 0.10
SBD 004 156 Intermediate Tonalite biotite 66.40 0.34 15.96 5.25 0.02 1.45 2.48 4.95 0.85 0.13 2.10 99.93 0.04 0.15
SBD 048 308 Intermediate Tonalite biotite 66.87 0.33 15.42 6.51 0.04 1.57 2.10 5.26 0.88 0.14 1.12 100.24 0.02 0.15
SBD 14 585.1-586.0 Young Tonalite least-altered 65.98 0.31 16.53 3.79 0.06 1.28 4.22 4.89 0.50 0.18 0.91 98.65 0.03 0.04
SBD 41 405.0-406.8 Young Tonalite least-altered 67.76 0.30 16.08 3.52 0.05 1.39 3.58 5.01 0.75 0.20 0.70 99.34 0.03 0.02
SBD 021 545 Young Tonalite biotite 67.72 0.28 15.96 4.43 0.05 1.17 3.41 5.12 0.51 0.13 1.75 100.53 0.12 0.11
SGD 01 109.5 diatreme - ash-lapilli tuff cb-clay-ch 53.95 0.73 17.96 6.50 0.33 3.28 5.06 2.41 1.29 0.12 8.82 100.45 0.99 0.87
SGD 01 141.7-144.5 diatreme - ash-lapilli tuff cb-clay-ch 51.27 0.84 18.52 6.90 0.23 3.86 5.95 2.26 0.95 0.39 8.50 99.67 0.80 2.05
SGD 01 316.5 diatreme - ash-lapilli tuff FSD - IA 55.60 0.68 16.63 7.49 0.93 3.75 4.59 0.77 1.83 0.12 7.84 100.23 0.85 1.50
BHSR 101 35.0 diatreme - tuff breccia FSD - IA 57.90 0.79 17.02 10.81 0.22 2.11 0.36 0.29 3.63 0.17 7.41 100.71 0.01 6.20
97110883 porphyritic andesite least-altered 56.15 0.75 16.89 7.17 0.24 5.21 7.60 2.04 0.86 0.15 3.00 100.06 0.14 0.29
98070736 porphyritic andesite least-altered 54.52 0.69 15.80 7.81 0.21 5.28 7.07 3.40 0.36 0.13 4.79 100.06 0.56 0.09
SGD 01 274-276 porphyritic andesite cb-clay-ch 51.89 0.49 16.80 6.01 0.20 2.67 8.17 2.22 1.22 0.19 9.36 99.22 1.43 0.03
98120101 coastal andesite dyke least-altered (sm) 51.22 0.80 19.59 8.16 0.15 3.81 9.23 2.88 0.54 0.14 3.62 100.14 0.05 0.03
Notes: refer to page one of this table.

Sample No. Ba Sr Y Sc Zr Be V Au (ppb) As Br Co Cr Cs Se Cu Pb Zn Ag

98070121 362 440 30 25.2 96 2 258 2 3 0.5 22.3 64.7 0.9 0.5 161 11 92 0.9
98091209 157 356 14 22 43 1 205 2 2 1 20.7 43 0.4 1 39 5 82 0.4
98091612 103 333 12 22.7 28 1 242 1 5 0.5 26.4 30.6 0.2 0.5 26 5 94 0.4
99050501 196 318 17 23.5 50 1 188 1 5 0.5 21 101 0.4 0.5 133 5 93 0.5
SBD 123 325.8 53 383 12 19.9 38 1 180 3 2 0.5 17.4 58.5 0.1 0.5 190 5 46 0.4
98110702 75 398 11 26.1 39 1 243 1 5 0.5 33 42.7 0.6 0.5 62 5 90 0.4
97101136 62 243 12 30.2 22 1 397 16 4 0.5 40.7 154 0.2 0.5 102 5 137 0.5
98091103 252 456 14 23.7 54 1 206 6 41 1 19.5 123 0.3 4 119 72 500 0.6
98100402 107 321 11 33.3 29 1 301 1 3 0.5 35.8 47 0.3 0.5 58 5 82 0.4
99050605 138 387 15 23.6 46 1 196 1 4 0.5 23.7 52.2 0.6 0.5 64 5 114 0.5
PND 09 28.0-31.9 311 289 14 21.5 42 1 220 10 15 1 23.2 46 4.1 1 35 19 149 0.6
99050603 74 397 17 17.2 48 1 150 1 4 0.5 20 47.9 0.6 0.5 63 7 112 0.5
98082906B 426 276 11 31.2 26 2 340 2 2 1 38.9 41 0.9 1 80 10 163 0.4
SBD 94 110.4 105 275 12 22.4 38 1 243 22 1 0.5 18.3 56.9 1.9 0.5 1190 5 159 0.4
98112602 148 120 24 24.6 50 1 224 7 1 0.5 28.4 59.8 0.5 6 596 5 29 0.4
98112604 102 54 22 21.8 53 1 222 4 2 0.5 18.2 54.7 1.9 0.5 651 5 45 0.4
98112605 196 50 7 14.3 51 1 157 1 2 0.5 19.6 109 0.6 10.6 140 5 12 0.4
98112601 622 235 10 23 53 1 174 3 1 0.5 31.4 94.2 0.4 9.2 80 5 3 0.4
98100301 193 357 14 27.4 31 1 249 1 1 0.5 31.3 44.9 1.1 0.5 26 5 68 0.4
97092453 73 301 15 34.5 45 1 338 2 2 0.5 26 63.8 0.2 0.5 78 5 137 0.7
97092601 84 376 15 25 63 1 193 10 2 0.5 21.2 144 0.6 0.5 158 5 137 0.9
98071101A 67 379 13 25.6 28 1 275 2 1 0.5 21.6 73 0.2 0.5 20 5 45 1.3
98112312 160 357 14 31.8 35 1 257 2 5 1 32.7 122 0.4 1 78 5 73 0.5
98112314B 194 365 21 18.4 58 1 180 2 3 1 11 174 0.4 1 42 5 34 0.5
98112701 124 320 13 26.5 28 1 262 1 6 0.5 25.7 34.5 0.2 0.5 38 5 109 0.4
SBD 102 151# 125 291 17 26.0 63 na 222 7 5 na na na na 0.60 258 6 82 0.4
SGD 01 383.8 54 350 15 21.1 37 1 221 1 4 0.8 19.4 76.4 0.2 0.5 97 5 110 0.4
PND 01 68.8 186 163 24 28.4 72 1 293 324 1 0.9 16.6 126 0.9 1.8 1182 15 317 0.4
PND 04 104.5 355 146 14 25.5 36 1 302 20 4 0.8 38.1 157 1.1 4 120 10 52 0.4
98070333 158 387 14 36.2 33 1 306 4 2 0.5 31.8 82.9 0.1 0.5 64 9 89 0.5
99050503 285 442 17 21.7 41 1 186 4 5 0.5 20.8 104 0.2 0.5 100 5 122 0.5
99050602 211 353 20 22.6 40 1 183 3 3 0.5 24.2 107 0.5 0.5 62 8 106 0.5
99050903 185 449 14 22.5 47 1 227 5 3 2.6 21.6 93.7 0.8 0.5 40 9 140 0.5
97092452 454 524 15 11.7 91 1 139 3 4 0.5 16.8 105 0.4 0.5 37 8 72 1
98070501 291 454 13 9.8 59 1 93 2 1 0.5 13.4 63.4 0.6 0.5 11 5 88 0.4
99050606 81 435 18 18.3 49 1 152 3 5 0.5 15.1 114 0.1 0.5 40 20 184 0.5
99050502 480 656 12 12.8 64 1 134 1 6 0.5 15.8 94.2 0.9 0.5 62 5 93 0.5
97101030 346 552 9 10.9 65 1 109 75 1 0.5 16 126 1.4 0.5 160 12 113 0.7
98062708 368 382 19 13 122 1 117 2 4 0.5 19.6 113 0.8 0.5 137 21 167 0.7
99050902 565 540 9 7.3 68 1 81 35 4 1.6 7.2 115 0.6 0.7 483 5 93 0.7

Sample No. Ba Sr Y Sc Zr Be V Au (ppb) As Br Co Cr Cs Se Cu Pb Zn Ag

SAD 04 232.1 428 365 17 11.3 104 1 109 4 2 0.5 10.1 69.6 1.2 0.5 106 15 324 0.4
SBD 086 392 162 263 9 9.3 44 1 152 350 1 0.5 14 177 1.5 7.7 6089 5 79 1.5
SBD 031 430 191 327 8 10.4 53 1 103 197 1 0.5 12.1 171 1.6 4.4 1974 5 81 0.6
SBD 059 751 262 493 9 9.3 65 1 94 106 1 1 9.4 240 1.1 2 1218 5 72 0.5
SKD 02 110-111 493 501 14 11.8 85 1 93 14 1 1 14.6 102 2.2 1 51 23 102 0.6
SBD 086 290 296 378 7 5.1 71 1 64 99 1 0.5 8.9 189 0.8 2 1745 5 64 0.5
99050701 180 176 3 5.7 58 1 72 390 1 1.6 7.7 185 0.5 8.2 6941 5 33 0.8
99050702 268 235 3 6.7 67 1 70 70 1 1.3 11 122 0.3 0.8 161 5 54 0.5
99050703 246 195 9 6.3 74 1 71 65 6 0.5 8.2 57.5 0.6 1.5 1000 5 31 0.5
99050704 150 68 9 6.4 79 1 65 88 9 0.5 3.9 51.4 0.6 2 2772 5 24 0.5
99050705 69 40 11 5 102 1 69 16 4 0.5 5.8 65.3 0.3 1.5 645 5 26 0.5
99050706 927 195 2 7.3 80 1 96 8 2 1.3 0.9 169 0.1 0.5 180 15 6 0.5
SAD 02 175.7 453 82 13 6.16 65 1 171 24 20 1 20.7 272 0.2 5.4 1570 32 162 0.5
SAD 04 311.5 292 313 15 9.3 91 1 108 15 2 0.5 11.1 174 1.4 0.5 155 36 202 0.8
97091713A 675 542 23 10.7 152 1 78 31 4 3 10 250 4 0.5 81 54 149 0.4
97100808A 858 256 13 6.7 143 1 42 3 2 2.5 8.4 236 1.6 2.7 15 11 68 0.7
97092041 400 81 9 6.51 157 1 48 3 7 2.5 9.7 225 3.7 4.8 128 11 43 0.4
SBD 120 404 192 553 8 5.9 72 1 73 39 1 0.6 6.7 125 1.1 2 1330 5 54 0.5
SBD 012 329 261 261 8 6.6 70 1 102 34 1 1.3 9.9 114 1.2 1.8 1401 5 64 0.5
98112102A 193 268 22 13.8 103 1 149 2 3 1 15.4 34.9 0.7 1 24 5 76 0.5
98112310 214 370 19 11.8 122 1 97 2 5 1 10.2 27.6 2.6 1 21 5 41 0.5
97101143 407 406 10 9.9 70 1 83 22 1 0.5 14.1 93.7 0.5 0.8 98 9 113 0.9
97101144 466 541 11 9.79 64 1 106 5 4 0.5 13.9 79.1 0.9 0.5 33 8 179 0.4
BHD 017 47 316 348 10 8.7 67 1 72 1 2 0.5 10.1 127 1.6 0.7 21 5 74 0.5
SRD 02 304.7 570 407 10 9.3 64 1 91 2 1 0.5 12.2 114 0.3 0.5 51 6 59 0.5
SRD 02 319-320 533 370 11 11 82 1 71 2 1 1 14.3 90 0.4 1 49 5 75 0.4
SKD 01 276.0 441 290 8 14.6 68 1 94 290 1 0.9 12.3 119 1 1.3 2327 12 108 1.4
SRD 02 366.3 409 443 10 10.7 68 1 100 24 1 0.5 13 79.2 0.8 0.5 226 5 83 0.4
97101137 658 287 11 9.37 78 1 90 10 30 0.5 12.1 145 0.4 3.7 69 72 182 0.4
SBD 091 416 308 336 5 5.2 61 1 67 465 1 0.5 9.7 270 0.4 5.7 4111 5 45 1.1
SBD 014 612 503 436 7 4.3 61 1 50 492 1 0.5 8.7 249 0.1 2.3 1491 5 89 0.8
SBD 004 156 281 352 6 5.6 60 1 59 116 2 0.5 7.5 155 2.2 3.7 3257 5 63 0.6
SBD 048 308 378 342 7 5.4 59 1 57 247 1 0.5 9 211 0.7 4.7 3435 5 60 1
SBD 14 585.1-586.0 565 496 9 4.3 59 1 38 40 1 1 6.4 161 0.4 1 262 9 166 0.4
SBD 41 405.0-406.8 680 446 10 4.4 63 1 37 75 1 1 6.8 123 0.5 1 252 6 38 0.4
SBD 021 545 525 429 7 3.7 65 1 40 722 1 0.5 5.3 269 0.3 1.7 1511 5 87 0.5
SGD 01 109.5 221 208 13 17.2 53 1 188 16 4 0.5 13.6 90.7 3.4 0.5 90 43 210 1.1
SGD 01 141.7-144.5 231 310 15 22.3 52 1 202 8 11 1 16.7 81 4.7 1 158 17 133 0.4
SGD 01 316.5 442 112 13 16.8 60 1 154 17 9 0.5 17.6 87.7 2.7 0.5 17 22 545 0.4
BHSR 101 35.0 651 37 18 19.5 63 1 197 226 27 0.5 20.8 93.2 3.1 0.5 694 27 270 3.8
97110883 320 405 15 21.5 74 1 180 1 13 0.5 14.6 208 0.1 0.5 181 6 104 0.4
98070736 271 409 15 18.1 89 1 178 2 3 0.5 26.2 207 1.1 0.5 63 8 128 0.5
SGD 01 274-276 412 366 13 11.1 49 1 104 2 2 1 13.7 84 5.9 1 20 33 171 0.4
98120101 197 422 15 21.2 38 1 213 2 2 0.5 20.7 27.1 0.1 1.5 79 5 76 0.4

