SOLID STATE

S O L I D S TAT E
1. SOLIDS
Solids are characterised by the state of matter in which particles are closely packed and held together by strong
inter molecular attractive force.
1.1 Properties of solids
(a) In solid state the particles are not able to move randomly.
(b) They have definite shape and volume.
(c) Solids have high density..
(d) Solids have high and sharp melting point which is depend on the strength or value of binding energy.
(f) They are very low compressible.
(g) They show very slow diffusion.
1.2 Types of Solids Solids
 
Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids
1. 2.1 Crystalline solids
(a) In this type of solids the atoms or molecule are arranged in a regular pattern in the three dimensional network.
(b) They havewell defined geometrical pattern, sharp melting point, definite heat of fusion and anisotropic nature.
(c) Anisotropic means they exhibit different physical properties in all directions.
eg. The electrical and thermal conductivities are different in different directions.
(d) They are generally incompressible. .
(e) The general examples of crystalline solids are as Quartz, diamond etc.
1.2.2 Amorphous Solids
(a) In this type of solids, the arrangement of-building constituents is not regular.
(b) They are regarded as super cooled liquids with high viscosity in which the force of attraction holding the mol-
ecules together are so great, that the material becomes rigid but there is no regularity in structure.
(c) They do not have sharp melting points.
(d) They are isotropic as they exhibit same physical properties in all the directions.
(e) The general examples of this solids are as glass, Rubber, plastics etc.
1.3 Difference between crystalline and amorphous solids

S.No Property Crystalline solids Amorphus solids

1 Shape They have definite and regular geo- They do not have definite and regular
metrical form. geometrical form.
2 Melting point They have definite melting point. They do not have definite melting point.
3 Heat of fusion They have a definite heat of fusion. They do not have definite heat of fusion
4 Compressibility They are rigid and incompressible. These may be compressed to any
appreciable extent.
5 Cutting with a They are given cleavage i.e. they They are given irregular cleavage i.e.
Sharp edged break into two pieces with plane they break into two pieces with
tool surfaces. irregular surface.

6 Isotropy and They are anisotropic. They are isotropic.

Anisotropy
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2. STUDY OF CYRSTALS
2.1 Crystal - A crystal is a homogenous portion of a solid substance made by regular pattern of structural units
bonded by plane surface making definite angles with each other.
2.2 Space lattice: - The arrangement of constituents like atom, ions and molecules in different sites in three
dimensional space is called space lattice.
2.3 Unit cell : - The smallest repeating unit in space lattice which when repeats over and over again, results in a
crystal of the given substance called unit cell.
2.4 Face:- The plane surface of the crystal are called faces.
2.5 Edge:- An edge is formed by the intersection of two adjacent faces.
2.6 Interfacial angles:- The angle between the perpendiculars two intersecting faces called interfacial angles.
3. LAWS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
3.1 The law of constancy of interfacial angle
(a) The interfacial angles for a given crystalline substance are always the same for all crystal structures of a space
lattice. This is known as law of constancy of interfacial angles.
(b) The crystal of a substance can have different shapes depending upon the number and size of the faces but the
angle at which the two adjacent faces intersect remains always constant.

(I) (II) (III)

3.2 Law of Rationality of indices

(a) According to this law the ratio between the intercepts on the axis for the different
faces of a crystal can always be expressed by rational numbers. Means the inter-
cepts of any face of plane of a crystal on suitable crystallographic axes can be
expressed by small multiples of three unit distances a, b, c or some sine integral
multiple of these unit distance i.e. ma : nb : pc.
(b) a, b, c called weiss indices.
(c) This law was given by Hally.
3.2.1 Miller indices
(a) It is a face of a crystal, which are inversely proportional to the intercepts of its face on
the various axes.
(b) Miller indices is a reciprocal of weiss indices i.e. miller indices for a plane may be
obtained from weiss indices.
(c) The distance between the parallel planes in a crystal are disignated as dhkl for different
cubic lattices these interplaner spacings are given by the following general formula
as -

a
dhkl =
h  k 2  2
2

where, a = length of the cube side & h,k,l = Miller indices of the plane
3.3 Law of constancy of Symmetry
(a) According to this law, all crystals of a substance have the same elements of symmetry.
(b) A crystal possess following three types of symmetry.
3.3.1 Plane of symmetry
It is an imaginary plane which passes through the centre of a crystal can divide it into two equal portions which
are exactly the mirror images to each other.
SOLID STATE

3.3.2 Axis of symmetry

(a) It is an imaginary line about which the crystal may be rotated so that it presents the same appearance more
than once in a complete rotation through 360º.
(b) The axes of symmetry are called diad, triad, tetrad and hexad respectively. It is the original appearance and is
repeated twice (180º), thrice (120º), four times (90º) and six times (60º) in one rotation.
(c) These axes of symmetry are also called as two fold, three fold, four fold and six fold respectively.
(d) Five fold symmetry is not found in crystals.

(e)

(i) Axis of two fold symmetry (ii) Axis of three fold symmetry

(iii) Axis of four fold symmetry (iv) Axis of six fold symmetry
3.3.3 Centre of symmetry
(a) It is a point in the crystal that any line drawn through it intersects the surface of the crystal at equal distance on
either side.
Note : Only simple cubic system have one centre of symmetry. Other system do not have centre of symmetry.
4. ELEMENTS OF SYMMETRY
(a) The total number of planes, axes and centre of symmetries possessed by a crystal is termed as elements of
symmtery.
(b) A cubic crystal possesses total 23 elements of symmetry
(i) Plane of symmetry (3 + 6) = 9
(ii) Axes of symmetry (3 + 4 + 6) = 13
(iii) Centre of symmetry [1] = 1
Total symmetry = 23
5. CRYSTAL SYSTEM
(a) On the basis of gemoetrical consideration theoritically there can be 32 different combinations of elements of
symmetry of crystal.
(b) But on the other hand Bravais showed that there are only seven types of crystal system.
These are -
(a) Cubic (b) Tetragonal (c) Orthorhombic
(d) Rhombohedral (e) Hexagonal (f) Monoclinic (g) Triclinic
(c) There are 14 Bravais lattices under seven crystal systems as follows :
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6. MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF CUBIC SYSTEM (TYPES AND ANALYSIS)

Simplest crystal system is to be studied in cubic system. Three types of cubic systems are following.
(a) Simple Cubic (SC) : Atoms are arranged at the corners of the cube.
(b) Body centered cubic (BCC) : Atoms are arranged at the corners and at the centre of the cube.
(c) Face Centred Cubic (FCC) : Atoms are arranged at the corners and at centred of the each faces.
6.1 Atomic radius
It is difined as the half of the distance between nearest neighbouring atoms in a crystal. It is expressed in terms
of length of the edge (a) of the unit cell of the crystal.
(a) Simple cubic structure (S.C.)

a
Radius of atom ‘r’ =
2

a
(b) Face centred cubic structure (FCC) ‘r’ =
2 2

3a
(c) Body centred cubic structure (BCC) ‘r’
4
a=b=c
 =  =  = 90º

6.2 Number of atoms per unit cell I unit cell contents

The total number of atoms contained with in the unit cell for a simple cubic called the unit cell content.
SOLID STATE

(a) Simple cubic structure (sc)

 Each corner atom is shared by eight surrounding cubes. Therefore, it contributes

1
for of an atom.
8

1
z=8x =1
8
(b) Face centered cubic structure (fcc)

1
(i) The eight corners atoms contribute for of an atom and thus one atom per unit cell.
8
(ii) Each of six face centred atoms is shared by two adjacent unit cells and therefore one face centred atom
contribute half of its share. Means.

