Chapter-2

Chemical BONDING
 Chemical Bond
• A bond results from the attraction of nuclei
for electrons
– All atoms trying to achieve a stable octet

• IN OTHER WORDS
– the p+ in one nucleus are attracted to the e- of
another atom
• Electronegativity
 Two Major Types Of
Bonding
• Ionic Bonding
– forms ionic compounds
– transfer of e-
• Covalent Bonding
– forms organic molecules
– sharing e-
 One Minor Type Of Bonding
• Metallic bonding
– Occurs between like atoms of a metal in the free
state
– Valence e- are mobile (move freely among all metal
atoms)
– Positive ions in a sea of electrons
It’s the mobile electrons that enable
metals to conduct electricity!!!!!!
Metallic characteristics
High mp, ductile, malleable, shiny
Hard substances
Good conductors of heat and electricity as (s) and (l)
 Ionic Bonding
• electrons are transferred between valence shells
of atoms MOLECULES

• ionic compounds are made of ions

NOT

• ionic compounds are called Salts or Crystals

•Always formed between metals and
non-metals
+ -
[METALS ] [NON-METALS ]

Lost e- Gained e-
 Atoms Electronegativity

Ionic Bonding F 4.0

O 3.4
Cl 3.2
• Electronegativity difference >
2.0 N 3.0
– Look up e-neg of the atoms in Br 3.0
the bond and subtract
NaCl, CaCl2 I 2.7
• Compounds with polyatomic S 2.6
ions C 2.6
NaNO3
H 2.2
Ca 1.0
Na 0.9
K 0.8
Sn 1.96
Al 1.61
Pb 1.87
Properties Of Ionic Compounds

SALTS
o
• hard solid @ 22 C Crystals
• high mp temperatures
• nonconductors of electricity in solid phase
• good conductors in liquid phase or
dissolved in water (aq)
 Covalent Bonding
• Pairs of e- are shared between non-metal
atoms
• electronegativity difference < 2.0
• forms polyatomic molecules

•Properties of covalent bond

•Low m.p. temp and b.p. temps
•Relatively soft solids as compared to ionic compounds
•Nonconductors of electricity in any phase
 Covalent, Ionic, Metallic Bonding ?
• NO2 • NH4+
• NaH • AlPO4 •CO
• Hg • KH • Co
• H 2S • KCl
• SO42- • HF
 The rule of Lewis structure of ionic compound
•Step 1 after checking that it is IONIC
– Determine which atom will be the +ion
– Determine which atom will be the - ion

•Step 2
– Write the symbol for the + ion first.
• NO DOTS
–
– Draw the e- dot diagram for the ion
• COMPLETE outer shell

•Step 3
– Enclose both in brackets and show each charge
Draw the Lewis Diagrams

• LiF
• MgO
• CaCl2
• K 2S
Always Remember Atoms Are Trying To Complete
Their Outer Shell!
The number of electrons that atoms needs is the
total number of bonds they can make.
Ex. H. O: F. .N: Cl. :C:
one two one three one four
 Methane CH4
• This is the finished Lewis dot structure

How did we
get here?
Draw The Lewis Dot Diagram For Polyatomic Ions
• Count all valence e- needed for covalent
bonding
• Add or subtract other electrons based on the
charge
REMEMBER!
A positive charge means it LOST
electrons!!!!!
 Draw Polyatomic Molecules
• Ammonium
• Sulfate
 Types of Covalent Bonds
• NON-Polar bonds
– Electrons shared evenly in the bond
– E-neg difference is zero

Between identical
atoms
Diatomic molecules
 Types of Covalent Bonds
Polar bond
– Electrons unevenly shared

– E-neg difference greater than zero but less than

2.0

closer to 2.0 more polar more “ionic

character”
 Place These Molecules In Order Of
Increasing Bond Polarity

Which Is Least And Which Is Most?

• HCl
• CH4
• CO2
a.k.a.
• NH3 “ionic
• N2 character”
• HF
 Non-polar MOLECULES
• Sometimes the bonds within a molecule
are polar and yet the molecule is
non-polar because its shape is
symmetrical.

H
H C H
H
 Polar Molecules
(Dipoles)
• Not equal on all sides
– Polar bond between 2 atoms makes a
polar molecule
– Asymmetrical shape of molecule
 -
+ δ
δ

H Cl
 Space filling model
“Electron-Cloud” model

δ +
H Cl δ
-
Water is asymmetrical
+ +
δ δ
H H
O
-
δ
 Water is a bent molecule

H H H
H
O
Intramolecular and intermolecular forces

There are two kinds of forces, or attractions, that operate in a

molecule—intramolecular and intermolecular.
Let's try to understand this difference through the following
example.

Intramolecular forces are the forces that hold atoms together within a
molecule.
Intermolecular forces are forces that exist between molecules.
 Types of intramolecular forces of attraction
1. Ionic bond
2. Covalent bond

A nonpolar covalent bond is formed between same atoms or atoms with very
similar electronegativities—the difference in electronegativity between bonded
atoms is less than 0.5.

A polar covalent bond is formed when atoms of slightly different electronegativities share
electrons. The difference in electronegativity between bonded atoms is between 0.5 and 1.9.
Hydrogen chloride, HCl; HO in H2​O ; and HF are all examples of polar covalent bonds.
3.Metallic bonding: This type of covalent bonding specifically
occurs between atoms of metals, in which the valence
electrons are free to move through the lattice.

This bond is formed via the attraction of the mobile

electrons—referred to as sea of electrons—and the fixed
positively charged metal ions.