Sample No. Ni Cd Rb Nb Mo In Sn La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er
98070121 14 0.7 17 2.6 2.5 0.1 3.8 10.5 25 3.604 18.1 5.17 1.376 5.66 1.02 6.06 1.19 3.54
98091209 11 3 6 0.5 2 0.3 1 3.57 9.1 1.32 7.2 2.14 0.814 2.28 0.44 2.64 0.55 1.68
98091612 15 0.5 2 0.5 2 0.1 1 2.39 6.3 0.85 4.99 1.53 0.673 1.75 0.36 2.12 0.43 1.36
99050501 9 0.5 8 0.8 2 0.1 1 3.68 9.6 1.33 7.28 2.19 0.868 2.66 0.46 2.82 0.64 1.92
SBD 123 325.8 14 0.5 3 0.8 2 0.1 1 3.88 9.5 1.22 6.57 2.06 0.867 2.34 0.4 2.58 0.55 1.67
98110702 20 0.5 4 0.8 4 0.1 1 3.09 7.7 1.12 5.58 1.74 0.731 1.89 0.35 2.12 0.43 1.31
97101136 75 1.7 2 0.7 2 0.1 1 1.64 4.4 0.67 3.66 1.25 0.584 1.59 0.32 1.89 0.43 1.31
98091103 12 5 12 0.5 2 0.3 1 3.11 8.6 1.36 7.52 2.38 0.751 2.54 0.4 2.4 0.5 1.65
98100402 32 0.5 2 0.5 2 0.1 1 2.05 5.4 0.78 4.15 1.34 0.609 1.68 0.29 1.86 0.4 1.13
99050605 10 0.5 2 0.9 2 0.1 1 3.98 9.9 1.36 7.07 2.12 0.854 2.42 0.42 2.53 0.56 1.65
PND 09 28.0-31.9 9 3.2 13 0.5 2 0.1 1 2.62 7.2 1.08 5.98 1.85 0.697 2.08 0.41 2.54 0.54 1.66
99050603 6 0.8 2 0.8 2 0.1 1 3.95 9.9 1.45 7.68 2.34 0.864 2.58 0.47 2.86 0.64 1.88
98082906B 15 3.8 3 0.5 2 0.1 1 1.91 4.9 0.75 4.25 1.4 0.568 1.71 0.33 2.1 0.44 1.35
SBD 94 110.4 33 0.5 26 0.8 13 0.1 1 2.71 6.9 1 5.05 1.61 0.715 1.82 0.34 2.1 0.47 1.41
98112602 25 0.5 9 0.7 2 0.1 1 3.54 9.7 1.48 7.73 2.5 0.977 3.11 0.57 3.73 0.79 2.27
98112604 27 0.5 15 0.8 3 0.1 1 2.96 9 1.29 7.5 2.63 0.963 2.91 0.6 3.73 0.76 2.26
98112605 13 0.5 7 0.9 7 0.1 3 1.12 3.4 0.47 2.97 0.93 0.324 0.9 0.18 1.01 0.24 0.73
98112601 19 0.5 11 1.2 2 0.1 4 5.61 13 1.8 10.9 3.66 1.369 3.34 0.46 2.58 0.46 1.33
98100301 28 0.5 12 0.7 2 0.1 1 2.79 7.4 1.01 5.99 2.07 0.803 2.35 0.42 2.69 0.58 1.75
97092453 25 0.9 2.6 1.1 1.5 0.1 0.7 4.64 10.8 1.57 8.12 2.47 0.915 2.78 0.51 3.08 0.61 1.82
97092601 29 0.9 2.2 1.8 2.5 0.1 0.6 6.77 15.6 2.066 9.79 2.72 0.937 2.84 0.49 2.98 0.58 1.64
98071101A 15 0.5 0.6 0.6 1.3 0.1 0.6 2.25 6.32 1 5.38 1.71 0.715 1.9 0.35 2.2 0.45 1.34
98112312 35 2.8 7 1.7 2 0.1 1 3.29 8.4 1.24 6.14 1.77 0.771 2.11 0.38 2.44 0.51 1.55
98112314B 13 2.6 5 2 2 0.1 2 3.44 9.5 1.5 8 2.41 1.01 2.91 0.55 3.63 0.77 2.45
98112701 19 0.5 2 0.5 2 0.1 1 2.21 6.6 0.96 5.43 1.85 0.749 2.08 0.42 2.55 0.54 1.51
SBD 102 151# 8 na 21 2 3 na na 2.00 1.00 na na na na na na na na na
SGD 01 383.8 23 0.5 2 0.7 3 0.1 1 2.82 7.9 1.09 6.23 2.12 0.817 2.36 0.47 2.68 0.55 1.73
PND 01 68.8 28 1.1 26 2.3 14 0.2 2 5.82 15 2.04 11 3.33 0.946 3.66 0.72 4.12 0.86 2.56
PND 04 104.5 70 0.5 13 0.8 6 0.1 2 2.53 6.7 1.02 5.44 1.8 0.698 1.98 0.37 2.32 0.49 1.45
98070333 26 0.6 2 0.6 2 0.1 1 3 7.7 1.12 5.64 1.91 0.816 2.25 0.4 2.43 0.55 1.58
99050503 10 0.6 3 2.6 3 0.1 1 2.9 7.9 1.18 6.03 2.07 0.815 2.37 0.44 2.68 0.6 1.93
99050602 8 1.2 2 0.7 2 0.1 1 3.44 8.8 1.26 6.93 2.32 0.899 2.82 0.5 3.13 0.69 2.02
99050903 13 1.1 5 0.8 3 0.1 1 3.16 7.7 1.09 5.57 1.76 0.714 1.85 0.36 2.18 0.46 1.38
97092452 16 0.6 24 2.2 3.7 0.1 0.6 9.65 20.3 2.686 11.6 2.82 0.884 2.91 0.47 2.67 0.54 1.64
98070501 4 0.5 7 1.4 2.1 0.1 0.5 5.73 13.8 1.929 9.23 2.39 0.897 2.38 0.41 2.44 0.48 1.44
99050606 7 1.4 2 0.7 2 0.1 1 3.39 8.6 1.29 6.84 2.06 0.812 2.53 0.46 2.85 0.65 1.98
99050502 18 0.5 15 1.9 2 0.1 1 8.69 19.4 2.3 10.3 2.33 0.885 2.36 0.36 2.07 0.47 1.31
97101030 10 0.5 18 2.6 4.3 0.1 0.6 9.54 21 2.674 11.5 2.48 0.777 2.42 0.36 1.96 0.39 1.24
98062708 14 6.5 7.5 2 3.2 0.1 1.2 10.4 23.2 3.014 13 3.27 0.977 3.5 0.56 3.28 0.67 2.01
99050902 6 0.7 33 1.9 3 0.1 1 8.03 17.5 2.06 8.88 1.84 0.719 1.75 0.27 1.53 0.31 0.95

Sample No. Ni Cd Rb Nb Mo In Sn La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er
SAD 04 232.1 14 0.6 17 2.7 13 0.1 1 10.4 24 3.03 13.3 3.26 1.009 3.21 0.53 3.19 0.65 1.92
SBD 086 392 6 0.7 31 1.6 3 0.1 1 4.12 10.4 1.35 6.75 1.57 0.546 1.59 0.26 1.45 0.3 0.9
SBD 031 430 7 1 29 1.4 3 0.1 1 3.92 9.5 1.23 5.88 1.48 0.604 1.39 0.21 1.42 0.3 0.87
SBD 059 751 9 0.7 18 1.4 4 0.1 1 5.08 12.1 1.53 7.19 1.69 0.726 1.63 0.26 1.59 0.33 0.99
SKD 02 110-111 10 2.4 24 1.7 4 0.1 1 10.1 23 2.77 12.6 2.79 0.869 2.48 0.41 2.4 0.48 1.5
SBD 086 290 5 0.5 19 1.5 3 0.1 1 4.48 10.7 1.35 6 1.37 0.547 1.32 0.21 1.26 0.27 0.78
99050701 6 0.5 16 0.9 3 0.1 3 4.86 12.2 1.49 6.37 1.28 0.454 0.89 0.12 0.56 0.1 0.34
99050702 4 0.5 18 1.2 4 0.1 1 3.16 5.8 0.6 2.37 0.46 0.216 0.38 0.06 0.37 0.09 0.32
99050703 3 0.5 11 1.4 4 0.1 1 5.88 14 1.78 8.44 2.08 0.719 1.77 0.28 1.68 0.37 1.06
99050704 12 0.5 9 1.5 4 0.1 1 6.44 15.3 1.97 8.54 1.81 0.578 1.66 0.25 1.41 0.32 0.97
99050705 5 0.5 2 1.7 12 0.1 1 6.96 15.8 1.99 8.4 1.74 0.403 1.63 0.25 1.61 0.37 1.19
99050706 3 0.5 2 1.5 8 0.1 4 3.79 8 0.87 3.28 0.56 0.159 0.49 0.07 0.38 0.08 0.31
SAD 02 175.7 27 0.5 2 1.8 3 0.2 1 4.92 12 1.45 6.74 1.83 0.573 1.88 0.36 2.1 0.45 1.42
SAD 04 311.5 11 1.2 14 2.4 4.9 0.1 1.1 11 23.4 2.894 12 2.75 0.801 2.79 0.43 2.46 0.47 1.5
97091713A 11 1.9 63 3.9 8.4 0.1 2.5 12.1 27 3.338 14 3.37 0.728 3.57 0.61 3.68 0.76 2.45
97100808A 6 0.5 48 4 9 0.1 0.5 10.4 21.3 2.497 10.2 2.18 0.616 2.23 0.36 2.12 0.43 1.43
97092041 6 0.5 74 2.4 6 0.1 1 5.16 11 1.07 4.9 1.17 0.357 1.01 0.16 1.22 0.25 0.87
SBD 120 404 5 0.5 14 1.3 15 0.1 1 4.73 11.2 1.4 6.54 1.5 0.548 1.43 0.21 1.36 0.29 0.86
SBD 012 329 8 0.5 20 1.5 22 0.1 1 6.59 15.6 1.93 8.45 1.8 0.634 1.63 0.25 1.52 0.32 1
98112102A 7 0.9 14 2.7 2 0.1 1 8.28 18.3 2.68 11.5 2.73 0.926 3.05 0.55 3.5 0.75 2.35
98112310 5 0.5 12 2.5 2 0.1 1 7.08 17.4 2.5 11.3 2.76 0.783 2.86 0.52 3.19 0.69 2.14
97101143 13 1.1 12 2 1.9 0.1 0.5 8.42 18.3 2.201 9.11 2.07 0.718 2.2 0.33 1.85 0.38 1.13
97101144 10 0.5 15 2.4 2 0.1 1 8.81 20 2.55 10.9 2.39 0.838 2.21 0.35 1.95 0.41 1.23
BHD 017 47 6 0.5 11 1.6 2 0.1 1 7.04 15.6 1.81 7.51 1.8 0.727 1.79 0.3 1.76 0.38 1.11
SRD 02 304.7 11 0.7 18 2.2 4.4 0.1 1 8.1 16.9 2.054 8.65 1.99 0.675 1.96 0.32 1.73 0.34 1.04
SRD 02 319-320 12 1.9 21 1.3 2 0.1 1 8.28 18 2.21 9.83 2.2 0.731 2.15 0.34 1.99 0.4 1.22
SKD 01 276.0 10 0.9 30 2.2 9.1 0.1 0.7 7.47 15.8 1.902 8.2 1.86 0.617 1.85 0.3 1.71 0.33 1.03
SRD 02 366.3 18 0.5 16 2 5 0.1 1 7.32 17 1.79 8.33 2.07 0.7 1.7 0.29 1.81 0.35 1
97101137 14 0.9 30 2.2 2 0.1 1 9.01 18 2.14 8.96 2.04 0.951 1.89 0.31 1.82 0.38 1.05
SBD 091 416 7 0.5 13 1.1 3 0.1 1 3.15 7.2 0.91 3.95 0.86 0.398 0.92 0.15 0.85 0.19 0.59
SBD 014 612 5 0.6 4 1.1 3 0.1 1 4.65 10.1 1.27 5.59 1.17 0.473 1.23 0.18 1.06 0.22 0.68
SBD 004 156 6 0.6 22 1.4 2 0.1 1 4.56 10.8 1.33 5.85 1.27 0.529 1.15 0.2 1.15 0.25 0.74
SBD 048 308 6 0.5 19 1.3 3 0.1 1 4.5 10.7 1.29 5.64 1.34 0.491 1.23 0.19 1.15 0.23 0.68
SBD 14 585.1-586.0 4 2.2 10 0.9 2 0.1 1 6.48 15 1.9 8.58 1.83 0.614 1.82 0.27 1.5 0.31 0.94
SBD 41 405.0-406.8 4 1.6 16 1.3 3 0.1 2 8 18 2.19 9.48 1.97 0.613 1.91 0.28 1.62 0.33 1.04
SBD 021 545 6 0.6 12 1.7 5 0.1 1 5.33 11.7 1.39 6.06 1.4 0.478 1.22 0.2 1.16 0.25 0.74
SGD 01 109.5 14 0.5 30 1.8 10 0.2 1 7 15.6 2.024 9.06 2.37 0.725 2.51 0.41 2.39 0.48 1.38
SGD 01 141.7-144.5 13 2.5 28 0.9 6 0.2 2 6.81 16 2.05 10 2.59 0.959 2.65 0.47 2.7 0.55 1.66
SGD 01 316.5 26 0.9 43 1.5 10 0.1 1 6.29 14 1.88 8.8 2.25 0.861 2.34 0.43 2.55 0.52 1.46
BHSR 101 35.0 27 0.5 75 1.7 6 0.6 3 5.95 14 1.67 8.58 2.34 0.667 2.39 0.47 2.99 0.63 1.92
97110883 55 0.5 14 2.1 2 0.1 1 8.43 19 2.52 11.3 2.97 1.012 2.91 0.5 2.85 0.6 1.69
98070736 72 0.5 6.2 2.1 2.3 0.1 0.7 10.7 22.7 2.863 12.7 3.16 0.902 3.16 0.48 2.8 0.53 1.56
SGD 01 274-276 8 2.7 31 1 2 0.1 1 7.6 17 2.11 9.71 2.16 0.794 2.21 0.32 1.86 0.38 1.16
98120101 19 0.5 8 0.8 2 0.1 1 3.63 9.2 1.36 6.83 2.22 0.88 2.33 0.42 2.5 0.54 1.58