1
6x = 3 atom per unit cell.
2
(iii) So, total Z = 3 + 1 = 4 atoms per unit cell.
(c) Body centred cubic structure (bcc)
(i) Eight corner atoms contribute one atom per unit cell.
(ii) Centre atom contribute one atom per unit cell.
(iii) So total 1 + 1 = 2 atoms per unit cell.

1
Z=8x +1=2
8
Number of Atoms in Unit Cell
It can be determined by the simplest relation

nc nf ni
= + +
8 2 1
where nc = number of atoms at the corners of the cube = 8
nf = number of atoms at six faces of the cube = 6
ni = number of atoms inside the cube = 1

Cubic unit cell nc nf ni Total atom in

per unit cell

1. Simple cubic 8 0 0 1
2. Body centered cubic 8 0 1 2
3. Face centered cubic 8 6 0 4

6.3 Co-ordination number (C.N.)

(a) It is defined as the number of nearest neighbours or touching particles with other particle present in a crystal
is called its co-ordination number.
(b) It depends upon structure of the crystal.
(c) For simple cubic system CN = 6.
(d) For bcc CN = 8.
(e) For fcc CN = 12.
6.4 Density of lattice matter
(a) It is defined as the ratio of mass per’unit cell to the total volume of unit cell.

mass per unit cell Z  At. wt.

(b) Density of lattice matter = volume of unit cell = N  volume of unit cell
 SOLID STATE

Where Z is the number of atoms per unit cell and N is the Avogadro number.
6.5 Packing fraction (P.F.)
It is defined as ratio of the volume of the unit cell that is occupied by spheres of the unit cell to the total volume
of the unit cell.
(a) Simple cubic unit cell
Let the radius of atom in packing = r
Atoms are present at the corner of the cube, each of the eight atom present at the eight corners shared amongst
eight unit cells.

1
Hence number of atoms per unit cell = 8 x =1
8
a
again r =
2
4 3
r
3
therefore, P.F. = = 0.52 % P.F. = 52%
(2r)3
% of void = 100 – 52 = 48%
(b) Body centred cubic unit cell

1
Number of atoms per unit cell = 8 x +1=2
8

3a
r=
4

4 3
2 r
3
P.F. = 3 = 0.68
 4r 
 
 3

% P.F. = 68%
% of void = 100 – 68 = 32%
(c) Face centered cubic unit cell
Number of atoms per unit cell = 4
2a
r=
4
4
4  r 3
3
P.F. = 3 = 0.74 %P.F. = 74% % of void = 100 – 74 = 26%
 4r 
 
 2

7. IONIC RADII
X-ray diffraction or electron diffraction technique provides the necessary information regarding unit cell. From the
dimensions of the unit cell, it is possible to calculate ionic radii.
Let, Cube of edge length ‘a’ having cation and anions say NaCl structure
Then
rc + ra = a/2
Where rc and ra are radius of cation and anion.

(a / 2)2  (a / 2)2 a
Radius of Cl– = =
2 4
SOLID STATE

For body centered lattice say CsCl.

3a
rc + ra =
2
Limiting Radius Ratios and Structure
Limiting radius ratio C.N. Shape
(r+) / (r–)
< 0.155 2 Linear
0.155 – 0.225 3 Planar triangle
0.225 – 0.414 4 Tetrahedral
0.414–0.732 4 Square planar
0.414 – 0.732 6 Octahedral
0.732 - 0.999 8 Body - centered cubic or cubical viod.

8 CLASSIFICATION OF CRYSTALS
According to attractive force which hold crystal together are generally of five types and thus crystal can be
classified into five types:
8.1 Ionic Crystals
(a) The lattices in ionic crystal consists of alternative positive and negative ions in equivalent amount arranged in an
order so that the potential energy of the ions in the lattice is minimum.
(b) Such crystal are normally found in ionic compound.
eg NaCI  Na+ + CI
8.2 Covalent Crystals
(a) In covalent crystals, atoms attheir lattice point are held together by shared pairs of electrons between them.
(b) The covalent bonding extends through out the crystals in spatial direction and has no small molecules in the
conventional sense.
eg. Diamond, Graphite.
8.3 Molecular Crystals
(a) In molecular crystals, the repeating unit is chemically identifiable atoms or molecules which do not carry a net
charge.
(b) Molecular bonds are formed for those elements or compounds whose electronic configuration is such that there
is little transfer of electrons between their atoms.
eg. Noble gases.
(c) The molecules having H-atom attached on N, O or F give hydrogen bonding crystals. The existence of H-bonding
in the crystal lattice is beyond doubt.
eg. Ice Crystal etc.
8.4 Metallic Crystals
In metallic crystals, the lattice consists of assemblage of positive ions immersed in a sea of mobile electrons.
The binding force is due to -
(a) Attraction between positive ions or ion cores of the metal and electron cloud.
{b) The mutual repulsion of free electrons.
(c) The mutual repulsion of ion cores.

9. PACKING OF CONSTITUENTS IN CRYSTALS

It is of two types
9.1 Close packing in two dimensions
The two possible arrangements of close packing in two dimensions.
9.1.1 Square close packing
In which the spheres in the adjacent row lie just one over the other and show a
horizontal as well as vertical alignment and form square. Each sphere in this arrange-
ment is in contact with four other spheres.
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9.1.2 Hexagonal close packing

In which the spheres in every second row are seated in the depression between the
spheres of first row. The spheres in the third row are vertically aligned with spheres in
first row. The similar pattern is noticed throughout the crystal structure.

Comparison between Hexagonal Close Packing and Square Close Packing

1. Hexagonal close packing is more dense than square close packing.
2. In hexagonal close packing about 60.4% of available space is occupied by spheres. Whereas, square
close packing occupies only 52.4% of the space by spheres.
3. In square close packing the vacant spaces (voids) are between four touching spheres, whose centres lie
at the corners of a square are called square voids. While in hexagonal close packing the vacant spaces
(voids) are between three touching spheres, whose centres lie at the corners of an equilateral triangle are
called triangular voids.