Metallic bonds are present in samples of pure elemental

metals, such as gold or aluminum, or alloys, like brass or
bronze.
 Relative strength of the intramolecular
forces

Intramolecular force Basis of formation Relative strength

Metal cations to
Metallic bond 1, strongest
delocalized electrons

Ionic bond Cations to anions 2

Partially charged cation

Polar covalent bond 3
to partially charged anion

Nuclei to shared
Nonpolar covalent bond 4, weakest
electrons
 Types of intermolecular forces that exist between molecules

1.Dipole-dipole interactions: These forces occur when the partially positively

charged part of a molecule interacts with the partially negatively charged part of
the neighboring molecule.

2.The prerequisite for this type of attraction to exist is partially charged

ions—for example, the case of polar covalent bonds such as hydrogen
chloride, HCl

3. Dipole-dipole interactions are
the strongest
intermolecular force of attraction.
 Hydrogen Bonding

J Hudson 2005
Electronegativity
An atom or ion’s electronegativity is its ability to pull electrons towards
itself in a covalent bond. The most electronegative elements are found
towards the top right corner of the periodic table.
Electronegativity
Which covalent bonds would be the most polar?
Atom Electronegativity
F 4.0
O 3.4
Cl 3.2
N 3.0
Br 3.0
I 2.7
S 2.6
C 2.6
H 2.2
 Hydrogen Bonding

The three types of bonds which give molecules significant

hydrogen bonding are; (i) N – H (ii) O – H (iii) F – H

These three bonds all have;

• A strong permanent dipole
• A hydrogen atom
• An atom with lone pair electrons
Hydrogen bonding: This is a special kind of dipole-dipole interaction
that occurs specifically between a hydrogen atom bonded to either
an oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom

This explains the exceptionally high boiling points and melting points
of compounds like water, H2​O and HF hydrogen fluoride.

Hydrogen bonding plays an important role in biology; for example,

hydrogen bonds are responsible for holding nucleotide bases
together in {DNA}, {RNA}
 Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen bonding in water results in some unusual properties;

• Higher than expected boiling point

• High specific heat capacity
(absorbs a lot of heat energy with only a small change in temperature)
• Ice is less dense than water
This section of This section of
water is frozen water is liquid
Hydrogen Bonding in Hydrogen Fluoride
..
H F

..
..
Fluorine atoms have three electron lone
pairs for bonding to other HF molecules
Hydrogen Bonding in Hydrogen Fluoride

H H
.. .. ..
.. F
.. F
..

..
..

..
..

F
..
F
..

H
H
Ice

Both lone pairs are involved

in hydrogen bonds

Both hydrogen atoms are involved

in hydrogen bonds
Comparing Bonds
Type of attraction Bond enthalpy/kJ mol-1

O–H covalent bond +464

Hydrogen bond +10 to +40

Instantaneous dipole – Less than +10

induced dipole forces
Properties
How do these two molecules differ in boiling
point, viscosity and water solubility?
Explain why…
HHH HH
H - C-C-C - H H - C-C- OH
HHH HH
Propane
Ethanol
MR = 44
MR = 46
Physical Properties of Alcohols

Alcohol molecules can hydrogen bond to each other and to

water molecules. This explains their solubility in water.
Types of Hydrogen bonding

Intra molecular H-bonding

Inter molecular H- bonding
 Results of Hydrogen Bonding

• Wool and nylon fibres can hydrogen bond to water –

these fabrics can absorb water
• Polythene has no hydrogen bonding – polythene
clothes would get very sweaty and sticky
London dispersion forces (LDF, also known
as dispersion forces, London forces,
instantaneous dipole–induced dipole
forces, or loosely van der Waals forces) are a
type of force acting
between atoms and molecules.

They are part of the van der Waals forces.

The LDF is named after the German-American
physicist Fritz London.
London dispersion forces, under the category of van der Waal forces:

These are the weakest of the intermolecular forces and exist between all types of
molecules, whether ionic or covalent—polar or nonpolar.
The more electrons a molecule has, the stronger the London dispersion forces are.

For example, bromine,Br2, has more electrons than chlorine, Cl2, so bromine will
have stronger London dispersion forces than chlorine, resulting in a higher boiling
point for bromine, 59 , compared to chlorine, –35

Also, the breaking of London dispersion forces doesn’t require that much energy, which explains why
nonpolar covalent compounds like methaneCH4​, oxygen, and nitrogen—which only have London
dispersion forces of attraction between the molecules—freeze at very low temperatures .
Relative strength of intermolecular forces of
attraction

Intermolecular force Occurs between … Relative strength

Partially oppositely
Dipole-dipole attraction Strong
charged ions

H atom and \O,N or Strongest of the

Hydrogen bonding
F atom dipole-dipole attractions

London dispersion Temporary or induced

Weakest
attraction dipoles
C2​H6​, London dispersion forces—it’s a nonpolar covalent
compound— and no other intermolecular attractions
 Intermolecular attractions
• Attractions between
molecules
– van der Waals forces
• Weak attractive
forces between
non-polar
molecules
– Hydrogen “bonding”
• Strong attraction
between special
polar molecules
 van der Waals
• Non-polar molecules can exist in liquid and
solid phases
because van der Waals forces keep the molecules
attracted to each other

• Exist between CO2, CH4, CCl4, CF4, diatomics

and monoatomics
 van der Waals periodicity

• increase with molecular mass.

• increase with closer distance between

molecules
– Decreases when particles are farther away
Intermolecular forces dictate chemical
properties

• Strong intermolecular forces cause high

b.p., m.p. and slow evaporation (low vapor
pressure) of a substance.
Which substance has the highest
boiling point?

• HF Fluorine has the highest e-neg,

• NH3 SO
• H2O HF will experience the
strongest H bonding and ∴
• WHY? needs the most energy to
weaken the i.m.f. and boil
The End