Sample No. Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Tl Bi Th U
98070121 0.518 3.31 0.492 3.3 0.13 1.2 0.13 0.22 1.47 0.44
98091209 0.242 1.6 0.266 1.5 0.06 0.4 0.19 0.09 0.43 0.15
98091612 0.209 1.35 0.211 0.9 0.05 0.3 0.07 0.58 0.34 0.12
99050501 0.264 1.84 0.279 1.5 0.1 0.2 0.05 0.06 0.5 0.17
SBD 123 325.8 0.257 1.58 0.263 1.4 0.06 1.6 0.09 0.21 0.56 0.22
98110702 0.2 1.26 0.191 1.1 0.07 0.6 0.05 0.07 0.51 0.21
97101136 0.172 1.19 0.195 0.7 0.1 0.9 0.05 0.24 0.24 0.08
98091103 0.257 1.76 0.312 1.8 0.06 0.5 0.23 0.16 0.4 0.16
98100402 0.172 1.08 0.171 0.9 0.09 0.4 0.08 0.11 0.27 0.08
99050605 0.226 1.6 0.249 1.3 0.1 0.2 0.05 0.06 0.49 0.16
PND 09 28.0-31.9 0.26 1.66 0.277 1.4 0.06 1 0.2 0.08 0.37 0.13
99050603 0.26 1.87 0.278 1.5 0.1 0.6 0.05 0.06 0.4 0.12
98082906B 0.206 1.29 0.212 1 0.05 0.5 0.05 0.09 0.25 0.12
SBD 94 110.4 0.221 1.46 0.247 1.2 0.05 1.2 0.24 0.28 0.4 0.17
98112602 0.352 2.17 0.326 1.4 0.04 1.1 0.14 0.07 0.47 0.15
98112604 0.365 2.38 0.345 1.7 0.05 0.8 0.29 0.07 0.47 0.16
98112605 0.146 1.03 0.187 1.6 0.05 6.1 0.29 0.13 0.31 0.1
98112601 0.202 1.43 0.231 2.1 0.04 11 0.09 0.16 0.51 0.18
98100301 0.248 1.81 0.25 1.4 0.05 0.5 0.12 0.2 0.37 0.12
97092453 0.279 1.68 0.251 1.4 0.08 0.8 0.05 0.17 0.57 0.16
97092601 0.229 1.56 0.243 1.8 0.17 0.8 0.05 0.22 1.23 0.34
98071101A 0.2 1.33 0.208 1 0.04 0.6 0.05 0.1 0.3 0.12
98112312 0.226 1.38 0.217 0.9 0.1 0.2 0.05 0.06 0.46 0.14
98112314B 0.361 2.29 0.341 1.5 0.1 0.3 0.05 0.09 0.42 0.14
98112701 0.233 1.56 0.24 1.1 0.06 0.5 0.09 0.06 0.16 0.05
SBD 102 151# na na na na na na na na na na
SGD 01 383.8 0.284 1.72 0.258 1.3 0.1 1.7 0.06 0.08 0.3 0.12
PND 01 68.8 0.417 2.49 0.392 2.4 0.16 0.8 0.6 0.12 1.21 0.33
PND 04 104.5 0.229 1.34 0.224 1.3 0.18 1.1 0.18 0.22 0.38 0.14
98070333 0.213 1.43 0.208 1 0.1 0.2 0.05 0.06 0.34 0.09
99050503 0.252 1.79 0.28 1.3 0.1 0.4 0.05 0.06 0.39 0.14
99050602 0.288 2.04 0.299 1.2 0.1 0.2 0.05 0.06 0.36 0.11
99050903 0.214 1.32 0.212 1.3 0.1 0.9 0.07 0.07 0.39 0.13
97092452 0.231 1.53 0.243 2.5 0.15 1.4 0.08 0.28 2.38 0.67
98070501 0.223 1.55 0.24 1.6 0.08 0.9 0.05 0.14 0.64 0.2
99050606 0.285 1.93 0.315 1.5 0.1 0.7 0.05 0.09 0.33 0.12
99050502 0.176 1.26 0.207 1.8 0.1 0.2 0.08 0.06 1.39 0.37
97101030 0.18 1.15 0.187 1.9 0.15 1.8 0.08 0.17 1.9 0.5
98062708 0.291 1.87 0.307 3.4 0.15 1.2 0.09 0.17 2.56 0.76
99050902 0.142 0.95 0.159 2 0.2 1 0.31 0.06 1.44 0.49

Sample No. Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Tl Bi Th U
SAD 04 232.1 0.317 2.04 0.31 3.2 0.1 1.4 0.35 0.15 2.84 0.79
SBD 086 392 0.133 0.93 0.127 1.3 0.1 0.3 0.11 0.27 0.47 0.1
SBD 031 430 0.139 0.87 0.141 1.6 0.1 1 0.09 0.09 0.58 0.11
SBD 059 751 0.148 1 0.15 1.7 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.61 0.17
SKD 02 110-111 0.225 1.48 0.245 2.7 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.13 2.03 0.56
SBD 086 290 0.124 0.84 0.135 1.8 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.07 0.53 0.12
99050701 0.05 0.36 0.067 1.6 0.1 0.5 0.06 0.13 0.5 0.09
99050702 0.051 0.47 0.09 1.8 0.1 1 0.09 0.09 0.67 0.17
99050703 0.157 1.09 0.165 2 0.1 1 0.08 0.06 0.8 0.31
99050704 0.125 0.94 0.149 2.2 0.1 3 0.09 0.06 0.81 0.29
99050705 0.169 1.25 0.213 2.6 0.1 1.7 0.05 0.06 1.01 0.3
99050706 0.047 0.41 0.081 2.1 0.1 17.4 0.05 0.06 0.51 0.23
SAD 02 175.7 0.229 1.46 0.216 2 0.11 1.2 0.1 0.11 1.07 0.38
SAD 04 311.5 0.231 1.49 0.244 2.8 0.08 1.2 0.19 0.64 2.85 0.83
97091713A 0.39 2.59 0.405 5 0.25 4.6 0.54 0.45 5.69 1.74
97100808A 0.238 1.6 0.275 4.4 0.19 2.5 0.23 0.27 5.33 1.5
97092041 0.144 0.96 0.189 4.3 0.19 5.4 0.27 0.23 3.66 0.82
SBD 120 404 0.131 0.89 0.153 1.8 0.1 1.1 0.1 0.51 0.72 0.21
SBD 012 329 0.155 0.99 0.171 2 0.1 1.5 0.08 0.06 0.93 0.2
98112102A 0.352 2.27 0.334 2.7 0.2 0.9 0.09 0.06 1.57 0.4
98112310 0.347 2.22 0.324 2.8 0.2 0.3 0.12 0.06 1.63 0.36
97101143 0.164 1.06 0.185 1.9 0.13 1 0.09 0.12 1.74 0.46
97101144 0.179 1.26 0.205 2 0.11 0.7 0.23 0.12 1.54 0.4
BHD 017 47 0.162 1.15 0.179 1.9 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.06 1.18 0.33
SRD 02 304.7 0.157 1.09 0.171 2.1 0.17 0.9 0.12 0.22 1.75 0.49
SRD 02 319-320 0.185 1.25 0.215 2.6 0.18 0.8 0.11 0.08 2.19 0.62
SKD 01 276.0 0.153 1 0.168 1.9 0.13 1.3 0.12 0.64 1.5 0.39
SRD 02 366.3 0.158 1.13 0.159 2.2 0.09 1.4 0.57 0.07 1.62 0.49
97101137 0.15 1.02 0.158 2.3 0.16 0.5 0.31 0.21 2.67 0.72
SBD 091 416 0.084 0.56 0.098 1.6 0.1 0.4 0.07 0.22 0.49 0.09
SBD 014 612 0.1 0.71 0.111 1.5 0.1 0.3 0.05 0.08 0.53 0.08
SBD 004 156 0.11 0.71 0.121 1.8 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.71 0.12
SBD 048 308 0.109 0.75 0.122 1.7 0.1 0.2 0.07 0.22 0.7 0.08
SBD 14 585.1-586.0 0.145 1 0.175 2 0.09 1.5 0.08 0.3 1.3 0.26
SBD 41 405.0-406.8 0.165 1.14 0.202 2.5 0.16 0.2 0.07 0.12 2.12 0.55
SBD 021 545 0.122 0.82 0.137 1.9 0.2 0.4 0.05 0.06 1.64 0.27
SGD 01 109.5 0.209 1.37 0.217 1.8 0.13 1.3 0.37 1.87 1.33 0.39
SGD 01 141.7-144.5 0.238 1.53 0.249 1.8 0.1 1.3 0.37 1.4 1.29 0.4
SGD 01 316.5 0.233 1.56 0.227 1.7 0.18 1.5 0.91 0.4 1.39 0.41
BHSR 101 35.0 0.293 1.85 0.316 2 0.1 4 1.6 1.44 1.3 0.72
97110883 0.263 1.56 0.246 2.3 0.13 1.1 0.13 0.06 1.85 0.51
98070736 0.231 1.47 0.227 2.4 0.14 1 0.07 0.15 2.21 0.6
SGD 01 274-276 0.168 1.12 0.188 1.6 0.11 0.2 0.44 0.19 1.3 0.36
98120101 0.227 1.56 0.218 1 0.08 0.4 0.05 0.06 0.54 0.15

APPENDIX 6a - Summary of X-ray Diffraction Results (Kingston Morrison)
(mineral abbreviations shown on following page)
Sample Numbers Minerals Identified by XRD
KML Newmont Major Minor Trace
Air Merah
11056 SMD01 145 Q, Chl Ser/Mica
11546 SMD03 11 Cor, Ser Par, Gyp?
11547 SGD03 194.5 Alg, Gyp, unident. I
Arung Ara
11052 98070806 Alg, Chl Pyp, Gyp
11053 SRD03 45.0 Chl, Dic Amph
11054 SRD03 45.5 Chl, Amph Pyp, Zu?, Sid?
11055 BHD17 35 Chl Ka/Dic, I, Q, Amph Pyp?
Bambu
10909 98071102 Q, Dic, I-Sm(80-20) Py
11057 98091101 Chl, I-Sm, Q Py
11058 98091103 Pyp, Ka I-Sm Gyp, Dsp
11059 98091206 Alg Ka, Chl I-Sm, Py, Q
11060 98091819 Q Py, I-Sm(80:20)
11061 98091615 Q Chl, I, Fsp
Barakebo
11042 9802901 Cor, Q I-Sm, Ka, Pyp Py
11043 9803010 Ka Q, Dsp Hal?, Gyp
11044 98083111A Zu Ka, Pyp, Q Gyp, Ht?, Alg?, I
11045 98083111B Chl Alg Plag, Q, Py
Batu Hijau
10164 97090905 Pyp, Ser/Mica Q, Alg?
10165 97091011B Ser/Mica Q
10166 97091119B Ser/Mica, Dic Mg-Cc, Q Fsp, Anh
10167 97091430B Dic, Ser/Mica Q
10168 97092602B Q, Pyp Dic
10169 97092705A Chl, Q I-Sm (80-20)
10170 97092705B Q, Cor I-Sm (70-30) Ka
10171 97092709C Q, Ka Sm, Ka
10172 97092711 Q, Cor
10173 97092804B Ser/Mica, Pyp, Dic
10174 97092809B Ser/Mica, Ka, Q Mg-Cc Fsp
10175 97092910B Plag, Q Hal, Chl
10176 97092913B Ser/Mica, Q Fsp, Mg-Cc, Rhc Chl, Py, Anh
10177 97092913C Chl, Ser/Mica Q, Plag
10178 97092916A Chl, I-Sm (80-20)* Q, Dic, Fsp
10179 97092917 Plag, Q Hal, Sm
10180 97100203 Q, Chl, Plag I-Sm (90-10)*
10181 97100313 Ser/Mica, Ka Q
10182 97100618 Q, Dic
10183 97100409C Plag, Q Sm, Hal
10422 97112601 Q Plag, Chl
10423 97112801 Pyp, Q I Ka?
10424 97100410B I, Q Py, Cc
Batu Hijau-East Ridge
11540 99050701 Cor, Plag Ser, Kd Pyp?
11541 99050702 Ser Chl, Ka, Plag
11542 99050703 Cor, I Dic, Plag Q
11543 99050704 Q Hal Hm?
11544 99050705 I Par, Ka
11545 99050706 Pyp I
Batu Hijau- West Ridge
11291 PS 1166+1M A Q, Chl I
11292 PS 1166+1M B Chl, Q, I Par
11293 PS 1168 Kd, Chl, Q I Wk/And
11294 PS 1166+6M Chl, Par, Q
11295 PS 1169+7M Kd, Cor, Q Ser/Mica Wk/And
11296 PS 1171+2M Q, Ka Par
11297 PS 1173+7M Q, Ka Par Py
11298 PS 1174+2M Ser/Mica, Dic, Q
11299 PS 1174+6M Dic, Ser/Mica Q
Katala
10184 97100804B Plag, Q Hal Py
10185 97100917C Q, Chl, Dic I
10186 97101032 I-Sm (10-90),Q Py, Dic Stil
10187 97101245 Q, Dic I-Sm (90-10)* Py
10188 97101553B Q, Chl Sm
10189 97101555B Q, Plag Dic
10421 97110668 I-Sm(30-70), Ser, Q Ka, Gyp Cc
11062 SKD01 444.5 Chl, Fsp I, Q
11063 SKD02 261.8 Ser/Mica Q Gyp, Pyp
11064 SKD03 162.6 Ser/Mica Chl, Q
11065 SKD03 323.4 Fsp Q, Ser/Mica, Chl
Nangka
10425 97111103B Q, Ka Plag I-Sm?
10426 97111211 Ka, Q Plag, I-Sm(80-20) Py
10427 97111322 Cor, Ka, Q I
10428 97111330B Q, Dsp, Ka Pyp, I
10429 97111433B I-Sm(90-10), Q Plag Gyp
10430 97111439B Q, Dic
10431 97111542C Chl, Q Pyp, I
11046 PND01 34.3 Q, Ka, I/Mica, Plag Gyp
11047 PND03 25 Chl, Plag Q, I/Mica, Sm (100)
11048 PND03 124 Dic Q, Chl-Sm(40:60), I?
11049 PND04 39.3 Chl Q, Pyp, I/Mica Plag?
11050 PND07 25.8 I/Mica Chl, Ant?, Q Gyp
11051 PND07 71.8 Ka, Chl, I/Mica Q?
11548 PND04 66.5 Cor, Par Q
11549 PND06 42.5 Chl, I Plag
Regional
11265 98112802 Stil
11266 98111204 Cor, Q I-Sm (90:10) Stil
11267 98111301 Q Chl, I, Py Ka?
11268 98111503 Ser/Mica, Dic
11269 98111701 I-Sm (70:30) Gyp?
11270 BHSR-101 35.0 Chl, Ser/Mica
11271 BHD-23 82.0 Ser/Mica, Q Cc, Chl?
Santong
10901 98062603 Q, Ser/Mica Plag, I-Sm
10902 98062606A I-Sm(90-10)
10903 98062606C Q, Alu Dic, Sid
10904 98062910 Q, Dic, Ser/Mica Pyp, I-Sm
10905 98063020 Pyp, Dic, Dsp Q, I-Sm(50-50)
10906 98070330 Q, I-Sm (60-40) Fsp
10907 SGD-02 68m Q, I-Sm(80-20) Pyp, Gyp, Py, Dic Dsp
10908 SGD-02 285m Q, I, Gyp Anh, Fsp, Py
Sekongkang
10157 97091711+75 Q, Plag Hal
10158 97091711B Plag, Q Ka, Py Ser/Mica
10159 97091820 Q, Plag Met-hal, Hal
10160 97091821 Plag Hal Q, Stil?
10161 97091823B Q, I-Sm (10-90) Plag, Chl I?
10162 97091932 Q Hal
10163 97092044 Chl, I-Sm (70-30)* Q
10910 SAD-02 120m Dic, Q, Par?, Pyp, Plag Dsp
10911 SAD-02 160m Plag, Dic Par?,Gyp, I, Na-aluAnh
11066 SAD01 62.5 Alg, Ka Ser/Mica Q, Py, Wk?, Na-Jar?
11067 SAD01 63.2 Ser/Mica Alg, Ka
11272 PND-04 105 Par, Q, Dic, Cc Ser/Mica Wk/And?
11273 SAD-01 111.5 Q, I Chl Amph, Gyp
11274 SAD-02 334.8 Q, Dic Par, And Gyp
11275 SAD-02 175.9 Ser/Mica, Q, Par Dic Gyp, Py
Teluk Puna
11282 98112103 I-Sm (90:10), Ka Q
11283 98112205A Ka I-Sm (80:20)
11284 98112205B I-Sm (90:10) Q
11285 98112206 I-Sm (80:20) Q, Ka
11286 98112207 I-Sm (80:20), Ka, Q
11287 98112313 Ka, Cor, Q I-Sm (40:60), Plag Cc
11288 98112416 Py, Q I-Sm (80:20)
11289 98112418 I-Sm (90:10), Q Cor, Ka
11290 98112419 I-Sm (70:30) Q
Tongoloka
10432 97112002 Q, Chl Plag
10433 97112005B Q, Chl
10434 97112007A I-Sm(70-30), Q Chl
10435 97112007B Q, Chl, I Cc
10436 97112112B Ser, Q Py, Cc Fsp, Dol
10437 97112204 EP Q, I Chl?
10438 97112205B EP Q, Pyp I Gyp, Chl?
10439 97112218A Chl, Ser
10440 97112218B Q, Dic Ser, Alu, Sm Sid?
10441 97112220 Chl, Ser Q
10442 97112221 Chl, Ser Q
11276 98100401 Ser/Mica, Q
11277 98111801 I Q Kd
11278 98111802 Ser/Mica, Q
11279 98111803 Chl, Plag Q I
11280 98111804 I, Q Plag
11281 98111901 I, Q Py Gyp?
11539 99050604B Pyp Ka Gyp?, Dsp?
APPENDIX 6a - Summary of X-ray Diffraction Results (X-ray Analytical & Research Laboratory)