9.2 Close packing in three dimensions

There are also two different ways to arrange spheres in three dimensional close packing.
9.2.1 Hexagonal close packing
To arrange the spheres vertically above those in the first layer so that each sphere of the third layer lies strictly
above a sphere of the first layer. This arrangement if continued indefinitely in the same sequence is represented
as AB AB AB .............

The arrangement is found to represent hexagonal close packing (hcp) symmetry which means that whole
structure possesses one six fold of symmetry,
9.2.2 Cubic close packing
To arrange the spheres on the other set of hollows marked B. In this way the spheres in fourth layer will
correspond with those in the first layer. This arrangement, If continued . indefinitely in the same
sequence,isrepresentedas ABC, ABC ABC , This arrangement possesses cubic close packing (CCP).

9.2.3 Body centred cubjc arrangement

This structure will be obtained-if the spheres in first layer (marked A) of cubic closed packing are slightly opened
up and thus none of these is in contact with each other.
One can put the second layer of the spheres (marked B) on the top of the first layer in such a way that each
sphere of the second layer is in contact with four spheres of the layer below it.
SOLID STATE

(A) (B)

10. IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLID

Any deviation from the perfectly ordered arrangement constitutes a defect or imperfection. These defects sometimes
called thermodynamic defects because the number of these defects depends on the temperature. Crystals may
also possess additional defect due to the presence of impurities. Imperfection not only modify the properties of
solids but also give rise to new properties.

10.1 Electronic imperfection

Generally, electrons are present in fully occupied lowest energy states. But at. high temperatures, some of the
electrons may occupy higher energy state depending upon the temperature.
For example, in the crystals of pure Si or Ge some electrons are released thermally from the covalent bonds at
temperature above 0 K. These electrons are free to move in the crystal and are responsible for electrical conductivity.
This type of conduction is known as intrinsic conduction.
The electron deficient bond forrned by the release of an electron is called a hole. In the presence of electric field
the positive holes move in a direction opposite to that of the electrons and conduct. electricity.
10.2 Atomic imperfection
The compounds in which the number of irregularity present in the arrangement of atoms or ions are called-
atomic imperfections. It is of two types -
10.2.1. Stoichiometric Defects
Those compounds in which the number of positive and negative ions are exactly in the ratio indicated by their
chemical formula are called stoichiometric compounds. eg NaCI (1 : 1)
These solids show following types of defects: .
(a) Schottky defect
This type of defect is created when same number of positive ion and negative ion are missing from their respective
positions leaVing behind a pair of holes. Schottky defect is more common in ionic compounds with high co-
ordination number and where the size of positive and negative ions are almost equal. The presence of large
number of schottky defects in crystal results in significant decrease in its density.
Eg. NaCl, KCI, CsCl, KBr etc.

(b) Interstitial Defect

This type of defect is caused due to the presence of ions in the normally vacant interstitial sites in the crystal.
(c) Frenkel Defect
This type of defect is created when an ion leaves its correct lattice site and occupies an interstitial site. Frenkel
defects are common in ionic compounds which have low co-ordination number and in which there is large
difference in size between positive ahd negative ions. Eg. ZnS, AgCI, AgBr, Ag etc.
 SOLID STATE

10.2.2 Non Stoichiometric Defect Frenkel Defect

There are many compound in which the ratio of positive and negative ions present in the compound differs from
that required by ideal formula of the compound. Such compounds are called Nonstoichiometric compounds.
eg. VOx (Where x can vary between 0.6 to 1.3.)
In these compounds balance of positive and negative charges is maintained by having extra electrons or extra
positive charge.
So, these defects are of following types:
(a) Metal excess defects due to anion vacancies
A compound may have excess metal ion if a negative ion is absent from
its lattice site, leaving a hole which is occupied by electron to maintain
electrical neutrality.
The holes occupied by electrons are called F-centres and are responsible
for the colour of the compound.
Eg.
 The excess sodium in NaCI makes the crystal appears yellow.
 Excess potassium in KCI makes it voilet.
 Excess lithium in LiCI makes it Pink.
Greater the number of F-centres greater is the intensity of colour. This type of defects are found in crystal which
are likely to possess schottky Defects.

(b) Metal excess defects due to interstitial cations

It may occur if an extra positive ion is present in an interstitial site. Electrically
neutrality is maintained by the presence of an electron in the interstitial site.
This type of defects are exhibited by the crystals which are likely to exhibit “Frenkel
defects”. Eg. Yellow colour of ZnS.

(c) Metal deficiency due to cation vacancies

The non-stoichiometric compound may have metal deficiency due to the

absence of a metal ion from its lattice site. The charge is balanced by an
adjacent ion having higher positive charge.
This type of defects are generally shown by compounds of transition metals.

11. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD OF DETRMINING CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Crystal structure has been obtained by studying on the diffraction of X-rays by solids. A crystal, having constituents
particles arranged in planes at very small distances in three dimension array, acts as diffraCtion grating for X -
rays which have wavelengths of the same order as the spacing in crystal.
Thus X - ray diffraction results from the scattering of X - rays by a regular arrangement of atoms or ions.
SOLID STATE

When a beam of X-rays passes through a crystalline solid, each atom in the beam scatters some of the
radiations. If waves are on same phase means if their peak and through coincides they add together to give a
wave of greater amplitude. This enhancement of intensity of called constructive interference.
If waves are out of phase, they cancel. This cancellation is called destructive interference.

11.1 Bragg’s Law

X-rays are electromagnetic waves of short wavelength and may be
diffracted by suitable diffracting centres.
In solid crystals, atoms are arranged in fairly regular pattern with
interatomic gaps of the order of 0.1 nm. Common salt is an example of
a crystalline solid. Almost all the metals at ordinary temperature are
crystalline. These metals may act as a natural three-dimensional gratings
for the diffraction of X-rays.
The structure of a solid can be showed as a series of parallel planes of atoms separated by a distance d.
Suppose, an X-ray beam is incident of a solid, making an angle  with the planes of the atoms. These X-ray are
diffracted by different atoms and the interference is constructive and we are obtained strong reflected X-ray. The
analysis show that there will be a strong reflected X-ray beam only if
2d sin  = n
 SOLID STATE

Where ‘n’ is an integer. For monochromatic X-rays is fixed and there are some specific angle 1, 2, 3 ...... etc.
corresponding to n = 1, 2, 3 .......... etc, in the above equation. Thus, if the X-rays are incident at one of these,
they are reflected ; otherwise they are absorbed. When they are reflected, the laws of reflection are obeyed i.e.
(a) the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection and
(b) the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting plane are coplanar.
By using a monochromatic X-ray beam and nothing the angles of strong reflection, the interplaner spacing d and
several informations about the structure of the solid can be obtained.

PRO PERTIES OF SOL IDS

1. Electrical properties of solids :

On the basis of electrical conductivity, solids are classified into three types.
i. metals ii. semi-conductors iii. insulators
Electrical conductivity of metals is very high and is of the order of 106 – 108 ohm –1 cm –1.
Electrical conductivity of solids is due to the movement of electrons and positive holes or through the motion of
ions.
The conduction through electrons is called n-type conduction and through positive ions is called p-type
conduction.
Pure ionic solids, where conduction takes place only through motion of ions, are insulators.
The presence of defects in the crystal structure increases their conductivity.
The solids whose conductivity lies between those of metallic conductors and insulators are called semiconduc-
tors.
Semi - conductors have conductivity which lies in the range of 102 – 10–9 ohm –1 cm –1.
The solids which do not allow the.passage.of electric current through them are called insulators.
Eg: Wood, rubber, sulphur, phosphorus etc..
The conductivity of semi conductors and insulators. is mainly due to the presence of interstial electrons and
positive holes in the solids due 10 imperfections.
The conductivity of semi conductors and insulators increases with increase in temperature while that of metals
decreases.
2. Magnetic properties of solids :
The substances which are weakly repelled by magnetic field are called diamagnetic substances.
Eg : TiO2, NaCI, benzene etc..
Diamagnetism arises when all the electrons are-paiTed.
The substances which are weakly attracted by magnetic field are called paramagnetic substances.
Atoms,-ions or molecules with unpaired electrons exhibit paramagnetism.
Paramagnetic substances lose their magnetism in the absence of magnetic field.
Eg : TiO, VO2' CuO etc.
The substances which are strongly attracted by magnetic field are called ferromagnetic substances.
Ferromagnetic substances show permanent magnetism even in the absence of magnetic field.
Eg : Iron, cobalt, nickel, CrO2 etc.
Ferromagnetism arises due to spontoneous alignment of magnetic moments in the same direction.
Anti ferromagnetism arises due to the alignment- of magnetic moments in opposite direction in a compensatory
manner and resulting in a zero magnetic moment.
Eg : MnO, MnO2, Mn2O3.
Ferrimagnetism arises due to alignment of magnetic moments in opposite directions resulting in a net magnetic
moment.
Eg : Fe3O4, M2+Fe2O4 ; (M = Mg, Cu, Zn etc.)
Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic substances change into paramagnetic substances at higher temperatures
due to randomisation of spins.
3. Dielectric Properties :
A dielectric is a substance in which an electric field gives rise to no net flow of electric charge. The electrons in
a dielectric are tightly held by individual atoms.
SOLID STATE

Due to shift in charges, dipoles are created which result into polarisation.
The dipoles may align in an ordered manner such that there is some resultant dipole moment in the crystals.
The dipoles may align in such a way that the dipole moments cancel each other and resultant dipole moment is
zero.
There may be no dipoles in the crystal but only ions are present.
Depending upon the alignment of the dipoles, the properties of crystals are:
i. Piezoelectricity ii. Ferroelectricity iii. Anti-ferroelectricity iv. Pyroelectricity
i. Piezoelectricity :
The crystals in which the dipoles may align in an ordered way having some dipole are referred to as piezoelectrics
and such crystals exhibit piezoelectricity.
Piezoelectric crystals act as mechanical-electrical transducers.
When these crystals are subjected to a pressure or mechanical stress, electricity is produced. These crystals
are used as pickups in record players by the application of pressure.
ii. Ferroelectricity :
The solids, in which dipoles are spontaneously aligned in a particular direction, even in the absence of electric
field, are called ferroelectric substances and the phenomenon is called ferroelectricity.
The direction of polarisation in these substances can be changed by applying electric field.
The examples are barium titanate (Ba TiO3), sodium potassium tartrate (Rochelle salt) and potassium dihydrogen
phosphate (KH2PO4).
iii. Anti-ferroelectricity :
If the alternate dipoles are in opposite direction, then the net dipole moment will be zero and the crystal is called
anti-ferroelectric and the phenomenon is antiferroelectricity.
iv. Pyroelectricity :
Some of the polar crystals when heated produce small electric current. This phenomenon is called pyroelec-
tricity.

SUPER CON DU CTIN G MATERIAL S

 Super conducting materials are those which offer no resistance tothe passage of electricity. Electrical resis-
tance decreases with decrease in temperature and becomes almost zero near the absolute zero.
 In this state, the materials become’ diamagnetic and are repelled by- the magnets.
 Most metals become super conducting at very 10w temperatures (2-5K).
 The highest temperature at which superconductivity was known is 23K in alloys of niobium (Eg.Nb3 Ge).
 Some organic compounds also become super conducting at temperatures below 5 K.
 Some complex metal oxides passess super conductivity at higher temperatures.
Super conductors are used in electronics, building magnets, power transmission, levitation transportation, (trains
which move in air without rails).
 SOLID STATE

SOLVED EXAMPLE
Ex.1 Calculate the distance between 111 planes in a crystal of Ca. Repeat the calculation for the 222 planes. (a =
0.556nm)
Sol. We have,

a
d=
h  k 2  2
2

0.556
d111 = = 0.321 nm
1  12  12
2

0.556
and d222 = = 0.161 nm
2  22  22
2

The separation of the 111 planes is twice as great as that of the 222 planes.
Ex.2 Fraction of total volume occupied by atoms in a simple cube is -

 3 2 
[1] [2] [3] [4]
2 2 6 6
Sol. In a simple cubic system, number of atoms
a = 2r

Volume occupied by one atom

 Packing fraction = Volume of unit cell

4 3 4 3
r r
3 3 
= 3 = =
a (2r)3 6

Ex.3 In a crystal both ions are missing from normal sites in equal number. This is an example of -
[1] F-centres [2] Interstitial defect
[3] Frenkel defect [4] Schottky defect
Sol. Schottky defects are arised when one positive ion and one negative ion are missing from their respective
position leaving behind a pair of holes. These are more common in ionic compounds with high coordination
number and having almost similar size of cations and anions.
Ex.4 Xenon crystallizes in face centre cubic lattice and the edge of the unit cell is 620 PM, then the radius of Xenon
atom is -
[1] 219.20 PM [2] 438.5 PM [3] 265.5 PM [4] 536.94 PM
Sol. For fcc lattice
4r = 2a where a = 620 PM