Major Minor Trace
Air Merah
97112702 Pyp, Q
Batu Hijau
SBD015-36m Ser Chi
Katala
SKD01-39m Q Fsp, Ka, Py Cc, Chl, I, Ser
SKD02-202m Q I, Ser, Py Ksp
SKD02-508m Q, Ser Py Chl, Gyp, Ka, Ksp
97100910 Q, Fsp, Py Chl, Ser Ka
97101141A Q, Fsp, Py Ser, Chl Ka
97101555A Q, Fsp, Py Chl, Ser Ka
Nangka
PND03-65m Q, Fsp Ka, Py Cc, I, Sm, Ser
97111215B Q, Chl, Ser Fsp, Ksp, I Ka
97111433B Q,I Py, Ksp, Mg - Cc Ser
Sekongkang
97091711A Fsp, Q Py, Ka, Ser,Ksp ?Cpy
Tongoloka
97112221 Q, Ser, Chl Py, Ksp, Fsp, Ka I
Mineral Abbreviations
Anh Anhydrite Ka Kaolinite

Alg Alunogen Kd Unidentified kandite
Alu Alunite Lau Laumontite
Amph Unidentified amphibole Met-Hal Metahalloysite
And Andalusite Mg-Cc Magnesian calcite
Ant Antigorite Na-Alu Natro-alunite
Carb Unidentified carbonate Na-Jar Natro-jarosite
Cc Calcite Par Paragonite
Chl Chlorite Plag Plagioclase
Chl-Sm Interlayered chlorite-smectite Py Pyrite
Cor Corrensite Pyp Pyrophyllite
Dsp Diaspore Q Quartz
Dic Dickite Rhc Rhodochrosite
Fsp Undifferenitated Feldspar Ser Sericite
Gyp Gypsum Ser/Mica Sericite and/or mica
Hal Halloysite Sid Siderite
Ht Halite Sm Smectite
I Illite Stil Stilbite
I-Sm() Interlayered illite-smectite (proportions)
Wk Wairakite
Ksp K-feldspar Zu Zunyite
* possibly two different I-Sm varieties (proportions are given for the major one) or I-Sm and Sm
APPENDIX 6b - Results of quantitative XRD analysis (X-ray Analytical &
Research Laboratory)
Phase SGD01-109 SGD01-146 SGD02-93 SGD02-154

(wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%)
Albite 15.0 20.5 29.2 22.4
Ankerite 2.7 3.3 5.1
Calcite 6.5 9.7 2.6 7.1
Clinochlore 4.2 3.6 4.0 5.5
Huntite 2.9 2.6 4.6 4.3
Illite-montmorillonite 9.0 8.0
Kaolinite 5.7 3.9 6.0 4.9
Mg-calcite 2.2
Montmorillonite 5.0 6.0
Muscovite 0.3 4.1
Pyrite 4.8 5.8 2.0 9.6
Quartz 42.5 30.8 47.7 32.1
Sepiolite 4.0
Tosudite 3.0 3.0
Total 98.6 98.8 99.7 99.1

APPENDIX 6c - X-ray diffraction charts (Kingston Morrison)
APPENDIX 6c - X-ray diffraction charts (X-ray Analytical & Research Laboratory)
APPENDIX 7a − U-Pb SHRIMP procedures for Neogene zircons
The following description of instrumentation and methodology is based on that provided by I.

R. Fletcher of the Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Western Australia.
Sample preparation
The procedures for separating zircons, preparing sample mounts, sample imaging and gold
coating are well established (Smith et al., 1998). No special preparation is required for young
zircons.
SHRIMP operation
For zircons < 10 Ma with “normal” U abundances, 206Pb+ count rates are generally <
10 counts·s-1. The data are therefore very susceptible to corruption, from three main
identifiable sources: random noise (background counts); contamination of the Pb spectrum by
“common” Pb; and possible spectral interferences (chiefly “tailing” of adjacent HfO2+ and
REE-oxide peaks under the Pb+ peaks). These factors require modifications to SHRIMP
operating parameters, and assessment of additional factors during data processing.
In order to maximize secondary Pb+ count rates, data were collected using an O- primary ion
beam. Although ionisation efficiency is lower than for an O2- primary beam, the larger
available primary ion current resulted in higher Pb+ production. Primary ion currents were ~10
to15 nA and Pb+ efficiency was ~6 counts/nA/ppm Pb.
Low count rates necessitate long measurement times for the Pb+ ion beams. For this study,
206
Pb+ was integrated for a total of about seven minutes for each analytical spot. The low beam
strength precludes centering the Pb+ beams by means of measurements on the peaks
themselves. Consequently all Pb+ beams were located by magnet field offsets from the Zr2O+
reference beam. The offset was regularly updated during interspersed analyses of the CZ3
standard zircon.
Young grains cannot be metamict, and are expected to contain almost no intrinsic initial Pb.
Therefore, the critical requirement for eliminating common Pb from analyses is to present a
clean area of sample for analysis. This is achieved by sweeping (“rastering”) the primary ion
beam across an area slightly larger than the analysis area for several minutes prior to
commencing each analysis, to sputter off the gold coat and any contamination on the sample
surface. This is a standard SHRIMP operating procedure, but in this study, more severe
conditions were maintained than are normal for older samples. A raster time of 5 minutes was
used, after confirming that one or two minutes was sufficient to remove detectable common Pb
from the surface of the CZ3 standard zircon.
Background counts constitute a conventional signal/noise problem. Under normal SHRIMP

operating conditions, the background counts are a combination of unavoidable random counts
in the electron multiplier and “stray” ion counts generated by ions released where large ion
beams impact on the walls of the flight tube. The former are unavoidable, but the latter can be
almost eliminated by the use of the retardation lens (energy filter) situated immediately in front
of the ion collector. This was used for all analyses reported in this thesis; recorded background
count rates in all cases were <0.1 s-1.
Tailing is not normally a problem in SHRIMP data, but at these very low Pb abundances it is
potentially significant, as discussed below. It could be reduced or eliminated by operating at
higher mass resolution, but at a cost in secondary ion transmission. Also, it is not considered to
be practical to retune basic SHRIMP operating conditions for single analytical sessions.
Therefore, analytical conditions continued to operate at mass resolutions of ~5000 (1% valley).
Using the retardation filter helps maximize abundance sensitivity (de Laeter and Kennedy,
1998), as well as reducing stray ion counts.
REE-oxide tailing
Adjacent to the Pb peaks in a SHRIMP mass spectrum lie REE-oxide and HfO2+ peaks. These
are normally regarded as being well resolved, but at the low Pb+ signal levels for samples <
10 Ma, small amounts of peak tailing would have significant effects. Enhancements of Pb
peaks due to tailing cannot readily be resolved from common Pb enhancements, although it
would be possible if the (REE+Hf)-oxide spectrum was determined independently and the
common Pb composition appropriately estimated.
Fortunately, the structure of the (REE+Hf)-oxide spectrum is such that it is relatively easy to
distinguish large interferences when they occur, even if the spectrum is not precisely known.
This can be seen by comparing the 206Pb/238U ratios, or dates, resulting from the three possible
common-Pb corrections. Alternatively, the f values (4f206, 7f206 and 8f206) can be assessed.
Leaving aside the differing precisions appropriate to the three corrections, if data are corrupted
only by common Pb, the three f values should be similar. Numerical modeling, using a limited
number of recorded (REE+Hf)-oxide spectra, shows that apparent f values generated by data in
which the corruption is actually from this source (and not common Pb), are approximately
4f206:7f206:8f206 = 5:1:2.
From this it is understood that 206Pb/238U data corrected for common Pb via 207Pb/206Pb will be
less affected by small (REE+Hf)-oxide tails than data corrected via 204Pb/206Pb or 208Pb/206Pb.
This is also the best correction on the basis of counting statistics.
Another fortunate feature of the (REE+Hf)-oxide spectrum is that its 207Pb/206Pb is somewhat
similar to those of likely common Pb contaminants. Therefore a 207Pb/206Pb-based data
correction is relatively insensitive to whether the recorded excess 207Pb is derived from
common Pb or a REE-oxide tail. Numerical modeling, using recorded REE-oxide spectra,
indicates that corrections up to about 7f206 = 10% will introduce errors <~1% in the corrected
206
Pb/238U when REE-oxide tails are treated as common Pb. In this study, all data reduction
assumed that excess 207Pb+ counts were due to common Pb, and possible tailing effects were
assessed subsequently.
U–Pb data reduction
Data were reduced using Krill, a software package prepared by P. Kinny (Curtin University,
WA, Australia) using established calibration procedures (see review by Williams, 1998).
The data were then surveyed to determine which should be corrected for common Pb. The
selection is made on the basis of measured 207Pb/206Pb, using the 5.0 Ma 207Pb*/206Pb* =
0.04614 as reference zero. Samples with 207Pb/206Pb < 0.04614 were used to define the
signal/noise limit for each sample population, and they form part of a subset of data which
were not corrected for common Pb or other interference effects. To these are added samples
with successively larger 207Pb/206Pb until the average of the selected group was the largest
possible < 0.04614. This gives a subset of data whose apparent common Pb levels are small
and average close to zero. The 206Pb/238U data for these samples were used without further
modification.
Samples with larger 207Pb/206Pb were corrected for common Pb, assuming:
true 207Pb*/206Pb* = 0.04614; common 207Pb/206Pb = 0.83285 (Cumming and Richards, 1975;
Model III @ 5.0 Ma). Samples with 7f206 > 7.5% were deleted, on the basis that the common
Pb correction might introduce errors>~1% in 206Pb/238U. Perusal of the data suggests that there
are actually more serious problems in some samples with 7f206 >~10%.
206
Uncertainties listed with the data are those given by Krill for Pb/238U corrected via
207
Pb/206Pb.
230
Th–238U disequilibrium
Unless 230Th–238U disequilibrium is taken into account, the measured ages will underestimate
the age of the zircons by ~50 k.y.. In the present context, this is usually outweighed by the fact
that the zircons crystallized prior to intrusion emplacement (under hypersolidus conditions),
probably over a similar time span and the fact that the 2σ precision of the U-Pb SHRIMP
method for the Neogene zircons analyzed ranges from 80 to 220 k.y..
APPENDIX 7b - Summary of 206Pb/ 238U SHRIMP Age Data
207-corrected
206* 206*
grain- U Th 7f206 238 238
spot (ppm) (ppm) (%)1 Age (Ma)2
Teluk Puna
98112302
37-1 111 78 0.0 0.001081 ± 24 6.96 ± 0.15
36-1 58 31 0.0 0.001079 ± 29 6.95 ± 0.19
38-1 60 32 0.0 0.001070 ± 29 6.89 ± 0.19
24-1 125 75 0.0 0.001068 ± 22 6.88 ± 0.14
20-1 48 22 0.0 0.001055 ± 34 6.80 ± 0.22
18-1 77 57 2.7 0.001005 ± 27 6.47 ± 0.17
3
weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 6.84 ± 0.19
4
MSWD 1.13
1
Data excluded :
25-1 42 21 12.6 0.001019 ± 45 6.56 ± 0.29
Sekongkang
971713A
24-1 125 117 4.5 0.000948 ± 31 6.11 ± 0.20
27-1 145 176 0.0 0.000946 ± 28 6.10 ± 0.18
23-1 136 209 0.0 0.000934 ± 29 6.02 ± 0.19
26-1 674 1138 0.0 0.000916 ± 24 5.90 ± 0.15
22-1 169 233 3.1 0.000912 ± 28 5.88 ± 0.18
28-1 170 154 0.6 0.000908 ± 28 5.85 ± 0.18
31-1 140 173 1.3 0.000899 ± 18 5.79 ± 0.12
29-1 177 252 1.0 0.000872 ± 27 5.62 ± 0.17
weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 5.88 ± 0.16
MSWD 0.89
Data excluded:
25-1 111 109 10.7 0.001147 ± 43 7.39 ± 0.28
30-1 108 111 9.8 0.000839 ± 21 5.40 ± 0.14
Arung Ara
SRD02-305m
11-2 43 16 0.0 0.000810 ± 37 5.22 ± 0.24
15-1 43 16 0.0 0.000808 ± 36 5.21 ± 0.23
13-1 37 12 1.6 0.000793 ± 44 5.11 ± 0.28
4-3 147 109 0.0 0.000781 ± 25 5.03 ± 0.16
14-1 108 88 0.0 0.000762 ± 25 4.91 ± 0.16
8-2 159 96 0.0 0.000761 ± 25 4.90 ± 0.16
9-2 47 27 3.2 0.000757 ± 37 4.88 ± 0.24
1-2 47 22 0.0 0.000753 ± 34 4.85 ± 0.22
weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 4.99 ± 0.18
MSWD 0.46
Gold Ridge
SGD01-276m (population 1)
13-1 56 37 0.0 0.000777 ± 26 5.01 ± 0.17
1-1 52 19 0.0 0.000759 ± 25 4.89 ± 0.16
11-1 52 26 0.0 0.000747 ± 25 4.81 ± 0.16
15-1 797 1652 0.0 0.000739 ± 8 4.76 ± 0.05
12-1 156 92 0.9 0.000738 ± 16 4.76 ± 0.10
14-1 184 120 0.8 0.000714 ± 15 4.60 ± 0.10
5-1 42 22 4.2 0.000682 ± 29 4.40 ± 0.19
weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 4.75 ± 0.12
MSWD 1.54
SGD01-276m (population 2)
15-1 41 21 6.0 0.000804 ± 41 5.18 ± 0.26
16-1 55 24 0.0 0.000782 ± 31 5.04 ± 0.20
17-1 102 50 0.0 0.000764 ± 23 4.92 ± 0.15
10-1 347 371 3.5 0.000721 ± 17 4.65 ± 0.11
weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 4.82 ± 0.31
MSWD 2.01
Data excluded:
19-1 92 46 22.3 0.000728 ± 32 4.69 ± 0.21
20-1 75 53 31.9 0.000709 ± 46 4.57 ± 0.30
18-1 124 92 22.5 0.000688 ± 28 4.43 ± 0.18
SGD01-276m (weighted mean)

weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 4.76 ± 0.11
Notes: All data are common-Pb corrected using C&R at 5 Ma.

1
Data with 7f206 (%) >7.5 are excluded from weighted mean age calculations.
2
Age determined using corrections discussed in the text.
3
weighted mean age of data popuation at 95% confidence interval
4
Mean weighted standard deviates.
207-corrected
206* 206*
U Th 7f206 238 238
grain- (ppm) (ppm) (%)1 Age (Ma)2
spot
Katala
97101143 67 42 0.6 0.000813 ± 31 5.24 ± 0.20
21-1 84 45 0.6 0.000761 ± 29 4.90 ± 0.19
18-1 112 80 1.7 0.000755 ± 27 4.86 ± 0.17
22-1 81 41 0.7 0.000729 ± 28 4.70 ± 0.18
24-1 171 166 6.3 0.000701 ± 24 4.52 ± 0.15
25-2 83 46 0.6 0.000693 ± 27 4.47 ± 0.17
3
23-1 weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 4.75 ± 0.28
4
MSWD 2.43
Data excluded: 52 24 10.7 0.000747 ± 36 4.82 ± 0.23

20-1 190 120 68.2 0.000596 ± 96 3.84 ± 0.62
25-1
SKD01-276m 74 45 3.3 0.000779 ± 23 5.02 ± 0.15

21-1 124 122 0.0 0.000772 ± 17 4.97 ± 0.11
8-1 98 55 0.4 0.000766 ± 19 4.93 ± 0.12
9-1 119 103 0.5 0.000758 ± 18 4.89 ± 0.12
22-1 137 95 0.5 0.000725 ± 16 4.67 ± 0.10
24-1 89 56 1.4 0.000701 ± 19 4.52 ± 0.12
23-1 248 158 0.9 0.000701 ± 12 4.52 ± 0.08
19-1 105 59 0.0 0.000696 ± 17 4.49 ± 0.11
13-1 weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 4.70 ± 0.18
MSWD 4.16
97100808A 674 1689 0.0 0.000746 ± 10 4.81 ± 0.06

14-1 179 134 0.0 0.000728 ± 14 4.69 ± 0.09
12-1 233 330 0.0 0.000715 ± 12 4.61 ± 0.08
18-1 111 104 0.0 0.000704 ± 18 4.54 ± 0.12
15-1 131 125 0.0 0.000699 ± 15 4.50 ± 0.10
20-1 335 204 0.0 0.000694 ± 10 4.47 ± 0.06
11-2r 200 239 2.0 0.000678 ± 14 4.37 ± 0.09
11-1c 666 969 0.0 0.000675 ± 7 4.35 ± 0.05
19-1 133 107 1.5 0.000645 ± 15 4.16 ± 0.10
8-1 weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 4.49 ± 0.15
MSWD 6.87
97101030 370 605 0.0 0.000702 ± 12 4.52 ± 0.08

5-1 259 341 4.0 0.000700 ± 23 4.51 ± 0.15
12-1 689 1910 0.0 0.000691 ± 18 4.45 ± 0.12
13-1 151 209 0.0 0.000684 ± 24 4.41 ± 0.15
18-1 220 297 0.0 0.000681 ± 20 4.39 ± 0.13
11-1 80 81 2.4 0.000622 ± 25 4.01 ± 0.16
14-1 weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 4.43 ± 0.17
MSWD 1.77
Data excluded: 282 418 22.2 0.000689 ± 15 4.44 ± 0.10

8-1

1
2
3
4
207-corrected
206* 206*
U Th 7f206 238 238
(ppm) (ppm) (%)1 Age (Ma)2
grain-
spot
Batu Hijau 31 11 5.5 0.000642 ± 31 4.14 ± 0.20

SBD12-329m 49 36 1.4 0.000612 ± 25 3.95 ± 0.16
1-1 144 120 0.0 0.000608 ± 14 3.92 ± 0.09
12-1 62 45 0.0 0.000604 ± 21 3.89 ± 0.14
16-1 464 802 0.0 0.000604 ± 9 3.89 ± 0.06
11-1 49 33 2.1 0.000591 ± 25 3.81 ± 0.16
8-1 39 30 3.8 0.000553 ± 32 3.56 ± 0.21
3
15-1 weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 3.89 ± 0.10
4
3-1 MSWD 0.75
58 28 0.6 0.000607 ± 23 3.91 ± 0.15

SBD91-416m 34 14 4.5 0.000591 ± 31 3.81 ± 0.20
7-1 75 55 0.5 0.000579 ± 22 3.73 ± 0.14
12-1 73 49 2.5 0.000568 ± 21 3.66 ± 0.14
15-1 42 19 6.1 0.000568 ± 28 3.66 ± 0.18
14-1 78 35 0.0 0.000567 ± 19 3.65 ± 0.12
11-1 48 23 2.7 0.000559 ± 25 3.61 ± 0.16
8-1 51 30 3.3 0.000519 ± 23 3.35 ± 0.15
13-1 weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 3.67 ± 0.14
16-1 MSWD 1.20
41 26 2.7 0.000619 ± 27 3.99 ± 0.17

SBD04-157m (population 1) 62 28 0.0 0.000615 ± 22 3.96 ± 0.14
12-1 44 24 2.9 0.000603 ± 26 3.89 ± 0.17
6-1 65 26 0.0 0.000594 ± 22 3.83 ± 0.14
5-1 76 44 3.0 0.000588 ± 22 3.79 ± 0.14
2-1 57 40 0.0 0.000569 ± 25 3.67 ± 0.16
3-1 91 52 0.0 0.000566 ± 18 3.65 ± 0.12
10-1 55 29 5.4 0.000552 ± 22 3.56 ± 0.14
13-1 weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 3.77 ± 0.13
14-1 MSWD 1.12
38 19 0.0 0.000638 ± 35 4.11 ± 0.23

SBD04-157m (population 2) 21 12 7.3 0.000620 ± 47 4.00 ± 0.30
20-1c 27 9 0.0 0.000619 ± 37 3.99 ± 0.24
2-1c 25 13 5.1 0.000605 ± 44 3.90 ± 0.28
6-1r 47 23 0.0 0.000597 ± 31 3.85 ± 0.20
11-1c 30 10 0.0 0.000577 ± 32 3.72 ± 0.21
21-1c 47 17 5.0 0.000562 ± 37 3.62 ± 0.24
3-1c 29 16 0.0 0.000557 ± 34 3.59 ± 0.22
14-1 48 21 4.9 0.000544 ± 29 3.51 ± 0.19
11-2r 17 9 3.9 0.000496 ± 44 3.20 ± 0.28
13-1 weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 3.74 ± 0.18
1-2c MSWD 1.23
20 7 12.1 0.000536 ± 40 3.45 ± 0.26

Data excluded:
22-1c
weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 3.76 ± 0.11
SBD04-157m (weighted mean)
45 17 1.9 0.000637 ± 31 4.11 ± 0.20

SBD41-414m 136 95 0.0 0.000627 ± 23 4.04 ± 0.15
23-1 74 28 0.0 0.000594 ± 25 3.83 ± 0.16
25-1 98 40 1.3 0.000574 ± 23 3.70 ± 0.15
24-1 160 86 0.6 0.000570 ± 19 3.68 ± 0.12
6-1 112 55 0.0 0.000568 ± 20 3.66 ± 0.13
22-1 174 121 1.2 0.000538 ± 18 3.47 ± 0.12
5-1 weighted mean [± 95% c.l.] 3.73 ± 0.19
21-1 MSWD 2.35

1
2
3
4
APPENDIX 8a − CSIRO (U-Th)/He thermochronometry facility instrumentation and
procedures
The following description of instrumentation and methodology is based on that provided by B.

I. McInnes of the CSIRO (U-Th)/He thermochronology laboratory in North Ryde, NSW,
Australia.
Instrumentation
The CSIRO helium extraction and analysis facility comprises two identical single vacuum
resistance furnaces connected to a dedicated on-line Balzers 200 quadrupole mass spectrometer
via an all-metal gas handling line. The line is evacuated to ~10-8 Mbar via turbo and backing
pumps. Active gases, particularly hydrogen are removed using SAES getters.
Sample Selection
Apatite grains are carefully hand-picked in order to avoid U- and Th-rich mineral inclusions that
may produce excess helium (cf. McInnes et al., 1999). Images of selected grains are obtained
by a CCD video camera, and measured using image analysis techniques for the calculation of an
alpha correction factor (Ft). This Ft correction is mathematically calculated (Farley et al., 1996)
based on the estimated geometric dimensions of each of the grains.
Helium Extraction and Mesurement
Multiple aliquots of between 5-30 apatite grains are spot-sealed into stainless steel capsules, and
then loaded into a 6-sample magazine for sequential gas extraction. Prior to analysis of the
sample, the 4He concentrations of furnace hot blanks are measured. Gas is extracted from the
apatite by dropping the stainless steel capsules into a ceramic crucible and heating at ~1050 oC
for ~20 minutes. 4He abundances are determined by isotope dilution using a pure 3He spike,
which is calibrated on a daily basis against an independent 4He standard tank. The uncertainty
in the measurement of the He content of apatite samples is 2.15%, determined from the
uncertainty of 4He/3He of the standard tank over a six month period.
U and Th Measurement
The U and Th content of degassed apatite samples are determined on a Perkin Elmer Sciex
5000a ICP-MS, using the Isotope Ratio application. 100µl of each 235U and 230Th spike solution
(about 5ng and 6ng, respectively) and 200µl of concentrated nitric acid are added to a vial
containing the capsule and degassed apatite. 100µl of 0.25ppm U and Th standard solutions
(Johnson Matthey) are similarly spiked and acidified. The CSIRO lab has determined the
235
U/238U ratio of the Johnson Matthey U-standard solution to be 135, close to the natural value
of 138.
To each sample and standard solution, approximately 5ng of 235U and 6ng of 230Th spike
solution are added. Blanks are prepared by adding an equivalent amount of nitric acid to
washed, empty capsules. The blanks, standards and samples are all diluted to 5% nitric solution
with Alpha Q water prior to analysis. Based on replicate analysis of spiked standard solutions,
precision for 235U/238U and 230Th/232Th determination is 0.77% and 0.41%, respectively.
Appendix 8a − CSIRO (U-Th)/He thermochronometry facility intstrumentation and procedures
Age Determination and Standards
(U-Th)/He ages are determined using the following isotopic abundances and decay constants:
238
U 99.275% 1.55125 x 10-10 yr-1
235
U 0.72% 9.8485 x 10-10 yr-1
232
Th 100% 4.9475 x 10-11 yr-1
Each final reported age for unknown samples is typically the weighted average and uncertainty
of dating results from 3 aliquots of apatite.
Apatite from Durango, Mexico is the current international standard for (U-Th)/He
thermochronology. After 25 replicate analyses determined over a 6 month period, the CSIRO
(U-Th)/He facility has determined an age of 28.3 + 0.8 Ma for Durango apatite. As expected,
this age is younger than Durango apatite fission track age of 31.4 + 0.6 Ma determined by
Naeser and Fliescher (1975), and sanidine K-Ar ages of 30.6 + 0.4 Ma (McDowell and Keizer,
1977), because both these methods have higher closure temperatures (about 125°C vs. 75°C).
APPENDIX 8b - CSIRO (U-Th)/He thermochronometry results
Sumbawa (U-Th)/He Thermochronology Data

Elevation He U Th Age +/-
Sample ID CSIRO # (m) Ft (ncc/g) (ppm) (ppm) Th/U (Ma) (1 sigma)
SGD01-276m 136182-1 -20 0.84 614 1.66 4.48 2.70 2.23 0.10
SGD01-276m 136182-2 0.86 626 1.50 4.31 2.87 2.39 0.17
SGD01-276m 136182-3 0.89 207 0.54 1.57 2.91 2.12 0.20
Weighted average and 2 sigma error 2.25 0.16

SBD041-414m 136183-1 155 0.83 741 2.81 3.48 1.24 2.04 0.15
SBD041-414m 136183-2 0.85 1680 5.44 7.56 1.39 2.28 0.07
SBD041-414m 136183-3 0.85 1410 4.89 5.58 1.14 2.22 0.06