1 1
or r= xa= x 620 PM = 219.20 PM.
2 2 2 2
Ex.5 The edge length of cube is 400 PM. Its body diagonal would be -
[1] 500 PM [2] 693 PM [3] 600 PM [4] 566 PM
Sol. Since in body centre cubic, the body diagonal
= 3a
= 3 x 400 PM
= 692.82 PM or say 693 PM
SOLID STATE

Ex.6 What is the simplest forkuma of a solid whose cubic unit cell has the atom A at each corner, the atom B at each
face centre and C atom at the body centre
[1] AB2C [2] A2BC [3] AB3C [4] ABC3
Sol. An atom at the corner of a cube is shared among 8 unit cells. As there are 8 corners in a cube, number of corner

1
atom [1] per unit cell = 8 x = 1.
8
A face-centred atom in a cube is shared by two unit cellls. As there are 6 faces in a cube, number of face-

1
centred atoms [2] per unit cell = 6 x = 3.
2
An atom in the body of the cube is not shared by other cells.
 Number of atoms [3] at the body centre per unit cell = 1
Hence, the formula of the solid is AB3C.
Ex.7 A compound alloy of glod and copper crystallizes in a cube lattice in which the gold atoms occupy the lattice
points at the coruers of cube and copper atoms occupy the centres of each of the cube faces. The formula of this
compound is -
[1] AuCu [2] AuCu2 [3] AuCu3 [4] None
Sol. One-eighth of each corner atom (Au) and one half of each face centered atom (Cu) are contained with in the unit
cell of the compound.

1
Thus, the number of Au atoms per unit cell = 8 x = 1 and
8

1
the number of Cu atoms per unit cell = 6 x = 3. The formula of the compound is AuCu3.
2
Ex.8 Lithium borohydride (LiBH4), crystallises in a orthorhombic system with 4 molecules per unit cell. The unit cell
dimensions are : a = 6.81 Å, b = 4.43 Å, c = 717Å. If the molar mass of LiBH4 is 21.76 g mol–1. The density of
the crystal is -
[1] .668 g cm –3 [2] .585 g cm 2 [3] 1.23 g cm –3 [4] None
Sol. We know that,
ZM 4  (21.76gmol1 )
= =
NV (6.023 1023 mol1 )(6.81 4.43  7.17 1024 cm3 )
= 0.668g cm –3
Ex.9 The unit cell of a metallic element of atomic mass 108 and density 10.5 g/cm 2 is a cube with edge length of 409
PM. The structure of the crystal lattice is -
[1] fcc [2] bcc [3] hcp [4] None
Z M
Sol. =
N  a3
Here, M = 108, NA = 6.023 x 1023
Put on these values and solving we get -
a = 409 PM = 4.09 x 10–8cm,  = 10.5 g/cm 2
n = 4 = number of atoms per unit cell
So, The structure of the crystal lattice is fcc.
Ex.10 Copper metal has a face-centred cubic structure with the unit cell length equal 0.361 nm. Picturing copper ions
in contact along the face diagonal. The apparent radius of a copper ion is -
[1] 0.128 [2] 1.42 [3] 3.22 [4] 4.22
Sol. For a face-centred cube, we have

2a 2  0.361
Radius = = nm = 0.128.
4 4
 SOLID STATE

EXERCISE-1
Q.1 How many number of atoms are there in a cube based unit cell having one atom on each corner and two atoms
on each body diagonal of cube
[1] 8 [2] 6 [3] 4 [4] 9
Q.2 Each unit cell of NaCI consists of 13 chlorine atoms and
[1] 13 Na atoms [2] 14 Na atoms [3] 6 Na atoms [4] 8 Na atoms
Q.3 A crystal may have one or more planes and one or more axes of symmetry but it has
[1] Two centre of symmetry [2] One centre of symmetry
[3] No centre of symmetry [4] None ofthese
Q.4 An alloy of copper, silver and gold is found to have copper constituting the C.C.P. lattice. If silver atoms occupy
the edge centres and gold is present at body centre, the alloy has a formula
[1] Cu4Ag2Au [2] Cu4Ag4Au [3] Cu4Ag3Au [4] CuAgAu
Q.5 Ice belongs to which of the following structures -
[1] Cubic [2] Hexagonal [3] Orthorhombic [4] Tetragonal
Q.6 A crystal plane intercepts the three crystallographic axes at the multiples of the unit distances 3/2, 2 and 1. The
miller indices are
[1] 123 [2] 321 [3] 436 [4] 643
Q.7 The density of KBr is 2.75 gm cm –3. Length of the unit cell is 654 pm. K = 39, Br = 80. Then what is true about
the predicted nature of the solid
[1] Solid has face centred cubic system with Z = 4.
[2] Solid has simple cubic system with Z = 4.
[3] Solid has face centred cubic system with Z = 1
[4] Solid has body centred cubic system with Z = 2
Q.8 The number of atoms/molecules contained in one face centred cubic unit cell of a mono atomic substance is -
[1] 1 [2] 2 [3] 4 [4] 6
Q.9 The structure of sodium chloride crystal is
[1] Body centred cubic lattice [2] Face centred cubic lattice
[3] Octahedral [4] Square planar
Q.10 A binary solid (A+ B–)
has a zinc blende structure with B– ions constituting the lattice and A+ ions occupying
25% tetrahedral holes. The formula of solid is
[1] AB [2] A2B [3] AB2 [4] AB4
Q.11 The available space occupied by spheres of equal size in three dimensions in both hcp and ccp arrangements
is :
[1] 74% [2] 70% [3] 60.4% [4] 52.4%
Q.12 In cubic close packing (ccp) arrangement, the pattern of the successive layers will be designed as :
[1] AB, AB, AB... etc [2] AB, ABC, AB... etc
[3] ABC, ABC, ABC... etc [4] None of these
Q.13 Cubic close packing arrangement is called :
[1] Hexagonal close packing [2] Face centred cubic
[3] Body centred cubic [4] None
Q.14 In a body centred cubic cell, the atom in the body is shared with :
[1] One unit cell [2] Two unit cell [3] Three unit cell [4] Four unit cell
Q.15 In a solid lattice a cation has left a lattice site and is located at an intertitial position. The lattice defect is :
[1] Interstitial defect [2] Vacancy defect
[3] Frenkel defect [4] Schottky defect
SOLID STATE

Q.16 Potassium crystallizes in a bcc lattice, hence the co-ordination number of potassium in potassium metal is :
[1] 0 [2] 4 [3] 6 [4] 8
Q.17 A packing of 8 : 8 co-ordination crystal is present in the compound :
[1] NaCl [2] KCl [3] CsCl [4] MgF2
Q.18 The number of atoms in 100 gm –3
of an FCC crystal with density d= 10 gm cm and cell edge as 200 pm is equal
to:
[1] 3 × 1025 [2] 5 × 1024 [3] 1 × 1025 [4] 2 × 1025
Q.19 An element has bcc structure having unit cells 12.08 × 1023. The number of atoms in these cell is :
[1] 12.08 × 1023 [2] 24.16 × 1023 [3] 48.38 × 1023 [4] 12.08 × 1022
Q.20 The percentage of the volume occupied in three dimensional space for the simpcubic, bcc and fcc lattices
respectively will be :
[1] 52%, 68%, 74% [2] 74%, 68%, 52% [3] 68%, 52%, 74% [4] 52%, 74%, 68%
Q.21 A certain metal crystallises in a simple cubic structure. At a certain temperature, it arranges to give a body
centred structure. In this transition, the density of the metal
[1] Decreases [2] Increases
[3] Remain unchanged [4] Changes without a definite pattern
Q.22 In a face centred cubic arrangement of A & B atoms whose A atoms are at the corner of the unit cell & B atoms
at the face centres. One of the A atom is missing from one corner in unit cell. The simplest formula of compound
is
[1] A7B3 [2] AB3 [3] A7B24 [4] A7/8 B3
Q.23 Which of the following ,is not the property of solids
[1] Solids are always crystalline in nature [2] Solids have good density and less compressibility
[3] Solids diffuse very slowly [4] The volume of solids is fixed
Q.24 Crystals have vacant sites or defects in them. When light strikes a photographic AgBr paper, silver atoms move
in through these defects to -
[1] Form -ve images [2] Form tiny clumps of silver atoms
[3] Form a colour image [4] None ofthese .
Q.25 A solid has a B. C. C. structure. If the distance of closest approach between the two atoms is 1.73 Å. The edge
length of the cell is

3
[1] 200 pm [2] pm [3] 142.2 pm [4] 2 pm
2
Q.26 In a close packed array of N spheres, the number of tetrahedral holes are

N
[1] [2] 4N [3] 2N [4] N
2
Q.27 In a face centred cubic cell, an atom at the face centre is shared by
[1] 4 unit cells [2] 2 unit cells [3] 1 unit cell [4] 6 unit cells
Q.28 A solid XY has NaCI structure. If radius of X+ is 100 pm. What is the radius. of Y– ion
[1] 120pm [2] 136.6 to 241.6pm [3] 280pm [4] Unpredictable
Q.29 Of the five H values required to calculate a lattice energy using the Born - Haber cycle, the one that is most
difficult to measure is
[1] The electron affinity of the non - metal
[2] The heat of formation of gaseous atoms of the non-metal
[3] The ionisation energy of the metal
[4] The heat of sublimation of metal
 SOLID STATE

Q.30 How many atoms are there in a unit cell of Mg which forms hexagonal crystals, there being a facecentred atom
in each end of the unit cell and 3 completely enclosed atoms within the unit cell
[1] 4 [2] 6 [3] 12 [4] 8
Q.31 Na2SeO4 and Na2SO4 are
[1] Isomorphous [2] Polymorphs [3] Alloys [4] Ferromagnetic
Q.32 Most crystals show good cleavage because their atoms, ions or molecules are
[1] Weakly bonded together [2] Strongly bonded together
[3] Spherically symmetrical [4] Arranged in planes
Q.33 A solid is made of two elements X and Z. The atoms Z are in C.C.P. arrangement while atoms X occupy all the
tetrahedral sites. What is the formula of the compound
[1] XZ [2] XZ2 [3] X2Z [4] Unpredictable
Q.34 Close packing is maximum in the crystal
[1] Simple cubic [2] Face centred [3] Body centred [4] None ofthese
Q.35 The vacant space in B.C.C. unit cell is
[1] 32% [2] 10% [3] 23% [4]46%
Q.36 ZnS is
[1] Ionic crystal [2] Covalent crystal [3] Metallic crystal [4] Vander Waals’ crystal
Q.37 LiF is a/an
[1] Ionic crystal [2] Metallic crystal [3] Covalent crystal [4] Molecular crystal
Q.38 A compound CuCI has face centred cubic structure. Its density is 3.4 g cm –3. The length of unit cell is.
[1] 5.783 Aº [2] 6.783 Aº [3] 7.783 Aº [4] 8.783 Aº
Q.39 A crystal of Fe3O4 is
[1] Paramagnetic [2] Diamagnetic [3] Ferromagnetic [4] None
Q.40 A cubic crystal possesses in all ......... elements of symmetry
[1] 9 [2] 13 [3] 1 [4] 23
Q.41 The density of KCI is 1.9893 g cm –3 and the length of a side unit cell is 6.29082 A as determined by X-Rays
diffraction. The value of avogadro’s-number calculated from these data is
[1] 6.017x 1023 [2] 6.023 x 1023 [3] 6.03 x 1023 [4] 6.017 x 1019
Q.42 The structure of sodium chloride crystal is
[1] Body centred cubic lattice [2] Face centred cubic lattice
[3] Octahedral [4] Square planar
Q.43 A solid having no definite shape is called
[1] Amorphous solid [2] Crystalline solid
[3] Anisotropic solid [4] None
Q.44 The unit cell cube length for LiCI (just like NaCI structure) is 5.14 A. Assuming anion-anion contact, the ionic
radius for chloride ion is
[1] 1.815Aº [2] 2.8Aº [3] 3.8Aº [4] 4.815Aº
Q.45 Frenkel defect is noticed in
[1] AgBr [2] ZnS [3] AgI [4] All
Q.46 Extremely pure samples of Ge and Si are non-conductors, but their conductivity increases suddenly on intro-
ducing ..............in their crystal lattice
[1] As [2] B [3] Both [1] and [2] [4] None
Q.47 At room temperature, ‘sodium crystallizes in a body centred cubic lattice with a = 4.24 A. The theoretical
density of sodium (At wt. of Na = 23) is
[1] 1.002 g cm –3 [2] 2.002 g cm –3 [3] 3.002 g cm –3 [4] None
SOLID STATE