SGD02-305m 136184-1 -135 0.75 364 1.95 5.50 2.82 1.24 1.07
SGD02-305m 136184-2 0.84 371 1.92 4.60 2.40 1.22 0.18
SGD02-305m 136184-3 0.77 286 1.82 4.57 2.51 1.06 0.15

+
97091713A 136185-1 135 0.84 406 0.03 0.00 0.00 526 538
97091713A + 136185-2 0.85 2159 0.03 0.00 0.00 939 324
97091713A + 136185-3 0.83 493 0.06 0.06 1.00 70 11
Weighted average and 2 sigma error 71 22

SKD01-276m 136186-1 230 0.84 570 4.29 10.76 2.51 0.82 0.03
SKD01-276m 136186-2 0.84 272 2.68 4.00 1.49 0.74 0.27
SKD01-276m 136186-3* 0.85 77 1.86 2.80 1.51 0.3 0.17

Notes: * - sample result not included in weighted average calculations
97091713A+ - age result has no meaning, as sample consisted of compositite grains of quartz-feldspar;
no pure apatite was obtained from this sample
APPENDIX 8c − Length Measurements, Morphology and Photographs of Apatite Grains
136182 - all samples

Grain # Area Perimeter Length Width Radius Length/Radius Distances in microns
1 41891 938 275 194 97 2.8
2 62591 1005 342 233 116.5 2.9
3 51625 871 288 228 114 2.5
4 69737 1056 358 248 124 2.9
5 73926 1095 404 233 116.5 3.5
6 76883 1156 435 225 112.5 3.9
7 84645 1356 430 251 125.5 3.4
8 60989 1015 355 219 109.5 3.2
9 21069 1791 190 141 70.5 2.7
10 56800 944 280 258 129 2.2
11 31049 729 291 136 68 4.3
12 42631 805 255 213 106.5 2.4
13 36470 808 224 207 103.5 2.2
14 53966 910 273 251 125.5 2.2
15 46943 881 316 189 94.5 3.3
16 29694 652 205 184 92 2.2
17 32897 758 301 139 69.5 4.3
18 59264 960 330 229 114.5 2.9
19 34745 731 213 207 103.5 2.1
20 76021 1263 489 198 99 4.9
21 47313 888 324 186 93 3.5
22 42384 808 247 218 109 2.3
23 41399 854 272 194 97 2.8
24 93886 1677 562 213 106.5 5.3
25 41522 787 236 224 112 2.1
26 8255 381 132 80 40 3.3
27 20576 1171 178 147 73.5 2.4
28 67889 1106 429 202 101 4.2
29 46204 847 302 195 97.5 3.1
30 38934 806 265 187 93.5 2.8
31 51625 949 289 227 113.5 2.5
32 3203 284 101 40 20 5.1
33 57539 987 359 204 102 3.5
34 59757 996 367 207 103.5 3.5
35 73187 1084 327 285 142.5 2.3
36 29447 1680 226 166 83 2.7
37 30186 661 207 185 92.5 2.2
38 14539 1057 155 119 59.5 2.6
39 31172 681 209 190 95 2.2
40 57662 965 346 212 106 3.3
41 41152 803 275 190 95 2.9
42 77129 1137 431 228 114 3.8
43 68382 1055 426 204 102 4.2
44 47313 825 277 217 108.5 2.6
45 56061 1012 344 207 103.5 3.3
46 42015 823 242 221 110.5 2.2
47 28585 675 225 162 81 2.8
48 40659 919 310 167 83.5 3.7
49 3573 277 92 50 25 3.7
50 45095 835 271 212 106 2.6
51 45341 855 283 204 102 2.8
52 21069 577 219 122 61 3.6
53 58032 951 361 205 102.5 3.5
54 16510 1254 162 130 65 2.5
55 32404 677 233 177 88.5 2.6
56 54952 928 320 219 109.5 2.9
57 23780 986 301 101 50.5 6.0
58 45711 813 249 233 116.5 2.1
59 43616 1652 250 222 111 2.3
60 5298 561 124 54 27 4.6
61 30186 675 236 163 81.5 2.9
62 35484 737 269 168 84 3.2
63 40906 905 256 203 101.5 2.5
64 60250 1112 469 163 81.5 5.8
65 62960 987 294 273 136.5 2.2
66 61728 999 322 244 122 2.6
67 54089 938 294 234 117 2.5
68 68505 1041 332 262 131 2.5
69 46204 863 287 205 102.5 2.8
70 26737 685 233 146 73 3.2
71 35854 1591 235 194 97 2.4
72 43493 832 280 197 98.5 2.8
73 5052 431 143 45 22.5 6.4
74 59757 995 298 256 128 2.3
75 24272 1988 256 121 60.5 4.2
76 56430 911 307 234 117 2.6
77 40290 783 247 208 104 2.4
78 12814 492 164 99 49.5 3.3
79 50886 868 276 234 117 2.4
80 56800 954 342 212 106 3.2
81 38565 1952 277 177 88.5 3.1
82 52980 912 281 240 120 2.3
83 17496 524 159 140 70 2.3
84 39058 827 287 174 87 3.3
85 77992 1099 348 286 143 2.4
86 48298 934 353 174 87 4.1
87 76390 1572 456 213 106.5 4.3
88 65055 2203 368 225 112.5 3.3
89 46820 914 319 187 93.5 3.4
90 22055 1265 201 139 69.5 2.9
91 75281 1235 488 196 98 5.0
92 45834 845 284 205 102.5 2.8
93 28338 809 242 149 74.5 3.2
94 61728 956 303 260 130 2.3
95 66533 1128 460 184 92 5.0
96 56677 941 341 212 106 3.2
97 16017 516 170 120 60 2.8
98 18974 1430 178 136 68 2.6
99 47805 821 258 236 118 2.2
100 32774 719 220 190 95 2.3
101 30556 689 208 187 93.5 2.2
102 27106 613 212 163 81.5 2.6
103 26983 1684 203 169 84.5 2.4
104 24888 608 211 150 75 2.8
105 111259 1542 622 228 114 5.5
106 47805 871 294 207 103.5 2.8
107 52857 897 319 211 105.5 3.0
108 35238 727 229 196 98 2.3
109 17003 1456 173 125 62.5 2.8
110 19221 575 227 108 54 4.2
111 63700 966 355 229 114.5 3.1
112 39304 854 287 174 87 3.3
113 30556 1729 273 142 71 3.8
114 64439 1024 371 221 110.5 3.4
136182 - all samples

Grain # Area Perimeter Length Width Radius Length/Radius Distances in microns
115 37825 786 232 207 103.5 2.2
116 37825 753 232 208 104 2.2
117 45957 803 264 221 110.5 2.4
118 65425 993 342 244 122 2.8
119 80086 1233 528 193 96.5 5.5
120 60250 1021 397 193 96.5 4.1
121 52364 898 296 226 113 2.6
122 21562 608 242 113 56.5 4.3
123 46573 823 277 214 107 2.6
124 36963 786 272 173 86.5 3.1
125 49777 843 281 226 113 2.5
126 26367 1700 223 151 75.5 3.0
127 51009 893 319 204 102 3.1
128 44356 835 286 197 98.5 2.9
129 83167 1213 477 222 111 4.3
130 59141 969 324 233 116.5 2.8
131 40043 858 284 179 89.5 3.2
132 30186 1551 215 179 89.5 2.4
133 20330 570 211 123 61.5 3.4
134 57662 1026 355 207 103.5 3.4
135 42631 828 287 189 94.5 3.0
136 68505 1122 433 201 100.5 4.3
137 64562 944 308 267 133.5 2.3
138 34129 718 232 188 94 2.5
139 51625 867 285 230 115 2.5
140 43986 820 265 211 105.5 2.5
AVERAGE 965.0 289.8 191.4 95.7 3.1
STDEV 330.5 89.3 47.0 23.5 0.9
136183-2
Grain# perimeter/length length width
microns microns
1 566 196 123
2 852 307 168
3 917 328 175
4 937 375 178
5 1061 431 162
6 1300 523 217
7 682 240 122
8 933 341 200
9 1023 361 184
10 685 241 147
11 848 322 144
12 582 207 134
13 1562 526 193
14 473 187 87
15 1180 411 237
16 1008 304 206
17 944 322 202
18 716 270 134
19 1256 480 205
20 731 247 158
21 948 404 121
22 1084 404 188
23 894 323 189
24 905 349 158
25 888 315 183
26 507 175 119
27 1215 439 247
28 1184 400 200
29 804 312 149
30 970 406 152
136183-3
Grain # Shape Length Diameter
microns microns
1 nc 460 211
2 c 338 172
3 n 209 100
4 n 409 169
5 nc 352 161
6 nc 514 241
7 nc 304 155
8 n 321 156
9 nc 267 154
10 I 302 275
11 nc 333 176
12 nc 382 184
13 i 294 143
14 n 246 168
15 i 381 241
16 i 297 193
17 n 190 171
18 n 232 122
19 nc 327 149
20 nc 345 199
21 n 300 247
22 n 169 108
23 n 289 127
24 i 324 157
25 i 354 205
26 nc 231 130
27 c 213 143
28 nc 279 150
29 c 315 158
30 n 348 105
31 nc 251 186
136184-2
Grain # Morphology Length Width
microns microns
1 n 304 152
2 nc 263 138
3 nc 216 120
4 nc 389 164
5 nc 282 165
6 nc 277 143
7 nc 301 193
8 nc 365 223
9 nc 432 158
10 n 237 124
11 c 255 157
12 n 266 116
13 n 259 129
14 nc 218 143
15 nc 335 214
16 n 242 127
17 nc 244 130
18 n 427 204

microns microns
1 n 284 140
2 nc 246 130
3 nc 215 121
4 nc 370 163
5 nc 269 166
6 nc 266 142
7 nc 288 182
8 nc 347 210
9 nc 418 153
10 n 236 126
11 c 243 158
12 n 262 114
13 n 245 122
14 nc 219 135
15 nc 353 213
16 n 238 123
17 nc 239 135
18 n 405 194
136184-3
microns microns
1 nc 248 123
2 nc 229 90
3 c 199 127
4 nc 152 93
5 nc 169 116
6 nc 269 127
7 nc 274 124
8 I 244 139
9 nc 269 155
10 nc 157 97
11 n 144 79
12 nc 130 99
13 i 174 112
14 nc 228 118
15 n 199 101
16 nc 242 129
17 c 125 94
18 nc 258 121
19 nc 146 106
20 nc 241 112
21 c 173 97
22 nc 229 115
23 nc 151 90
136185-1
microns microns
1 i 225 144
2 c 253 173
3 nc 228 170
4 nc 197 149
5 i 230 183
6 nc 277 164
7 i 235 171
8 nc 265 149
9 i 268 172
10 c 258 158
11 i 230 195
12 c 220 195
13 i 281 160
14 c 242 199
15 i 235 184
16 c 256 187
17 i 297 159
18 i 206 163
19 i 327 200
20 nc 268 140
21 i 267 173
136185-2
microns microns
1 i 274 188
2 i 320 178
3 c 269 184
4 c 274 189
5 i 285 158
6 c 236 178
7 nc 300 186
8 c 261 176
9 i 224 173
10 nc 242 140
11 i 260 172
12 i 310 180
13 nc 271 163
14 nc 365 174
15 c 218 194
16 c 242 201
17 nc 243 136
18 c 266 214
19 i 303 195
20 i 229 166
21 c 258 214
22 c 257 214
23 c 268 190
24 i 239 175
25 i 217 167
136185-3
microns microns
1 c 247 174
2 i 207 119
3 i 293 167
4 nc 206 136
5 nc 314 186
6 i 207 136
7 nc 193 130
8 i 208 183
9 c 264 211
10 i 256 163
11 c 243 187
12 c 247 189
13 c 210 158
14 i 243 158
15 i 215 199
16 i 255 107
17 i 221 155
18 nc 243 151
19 i 261 186
20 i 187 160
136186-1
microns microns
1 i 231 209
2 i 206 122
3 i 244 118
4 i 287 237
5 i 205 173
6 i 309 230
7 i 263 153
8 i 296 220
9 i 180 97
10 i 272 212
11 i 205 153
12 i 266 225
13 i 246 173
14 i 252 168
15 i 246 196
16 i 360 252
17 i 310 166
18 i 220 130
19 i 164 138
20 i 265 204
21 i 226 122
22 i 246 163
23 i 245 146
24 i 204 136
25 i 237 187
136186-3
microns microns
1 i 245 179
2 i 282 188
3 i 252 182
4 i 303 193
5 i 264 181
6 i 350 224
7 i 293 155
8 i 342 150
9 i 450 267
10 i 307 221
11 i 304 162
12 i 221 173
13 i 275 191
14 i 313 177
15 i 278 189
16 i 354 250
17 i 248 198
18 i 258 162
19 i 196 157
APPENDIX 9a – 40Ar/39Ar incremental heating experiment results – Stanford Argon laboratory, Stanford, Ca., USA.
Sample: A 97091713A BIO J=0.0002556

T t 40(mol) 40/39 38/39 37/39 36/39 K/Ca 39Ar 40Ar* Age (Ma)
600 8 3.1e-14 22.6854 0.0e+0 0.0040 0.0378 123 0.12568 0.508 5.3 ± 0.1
650 8 2.9e-14 17.3902 0.0e+0 0.0055 0.0183 88 0.27799 0.689 5.5 ± 0.1
700 8 1.6e-14 18.8954 0.0e+0 0.0074 0.0237 66 0.35697 0.630 5.5 ± 0.1
750 8 1.1e-14 23.7234 0.0e+0 0.0175 0.0405 28 0.39866 0.496 5.4 ± 0.1
800 8 1.1e-14 29.9258 0.0e+0 0.0314 0.0625 16 0.43334 0.383 5.3 ± 0.2
850 8 1.9e-14 25.1640 0.0e+0 0.0176 0.0455 28 0.50352 0.466 5.4 ± 0.1
875 8 1.5e-14 20.7294 0.0e+0 0.0105 0.0297 47 0.56997 0.576 5.5 ± 0.1
900 8 1.5e-14 18.3108 0.0e+0 0.0072 0.0220 68 0.64429 0.645 5.4 ± 0.1
950 8 3.0e-14 16.5981 0.0e+0 0.0033 0.0155 151 0.81074 0.725 5.5 ± 0.0
975 8 1.9e-14 15.8935 0.0e+0 0.0035 0.0163 142 0.91818 0.696 5.1 ± 0.0
1000 8 8.3e-15 15.3269 0.0e+0 0.0044 0.0122 111 0.96752 0.765 5.4 ± 0.0
1050 8 3.1e-15 15.7370 0.0e+0 0.0029 0.0120 172 0.98512 0.774 5.6 ± 0.1
1100 8 2.5e-15 26.3443 0.0e+0 0.0361 0.0554 14 0.99376 0.378 4.6 ± 0.5
1300 8 2.0e-14 283.7606 0.0e+0 0.0535 0.9713 9.2 1.00000 -0.01 -1.5 ± 2.9
Total fusion age, TFA= 5.36 ± 0.04 Ma (including J)