Q.48 Schottky defect is noticed in

[1] NaCI [2] KCI [3] CsCI [4] All
Q.49 The resistance of mercury becomes almost zero at
[1] 4K [2] 10K [3] 20K [4] 25 K
Q.50 In a body centred cubic cell an atom at the body of centre is shared by
[1] 1 unit cell [2] 4 unit cells [3] 3 unit cells [4] 2 unit cells
Q.51 High thermal conductivity of metals is due to transfer of heat through
[1] Molecular collisions [2] Electronic collisions
[3] Atomic collisions [4] All
Q.52 In a simple cubic cell, each atom on a corner is shared by
[1] 2 unit cells [2] One unit cell [3] 8 unit cells [4] 4 unit cells
Q.53 The mass of a unit cell of CsCI corresponds to
[1] 8Cs+ and ICI– [2] ICs+ and 6CI– [3] ICs+ and ICI– [4] 4Cs+ and 4CI–
Q.54 Maximum ferromagnetism is found in
[1] Fe [2] Ni [3] Co [4] None
Q.55 The co-ordination number of a body centred atom is
[1] 4 [2] 6 [3] 8 [4] 12
Q.56 Which is ferromagnetic
[1] Ni [2] Co [3] CrO3 [4] All
Q.57 In a face centred cubic lattice the number of nearest neighbour for a given lattice point are
[1] 6 [2] 8 [3] 12 [4] 14
Q.58 The substance which possesses zero resistance as 0 K
[1] Conductor [2] Super conductor [3] Insulator [4] Semiconductor
Q.59 Close packing is maximum in the crystal lattice of
[1] Simple cubic [2] Face centred [3] Body centred [4] None
Q.60 The oxide which shows transition from metal to insulation, i.e. semiconductor are
[1]V2O3 [2] VO2 [3] Ti2O3 [4] All
Q.61 Which is/are amorphous solids-
[1] Rubber [2] Plastics [3] Glass [4] All
Q.62 The structure of MgO is similar to NaCI: The co-ordination number of Mg is
[1] 2 [2] 6 [3] 4 [4] 8
Q.63 In bcc structure the space occupied by hard sphere is :
[1] 50% [2] 68% [3] 74% [4] 56%
Q.64 An ionic solid A+B– has structure similar to Na+Cl–. If the radius of A+ is 100 pm. what will be the radius of B–
[1] 120 pm [2] 136.6–241.6 pm [3] 280 pm [4] Indefinite
Q.65 The atomic mass of an element having bcc structure is 100 gm/mol. The length of the edge of unit cell is 400 pm.
The density of the element is :
[1] 10.38 gm/cm 3 [2] 5.19 gm/cm 3 [3] 7.29 gm/cm 3 [4] 2.14 gm/cm 3
Q.66 Which will have the highest lattice energy :
[1] LiBr [2] LiCl [3] LiI [4] LiF
Q.67 X+Y– ionic compound keeps bcc structure. The distance between two nearest ions is 1.73 Å. What would be
edge length of the unit cell ?

3
[1] 200 pm [2] pm [3] 142.2 pm [4] 2 pm
2
 SOLID STATE

Q.68 The structure of ionic compound A+B– is identical to NaCl. If the edge length is 400 pm and the cation radius is
75 pm. Then evalute the radius of anion :
[1] 100 pm [2] 125 pm [3] 250 pm [4] 325 pm
Q.69 CsBr possesses bcc structure. The ege length of the unit cell is 400 pm. Find out the interionic distance :
[1] 346.4 pm [2] 200 pm [3] 300 pm [4] 100 pm
Q.70 For bcc structure, packing fraction and co-ordination number would be respectively :

 3  2  2
[1] 8, [2] 6, [3] 8, [4] None
8 6 6
Q.71 d111 plane of a unit cell makes intercepts on the axes :
[1] Only x axis [2] Only y axis [3] Only z axis [4] All the three axes
Q.72 A compound formed by elements A and B crystallizes in cubic structure where A atoms are at the corners of a
cube and B atoms are at the face centre. The formula of the compound is :
[1] AB3 [2] AB4 [3] AB2 [4] A2B3
Q.73 The internal resistance to the flow of the liquid is called its
[1] Viscosity [2] Surface tension [3] Parachore value [4] Refractive index
Q.74 A solid X melts slightly above 273K and is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. To which of the following
categories does it belong -
[1] Ionic solid [2] Covalent solid [3] Metallic [4] Molecular
Q.75 A drop of liquid acquires spherical shape
[1] Because of its viscous nature
[2] Because of capillary action
[3] Because surface tension tends to minimise the surface area
[4] Because of all the aforesaid reasons
Q.76 In a crystal, the atoms are located at the position of -
[1] Zero P.E. [2] Infinite P.E. [3] Minimum P.E. [4] Maximum P.E.
Q.77 Which one is called pseudo solid
[1]CaF2 [2] Glass [3] NaCI [4] All
Q.78 Graphite is an example of
[1] Ionic solid [2] Covalent solid [3] Vanderwaal’s crystal [4] Metallic crystal
Q.79 The oxide that is insulator is
[1] VO [2] CoO [3] ReO3 [4] Ti2O3
Q.80 Amorphous solids - .
[1] Possess sharp melting points
[2] Undergo clean cleavage when cut withknife
[3] Do not undergo clean cleavage when cut with knife
[4] Possess orderly arrangement over long distances
Q.81 Capillary action of the liquid can be explained on the basis of its
[1] Resistance to flow [2] Surface tension
[3] Heat ofvaporisation [4] Refractive index
Q.82 Wax is an example of
[1] Ionic crystal [2] Covalent crystal [3] Molecular crystal [4] Metallic crystal
Q.83 Crystals which are good conductor of electricity and heat are known as
[1] Ionic crystals [2] Covalence crystals [3] Metallic crystals [4] Molecular crystals
SOLID STATE

Q.84 Iodine crystals are

[1] Metallic solid [2] Ionic solid [3] Molecular solid [4] Covalent solid
Q.85 The amount of heat required to change one gram of a liquid to into its vapours at the boiling point is called
[1] Enthalpy of vaporization [2] Heat of vaporization
[3] Latent heat of vaporization [4] All the above
Q.86 During evaporation of liquid
[1] The temperature of the liquid rises
[2] The temperature of the liquid falls
[3] The temperature ofthe liquid remains unaffected
[4] None ofthe above is correct
Q.87 Out of the four liquids given below, the one having lowest vapour pressure at 25° C is
[1] Carbon tetrachloride [2] Benzene
[3] Chloroform [4] Water
Q.88 Which among the following will show an isotropy
[1] Glass [2] Barium chloride [3] Wood [4] Paper
Q.89 Ionic salts on dissolution in a solvent shows
[1] A decrease in the viscosity of the liquid [2] An increase in the viscosity of the liquid
[3] No affect on the viscosity of the liquid [4] None
Q.90 The elements of symmetry in a crystal are
[1] Plane of symmetry [2] Axis of symmetry
[3] Centre of symmetry [4] All
Q.91 A crystal may have one or more planes and one or more axes of symmetry but it possesses
[1] Two centres of symmetry [2] One centre of symmetry
[3] No centre of symmetry [4] None
Q.92 For tetrahedral co-ordination the radius ratio (r+ r –) should be
[1]. 0.414 - 0.732 [2] > 0.732 [3] 0.156 - 0.225 [4] 0.225 - 0.414
Q.93 TiO2 is well known exa,mple of
[1] Triclinic system [2] Tetragonal system
[3] Monoclinic system [4] None
Q.94 The ratio of cations to anion in a closed pack tetrahedral is
[1] 0.414 [2] 0.225 [3] 0.02 [4] None
Q.95 The arrangement ABC ABC ...............is referred to as
[1] Octahedral close packing [2] Hexagonal close packing
[3] Tetrahedral close packing [4] Cubic close packing
Q.96 The melting point of RbBr is 682°C, while that of NaF is 988°C. The principal reason that melting point of NaF is
much higher than that of RbBr is that
[1] The two crystals are not isomorphous
[2] The molar mass of NaF is smaller than that of RbBr
[3]’ The internuclear distance, rc + ra is greater for RbBr than for NaF
[4] The bond in RbBr has more covalent character than the bond in NaF
Q.97 A binary solid (A+ B–) has a rock salt structure. If the edge length is 400 pm and radius of cation is 75 pm the
radius of anion is
[1] 100pm [2] 125pm [3] 250 pm [4] 325 pm
 SOLID STATE