Weighted mean plateau age, WMPA= 5.47 ± 0.04 Ma (including J)
Inverse isochron age =5.57 ± 0.08 Ma. (MSWD =0.34; 40Ar/36Ar=286.9 ± 3.7)
Steps used: 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 875, 900, (2-8/14 or 52% · 39Ar
t = dwell time in minutes.
40(mol) = moles corrected for blank and reactor-produced 40.
Ratios are corrected for blanks, decay, and interference.
·39Ar is cumulative, 40Ar* = rad fraction.
Sample: A SAD05296 BIO J=0.0002551

T t 40(mol) 40/39 38/39 37/39 36/39 K/Ca ·39Ar 40Ar* Age (Ma)
600 8 2.5e-14 36.8654 0.0e+0 0.0232 0.0880 21 0.05749 0.295 5.0 ± 0.3
650 8 1.7e-14 24.4167 0.0e+0 0.0156 0.0423 31 0.11438 0.488 5.5 ± 0.1
700 8 1.6e-14 21.6075 0.0e+0 0.0106 0.0355 46 0.17642 0.515 5.1 ± 0.1
750 8 1.9e-14 19.8044 0.0e+0 0.0085 0.0267 58 0.25909 0.601 5.5 ± 0.1
800 8 2.3e-14 20.3813 0.0e+0 0.0088 0.0284 55 0.35526 0.589 5.5 ± 0.1
825 8 1.6e-14 19.1089 0.0e+0 0.0083 0.0243 59 0.42787 0.624 5.5 ± 0.1
850 8 2.2e-14 16.3396 0.0e+0 0.0046 0.0152 106 0.54200 0.726 5.5 ± 0.1
900 8 3.7e-14 15.4963 0.0e+0 0.0041 0.0119 119 0.74624 0.774 5.5 ± 0.0
950 8 2.6e-14 15.0672 0.0e+0 0.0060 0.0110 81 0.89223 0.785 5.4 ± 0.0
1050 8 1.7e-14 15.2578 0.0e+0 0.0028 0.0104 178 0.98392 0.799 5.6 ± 0.0
1300 8 2.6e-14 138.0145 0.0e+0 0.0185 0.4551 26 1.00000 0.026 1.6 ± 1.1

Steps used: 750, 800, 825, 850, 900, 950, (4-9/11 or 72% · 39Ar
Sample: A SKD01276 BIOT J=0.0002540

T t 40(mol) 40/39 38/39 37/39 36/39 K/Ca · 39Ar 40Ar* Age (Ma)
500 8 4.1e-14 76.9718 0.0e+0 0.0504 0.2241 9.7 0.06925 0.140 4.9 ± 0.5
550 8 2.7e-14 61.8512 0.0e+0 0.0388 0.1760 13 0.12572 0.159 4.5 ± 0.2
600 8 1.3e-14 30.1012 0.0e+0 0.0285 0.0687 17 0.18043 0.326 4.5 ± 0.1
650 8 9.2e-15 20.1960 0.0e+0 0.0204 0.0341 24 0.23924 0.501 4.6 ± 0.0
700 8 7.0e-15 14.3006 0.0e+0 0.0110 0.0147 44 0.30261 0.696 4.6 ± 0.0
750 8 7.5e-15 13.6841 0.0e+0 0.0098 0.0131 50 0.37329 0.716 4.5 ± 0.0
800 8 9.2e-15 14.4127 0.0e+0 0.0118 0.0152 41 0.45581 0.688 4.5 ± 0.0
850 8 1.7e-14 11.9129 0.0e+0 0.0077 0.0067 64 0.64245 0.833 4.5 ± 0.0
900 8 2.5e-14 10.9043 0.0e+0 0.0038 0.0039 128 0.95492 0.893 4.5 ± 0.0
950 8 4.1e-15 11.4042 0.0e+0 0.0089 0.0059 55 0.98142 0.847 4.4 ± 0.0
1100 8 1.9e-15 12.8867 0.0e+0 0.0261 0.0096 19 1.00000 0.781 4.6 ± 0.1

Steps used: 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, (2-9/11 or 87% · 39Ar
Sample: A SKD01468 BIOT J=0.0002546

600 8 2.9e-14 25.5734 0.0e+0 0.0144 0.0554 34 0.07029 0.360 4.2 ± 0.1
650 8 2.3e-14 23.6973 0.0e+0 0.0144 0.0484 34 0.13073 0.397 4.3 ± 0.1
700 8 2.1e-14 21.9212 0.0e+0 0.0250 0.0420 20 0.19125 0.434 4.4 ± 0.1
750 8 2.1e-14 20.4458 0.0e+0 0.0141 0.0349 35 0.25498 0.496 4.7 ± 0.1
800 8 3.3e-14 19.2108 0.0e+0 0.0160 0.0327 31 0.36162 0.497 4.4 ± 0.1
850 8 6.6e-14 14.5373 0.0e+0 0.0063 0.0168 78 0.64868 0.659 4.4 ± 0.0
900 8 5.0e-14 14.4477 0.0e+0 0.0110 0.0166 45 0.86672 0.660 4.4 ± 0.1
950 8 2.1e-14 14.7309 0.0e+0 0.0255 0.0181 19 0.95631 0.637 4.3 ± 0.1
1100 8 1.3e-14 32.7240 0.0e+0 0.0374 0.0797 13 0.98176 0.280 4.2 ± 0.4
1300 8 6.4e-14 221.8636 0.0e+0 0.0400 0.7466 12 1.00000 0.006 0.6 ± 2.1

Steps used: 800, 850, 900, 950, (5-8/10 or 70% · 39Ar
Sample: SBD91444 BIO B J=0.0002522

600 8 3.6e-14 34.6152 0.0e+0 0.0150 0.0887 33 0.12459 0.243 3.8 ± 0.2
650 8 3.1e-14 27.4496 0.0e+0 0.0134 0.0661 37 0.25887 0.289 3.6 ± 0.2
700 8 3.2e-14 26.4718 0.0e+0 0.0114 0.0622 43 0.40083 0.306 3.7 ± 0.2
750 8 2.8e-14 27.0312 0.0e+0 0.0151 0.0644 33 0.52460 0.296 3.6 ± 0.2
825 8 4.7e-14 26.2454 0.0e+0 0.0195 0.0595 25 0.73592 0.330 3.9 ± 0.2
900 8 3.2e-14 22.7571 0.0e+0 0.0151 0.0496 32 0.90093 0.356 3.7 ± 0.2
950 8 8.3e-15 19.0097 0.0e+0 0.0189 0.0359 26 0.95227 0.442 3.8 ± 0.2
1000 8 8.9e-16 13.4312 0.0e+0 0.0064 0.0109 76 0.96009 0.759 4.6 ± 0.4
1100 8 6.2e-15 43.4990 0.0e+0 0.0245 0.1206 20 0.97703 0.181 3.6 ± 0.5
1300 8 3.1e-14 161.4398 0.0e+0 0.0312 0.5336 16 1.00000 0.023 1.7 ± 1.5

Steps used: 600, 650, 700, 750, 825, 900, 950, (1-7/10 or 95% · 39Ar
Sample: A SBD04157 BIO J=0.0002525

600 8 5.6e-14 25.9665 0.0e+0 0.0335 0.0623 15 0.11591 0.291 3.4 ± 0.2
650 8 4.4e-14 26.3352 0.0e+0 0.0236 0.0622 21 0.20599 0.302 3.6 ± 0.2
700 8 4.2e-14 25.1076 0.0e+0 0.0202 0.0558 24 0.29733 0.344 3.9 ± 0.2
750 8 3.8e-14 22.3378 0.0e+0 0.0172 0.0473 29 0.39013 0.374 3.8 ± 0.1
800 8 4.2e-14 23.0054 0.0e+0 0.0190 0.0506 26 0.48984 0.350 3.7 ± 0.1
850 8 6.6e-14 16.8687 0.0e+0 0.0104 0.0295 47 0.70266 0.482 3.7 ± 0.1
900 8 4.9e-14 15.7570 0.0e+0 0.0108 0.0255 45 0.86959 0.523 3.7 ± 0.1
950 8 1.9e-14 12.4269 0.0e+0 0.0121 0.0152 40 0.95386 0.637 3.6 ± 0.0
1000 8 4.6e-15 14.8638 0.0e+0 0.0414 0.0265 12 0.97048 0.472 3.2 ± 0.1
1025 8 1.3e-15 12.0602 0.0e+0 0.0867 0.0279 5.7 0.97641 0.317 1.7 ± 0.2
1100 8 1.1e-14 44.7920 0.0e+0 0.0651 0.1248 7.5 0.98961 0.176 3.6 ± 0.5
1200 8 4.8e-14 248.3895 0.0e+0 0.0733 0.8315 6.7 1.00000 0.011 1.2 ± 2.0

Steps used: 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, (1-7/12 or 87% · 39Ar
Sample: A SBD10279 BIOT J=0.0002530

600 8 1.2e-14 17.9132 3.5e+1 0.0440 0.0228 11 0.11784 0.624 3.4 ± 0.1
650 8 7.2e-15 17.3414 5.6e+1 0.0493 0.0125 9.9 0.19216 0.787 3.6 ± 0.1
700 8 6.3e-15 15.7133 5.7e+1 0.0466 0.0065 11 0.26490 0.878 3.6 ± 0.1
750 8 6.3e-15 15.1441 5.6e+1 0.0442 0.0048 11 0.33963 0.907 3.6 ± 0.1
800 8 6.7e-15 16.1879 5.6e+1 0.0491 0.0068 10.0 0.41400 0.876 3.8 ± 0.1
850 8 1.9e-14 12.5511 1.5e+1 0.0204 0.0091 24 0.68868 0.787 3.8 ± 0.1
875 8 9.6e-15 11.3506 2.7e+1 0.0216 0.0013 23 0.84078 0.965 3.7 ± 0.1
900 8 5.4e-15 10.6294 4.5e+1 0.0240 0.0000 20 0.93219 1.000 3.7 ± 0.1
950 8 2.6e-15 9.3502 8.3e+1 0.0766 0.0000 6.4 0.98228 1.000 3.8 ± 0.1
1100 8 3.7e-16 6.9210 4.3e+2 0.2191 0.0000 2.2 0.99202 1.000 2.3 ± 0.4
1300 8 2.0e-14 456.3511 5.2e+2 0.1956 1.3845 2.5 1.00000 0.103 -3.7 ± 5.3

Steps used: 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 875, 900, 950, (2-9/11 or 86% · 39Ar
·39Ar is cumulative, 40Ar* = rad fraction
Sample: SBD1536 SERICIT J=0.0002520

700 8 1.1e-15 38.9164 0.0e+0 0.2851 0.1609 1.7 0.00612 -0.222 -3.9 ± 0.4
750 8 6.0e-16 36.6110 0.0e+0 0.1954 0.1141 2.5 0.00968 0.079 1.3 ± 0.6
800 8 4.1e-15 33.9203 0.0e+0 0.0498 0.0895 9.8 0.03603 0.221 3.4 ± 0.1
850 8 3.4e-15 17.6276 0.0e+0 0.0069 0.0345 71 0.07793 0.422 3.4 ± 0.1
890 8 8.3e-15 17.3642 0.0e+0 0.0039 0.0307 124 0.18123 0.478 3.8 ± 0.0
920 8 7.2e-15 12.2850 0.0e+0 0.0047 0.0142 104 0.30860 0.659 3.7 ± 0.0
960 8 9.8e-15 9.8597 0.0e+0 0.0033 0.0063 149 0.52350 0.812 3.6 ± 0.0
1010 8 9.3e-15 9.6138 0.0e+0 0.0067 0.0053 73 0.73466 0.836 3.6 ± 0.0
1050 8 4.5e-15 10.1769 0.0e+0 0.0059 0.0074 83 0.83097 0.784 3.6 ± 0.0
1100 8 3.6e-15 11.4157 0.0e+0 0.0078 0.0112 63 0.89991 0.710 3.7 ± 0.0
1150 8 3.9e-15 10.9549 0.0e+0 0.0137 0.0101 36 0.97660 0.726 3.6 ± 0.0
1200 8 9.5e-16 11.2440 0.0e+0 0.0258 0.0115 19 0.99496 0.698 3.6 ± 0.1
1250 8 2.6e-16 18.6864 0.0e+0 0.1419 0.0324 3.5 0.99804 0.487 4.1 ± 0.6
1300 8 2.4e-16 26.5168 0.0e+0 0.1604 0.1041 3.1 1.00000 -0.160 -1.9 ± 1.0

Steps used: 920, 960, 1010, 1050, 1100, 1150, 1200, (6-12/14 or 81% · 39Ar
APPENDIX 9b – 40Ar/39Ar incremental heating experiment results – U.S.G.S. Argon
laboratory, Denver, Co., USA.
Your Personalized Argon Data Acquisition on Sample: 981118902/9/DD64

Sample analysis started on 420 Reduced on 5-Apr-2000
Irradiated on 335 1999
Ar 40/36 MEASURED ATMOSPHERE = 298.9
Mineral type - WHITE MICA
Sample Weight = 32.9 mg
J-value and its error = 0.00487 & 0.1 %
RAW DATA
TRAP MANIFOLD
FILE TEMP 40Ar 39Ar 38Ar 37Ar 36Ar CURRENT OPTION
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
100489 450 .20013 .04756 .00091 .00005 .00054 200 1
+/- .00001 0.00000 .00003 .00001 .00001
100490 550 .05478 .03571 .00056 .00006 .00009 200 1
+/- .00002 .00001 .00002 .00002 .00000
100491 600 .02726 .02256 .00033 .00002 .00003 200 1
+/- .00002 0.00000 .00000 .00001 .00000
100492 650 .12547 .13496 .00187 .00023 .00006 200 1
+/- .00003 .00018 .00003 .00002 .00001
100493 700 .18449 .17766 .00242 .00032 .00014 200 1
+/- .00002 .00021 .00001 .00002 .00000
100494 800 .33233 .35650 .00473 .00037 .00015 200 1
+/- .00025 .00023 .00001 .00001 .00001
100495 900 .06362 .05587 .00079 .00010 .00006 200 1
+/- .00001 0.00000 .00001 .00001 .00000
100496 950 .01974 .00419 .00009 .00005 .00005 200 1
+/- .00001 .00002 .00001 .00001 .00001
100497 1050 .02429 .00352 .00012 .00019 .00007 200 1
+/- .00001 .00002 .00000 .00001 .00001
100498 1350 .19282 .00758 .00049 .00228 .00064 200 1
+/- .00016 .00001 .00001 .00001 .00002
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Raw values corrected for manifold options, trap current and mass discrimination
AR 37 AR 39
TEMP 40Ar 39Ar 38Ar 37Ar 36Ar DECAY DECAY
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
450 .20013 .04770 .00092 .00005 .00055 .00025 .00003
+/- .00001 .00000 .00003 .00001 .00001
550 .05478 .03582 .00056 .00006 .00009 .00032 .00002
+/- .00002 .00001 .00002 .00002 .00000
600 .02726 .02262 .00033 .00002 .00003 .00010 .00001
+/- .00002 .00000 .00000 .00001 .00000
650 .12547 .13535 .00188 .00024 .00007 .00117 .00009
+/- .00003 .00018 .00003 .00002 .00001
700 .18449 .17817 .00243 .00032 .00014 .00161 .00012
+/- .00002 .00021 .00001 .00002 .00000
800 .33233 .35752 .00476 .00037 .00015 .00184 .00024
+/- .00025 .00023 .00001 .00001 .00001
900 .06362 .05603 .00080 .00010 .00006 .00050 .00004
+/- .00001 .00000 .00001 .00001 .00000
950 .01974 .00421 .00009 .00005 .00005 .00024 0.00000
+/- .00001 .00002 .00001 .00001 .00001
1050 .02429 .00353 .00012 .00019 .00007 .00093 0.00000
+/- .00001 .00002 .00000 .00001 .00001
1350 .19282 .00760 .00049 .00230 .00065 .01151 .00001
+/- .00016 .00001 .00001 .00001 .00002
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TEMP --------K-DERIVED---------- ---------Ca-DERIVED-------- ----------Cl-DERIVED----------
C 37Ar 38Ar 40Ar 36Ar 37Ar 38Ar 39Ar 36Ar 38Ar
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
450 .00001 .00063 .00004 0.00000 .00029 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00019
550 .00001 .00047 .00003 0.00000 .00038 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00007
600 .00000 .00030 .00002 0.00000 .00011 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00003
650 .00002 .00179 .00012 0.00000 .00138 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00008
700 .00003 .00235 .00016 0.00000 .00190 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00006
800 .00006 .00472 .00032 0.00000 .00215 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00001
900 .00001 .00074 .00005 0.00000 .00059 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00005
950 .00000 .00006 .00000 0.00000 .00029 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00003
1050 .00000 .00005 .00000 0.00000 .00112 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00006
1350 .00000 .00010 .00001 0.00000 .01381 .00000 .00001 .00000 .00028
Calculated Empirical
TEMP --------------ATMOSPHERIC--------------- ERROR IN F Error in F 39/37
C Ar 36 Ar 38 Ar 40 (1 sigma) (1 sigma) Ratio
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
450 .00055 .00010 .16199 .04074 .00096 164.58
550 .00009 .00002 .02675 .00086 .00094 94.15
600 .00003 .00001 .00957 .06191 .00094 198.50
650 .00006 .00001 .01911 .02947 .00094 97.94
700 .00014 .00002 .04151 .00413 .00096 93.97
800 .00015 .00003 .04373 .01017 .00097 166.59
900 .00006 .00001 .01867 .02439 .00096 95.82
950 .00005 .00001 .01591 .66079 .00109 14.70
1050 .00007 .00001 .02111 .71610 .00108 3.15
1350 .00065 .00011 .19106 .62974 .00028 .55
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TEMP Radiogenic K-derived F RAD %Ar39 APPARENT AGE & ERROR
C AR40 AR39 VALUE YIELD TOTAL (Ma at 1 sigma)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
450 .03810 .04773 .798 19.0 5.6 7.00 +/- .36
550 .02800 .03584 .781 51.1 4.2 6.85 +/- .01
600 .01767 .02264 .781 64.8 2.7 6.84 +/- .54
650 .10624 .13544 .784 84.7 16.0 6.88 +/- .26
700 .14282 .17829 .801 77.4 21.0 7.02 +/- .04
800 .28827 .35776 .806 86.7 42.1 7.07 +/- .09
900 .04490 .05607 .801 70.6 6.6 7.02 +/- .21
950 .00382 .00421 .908 19.4 .5 7.96 +/- 5.78
1050 .00318 .00354 .898 13.1 .4 7.87 +/- 6.26
1350 .00175 .00760 .231 .9 .9 2.03 +/- 5.53
TOTAL
GAS .795 6.97 +/- .35
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Your Personalized Argon Data Acquisition on Sample: 98100401/10/DD64

Sample analysis started on 421 Reduced on 5-Apr-2000
Irradiated on 335 1999
Ar 40/36 MEASURED ATMOSPHERE = 298.9
Mineral type - WHITE MICA
Sample Weight = 32.3 mg
J-value and its error = 0.004946 & 0.1 %
RAW DATA
TRAP MANIFOLD
FILE TEMP 40Ar 39Ar 38Ar 37Ar 36Ar CURRENT OPTION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
100499 450 .18811 .00880 .00037 .00002 .00061 200 1
+/- .00002 .00002 .00000 .00001 .00000
100500 550 .42452 .24872 .00406 .00005 .00095 200 1
+/- .00038 .00018 .00001 .00001 .00000
100501 650 .39387 .54500 .00734 .00004 .00010 200 1
+/- .00004 .00015 .00003 .00002 .00000
100502 700 .23559 .32466 .00428 .00001 .00005 200 1
+/- .00005 .00021 .00001 .00002 .00000
100503 750 .10200 .11072 .00148 0.00000 .00009 200 1
+/- .00001 .00001 .00001 .00001 .00001
100504 800 .03872 .03491 .00048 .00005 .00005 200 1
+/- .00003 .00004 .00003 .00002 .00001
100505 900 .02304 .00996 .00016 .00003 .00004 200 1
+/- .00001 .00004 .00003 .00002 .00002
100506 1100 .01934 .00085 .00004 .00004 .00005 200 1
+/- .00001 .00001 .00001 .00001 .00002
100507 1300 .07245 .00127 .00025 .00021 .00019 200 1
+/- .00001 .00001 .00001 .00000 .00001
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Raw values corrected for manifold options, trap current and mass discrimination
AR 37 AR 39
TEMP 40Ar 39Ar 38Ar 37Ar 36Ar DECAY DECAY
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
450 .18811 .00883 .00038 .00002 .00062 .00010 .00001
+/- .00002 .00002 .00000 .00001 .00000
550 .42452 .24944 .00408 .00005 .00096 .00028 .00017
+/- .00038 .00018 .00001 .00001 .00000
650 .39387 .54657 .00739 .00005 .00011 .00023 .00037
+/- .00004 .00015 .00003 .00002 .00000
700 .23559 .32559 .00430 .00001 .00005 0.00000 .00022
+/- .00005 .00021 .00001 .00002 .00000
750 .10200 .11103 .00148 0.00000 .00009 0.00000 .00007
+/- .00001 .00001 .00001 .00001 .00001
800 .03872 .03501 .00048 .00005 .00005 .00028 .00002
+/- .00003 .00004 .00003 .00002 .00001
900 .02304 .00999 .00016 .00003 .00005 .00017 .00001
+/- .00001 .00004 .00003 .00002 .00002
1100 .01934 .00086 .00004 .00004 .00005 .00021 0.00000
+/- .00001 .00002 .00001 .00001 .00002
1300 .07245 .00128 .00025 .00021 .00019 .00108 0.00000
+/- .00001 .00001 .00001 .00000 .00001
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TEMP ------------K-DERIVED------------ -----------------Ca-DERIVED----------------- ---Cl-DERIVED---
C 37Ar 38Ar 40Ar 36Ar 37Ar 38Ar 39Ar 36Ar 38Ar
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
450 .00000 .00012 .00001 0.00000 .00011 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00015
550 .00004 .00329 .00023 0.00000 .00029 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00062
650 .00010 .00721 .00049 0.00000 .00018 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00016
700 .00006 .00429 .00029 0.00000 0.00000 .00000 .00000 .00000 0.00000
750 .00002 .00146 .00010 0.00000 0.00000 .00000 .00000 .00000 0.00000
800 .00001 .00046 .00003 0.00000 .00033 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00001
900 .00000 .00013 .00001 0.00000 .00020 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00002
1100 .00000 .00001 .00000 0.00000 .00025 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00002
1300 .00000 .00002 .00000 0.00000 .00129 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00020
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Calculated Empirical
TEMP -------------ATMOSPHERIC------------- ERROR IN F Error in F 39/37
C Ar 36 Ar 38 Ar 40 (1 sigma) (1 sigma) Ratio
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
450 .00062 .00011 .18373 .12138 .00059 78.02
550 .00096 .00017 .28250 .00178 .00068 872.47
650 .00011 .00002 .03117 .00252 .00079 3018.78
700 .00005 .00001 .01568 .00064 .00081 99999.99
750 .00009 .00002 .02601 .03430 .00082 99999.99
800 .00005 .00001 .01436 .08325 .00083 107.71
900 .00005 .00001 .01332 .55678 .00117 49.76
1100 .00005 .00001 .01490 6.21125 .00623 3.47
1300 .00019 .00003 .05649 2.54416 .01502 .98
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TEMP Radiogenic K-derived F RAD %Ar39 APPARENT AGE & ERROR
C AR40 AR39 VALUE YIELD TOTAL (Ma at 1 sigma)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
450 .00438 .00883 .496 2.3 .7 4.42 +/- 1.08
550 .14180 .24961 .568 33.4 19.4 5.06 +/- .02
650 .36221 .54693 .662 92.0 42.4 5.90 +/- .02
700 .21961 .32581 .674 93.2 25.3 6.00 +/- .01
750 .07589 .11111 .683 74.4 8.6 6.08 +/- .31
800 .02433 .03504 .694 62.8 2.7 6.18 +/- .74
900 .00970 .01000 .971 42.1 .8 8.64 +/- 4.94
1100 .00444 .00086 5.190 23.0 .1 45.72 +/- 54.04
1300 .01596 .00128 12.514 22.0 .1 108.34 +/- 21.38
TOTAL
GAS .666 5.93 +/- .10
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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THE SETTING, GEOMETRY AND TIMING OF INTRUSION-

RELATED HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS IN THE VICINITY OF

This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the

Centre for Global Metallogeny,

Supervisors: Professors David I. Groves and Marco T. Einaudi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................1

2.3.1.1 Characteristics of Crustal Basement and Microplates .................................. 25

4.2.1.1 Field Relationships....................................................................................70

4.6.4.3 Mineral Composition ............................................................................... 104

5.4 Faults and Fault Zones.................................................................................. 158

6.2.6.1 Approach and Methodology............................................................................ 209

6.7 Interpretatio n......................................................................................... 251

APPENDICES (Volume Two)

1.1 Descriptive summary of the characteristics of global copper-gold porphyry deposits 1

6.12 Surface geometry of late feldspar-destructive hydrothermal alteration zones 220

4.24 Compositions of magmatic biotite and biotite in hornfels

LIST OF MAPS AND SECTIONS

Newmont Nusa Tenggara Company, an Indonesian subsidiary of Newmont Mining

1.1.1 Global Significance and Characteristics of Porphyry Deposits

Table 1.1 Summary of selected large gold-rich porphyry copper deposits

Deposit, Location Au1 Cu2 Au2 Tectonic Chem. Age Reference(s)

Porphyry deposits are characterized by disseminated, veinlet- and fracture-controlled copper-

Table 1.2 Descriptive summary of the characteristics of copper-gold porphyry deposits

Classic Provinces Continental margin:

Host Rocks Intermediate to felsic calc-alkaline and K-alkaline porphyritic intrusions

Gold Fineness Native gold and electrum

Other Features Topology of subducting slab exerts a control on porphyry mineralization in

1.1.2 Regional Localization of Intrusion-related Copper and Gold Deposits –

1) circum-Pacific (Sillitoe, 1990, 1995),

1.1.3.1 Batu Hijau District

1.1.4 Timing and Duration of Hydrothermal Systems

1.2 Objectives of Thesis

1.2.1 Primary Objectives

The primary objectives of this study are to:

1.2.2 Subsidiary Objectives

The secondary objectives of the research are to:

1.3 Work Accomplished

1.3.1 Field Work

Mapping was accomplished by utilizing a method originally developed by Anaconda geologists

1.3.1.2 Geochemical and Radiometric Age Date Sampling

1.3.1.3 X-ray Diffraction Clay-Mica Sampling

1.3.2 Laboratory Work

1.3.2.1 Petrography and Electron Microprobe (EDS-SEM) Analysis

1.3.2.3 Whole Rock and Trace Element Analysis

1.3.2.4 Radiogenic Isotope Analysis

1.3.2.5 X-ray Diffraction Analysis

1.3.2.6 Numerical Stress Modeling

Stress Mapping Technology (SMT) is a technique developed to target epigenetic mineralization

1.3.2.7 206 Pb / 238 U SHRIMP Analysis

1.3.2.8 (U-Th)/He Thermochronometry

1.3.2.9 Radiometric 40 Ar/39 Ar Analysis

Approximately 5 to 15 mg were obtained for each of the mineral separates by conventional

The study area encompasses 12 km (east-west) by about 6 km (north-south), and is located in

1.5 Previous Work

Prospect geology AOI 1:500; 1:1000 1:5000 useful to prioritize

Stream geochemistry SW Sumbawa 1:25,000 --------- indicates geometry

SPOT imagery SW Sumbawa 1:50,000 1:50,000 aids structural inter-

Airborne magnetics SW Sumbawa 1:25,000 1:10,000 aids interpretation of

Ground magnetics AOI 1:10,000 1:10,000 aids interpretation of

1.6 Exploration and Development History at Batu Hijau

Exploration of western Sumbawa by Newmont geologists commenced in 1987. Auriferous

The abbreviations used in this thesis are defined as follows:

Br. Brang, word for stream in the local dialect of Sumbawa.

D. Doro, word for crater in the local dialect of Sumbawa.