Q.98 One among the following is an example of ferroelectric compound

[1] Quartz [2] Lead chromate [3] Barium titanate [4] Tourmaline
Q.99 If a is the length of unit cell, then which one is correct relationship

a
[1] For simple cubic lattice, Radius of metal atom =
2

3a
[2] For bcc lattice, Radius of metal atom =
4
a
[3] For fcc lattice.Radius of metal atom =
2 2
[4] All
Q.100 The most malleable metals (Cu, Ag, Au) have close - packing of the type
[1] Hexagonal close - packing [2] Cubic close - packing
[3] Body - centred cubic packing [4] Malleability is not related to type of packing
Q.101 The number of atoms present in a simple cubic unit cell are
[1] 4 [2] 3 [3] 2 [4] 1
Q.102 The radius of Ag+ is 126 pm while that of I– ion is 216 pm. The co-ordination number of Ag in AgI is :
[1] 2 [2] 8 [3] 6 [4] 4
Q.103 The number of octahedral sites in a cubical close pack array of S-spheres :

S
[1] [2] 2S [3] 4S [4] S
2
Q.104 The type of crystal latice associated with CsCl is :
[1] ccp [2] fcc [3] bcc [4] hcp
Q.105 The crystal structure of TICl is similar to that of CsCl what is the co-ordination number of Tl+1:
[1] 4 [2] 6 [3] 8 [4]12
Q.106 If edge of a bcc crystal of an element is a cm, M is the atomic mass and N0 is Avogadro’s number, then density
of the crystal is :

4M 2N0 2M Ma 3
[1] 3 [2] 3 [3] 3 [4]
a N0 Ma N0 a 2N0

Q.107 In which case unit cell is not possible :

[1] One dimensional lattice [2] Two dimensional lattice
[3] Three dimensional lattice [4] None
Q.108 An atom situated at the corner of a simple cubic unit cell has its contribution towards the unit cell is :

1 1 1
[1] [2] [3] [4] 1
2 4 8

Q.109 Cell diagonal = 3 edge shows that the unit cell is :

[1] Simple cubic [2] Face centred cubic [3] Body centred cubic [4] None of these
Q.110 The percentage of vacant space of bcc unit cell is :
[1] 32% [2] 68% [3] 52% [4] 74%
Q.111 The number of nearest neighbours to each sphere in fcc lattice will be :
[1] 6 [2] 8 [3] 12 [4] 14
Q.112 Which of the following planes will be absent in a simple cubic system
[1] 100 [2] 110 [3] 111 [4] 200
SOLID STATE

Q.113 The number of atoms/molecules contained in one face centred cubic unit cell of a monoatomic substance is
[1] 4 [2] 6 [3] 8 [4] 12
Q.114 In a face centred cubic arrangement, the number of atoms per unit cell is
[1] 8 [2] 2 [3] 1 [4] 4
Q.115 The maximum percentage of available volume that can be filled in a face centred cubic system by an atom is-
[1] 74% [2] 68% [3] 34% [4] 26%
Q.116 Each unit cell of NaCI consists of 4 chloride ions and
[1] 13 Na atoms [2] 4 Na ions [3] 6 Na atoms [4] 8 Na atoms
Q.117 In the unit cell of NaCl lattice there are
[1] 3Na+ ions [2] 6Na+ ions [3] 6 Cl– ions [4] 4 NaCI units
Q.118 The radius of the Na+ is 95 pm and that of CI– ion is 181 pm, Predict the co-ordination number of Na+
[1] 4 [2] 6 [3] 8 [4] Unpredictable
Q.119 The ionic radii of Rb+ and I– are 1.46 and 2.16 A. The most probable type of structure exhibited by it is
[1] CsCI type [2] NaCltype [3] ZnStype [4] CaF2 type
Q.120 The rank of a cubic unit cell is 4. The type of cell as
[1] Body centred [2] Face centred [3] Primitive [4] None
Q.121 An element occurring in the BCCstructure has 12.08 x 1023 unit cells. The total number of atoms of the element
in these cell will be
[1] 24.16 x 1023 [2] 36.18 x 1023 [3] 6.04 x 1023 [4] 12.08 x 1023
Q.122 The space occupied by B.C.C. arrangement is approx
[1] 50% [2] 68% [3] 74% [4] 56%
Q.123 Which is covalent solid
[1] Fe2O3 [2] Diamond [3] Graphite [4] All
Q.124 TiCI has structure similar to CsCI, the co-ordination number of TI+ is
[1] 4 [2] 6 [3] 10 [4] 8
Q.125 A certain metal fluoride crystallises in such a way that F atoms occupy simple cubic lattice sites, while metal
atoms occupy the body centres of half the cubes. The formula of metal fluoride is
[1] M2F [2] MF [3] MF2 [4] MF8
Q.126 Which substance shows antiferromagnetism
[1] ZrO2 [2] CdO [3] CrO2 [4] Mn2O3
Q.127 Certain crystals produce electric signals on application of pressure. This phenomenon is called
[1] Pyro electricity [2] Ferroelectricity
[3] Piezoelectricity [4] Ferrielectricity
Q.128 Which of the following defect, if present, lowers the density of the crystal
[1] Frenkel [2] Schottky [3] Edge dislocation [4] Constitution of F-centres.
Q.129 Transition metals, when they form interstitial compounds, the non-metals (H, B, C, N) are accomodated in- .
[1] Voids or holes in cubic - packed structure [2] Tetrahedral voids
[3] Octahedral voids [4] All of these
Q.130 A silicon solar battery makes. use of
[1] n- Type semiconductor [2] p- Type semicondl,lctor
[3] Combination of Si doped with As and B [4] p - n junction
Q.131 In a close pack array of N spheres, the number of tetrahedral holes are
[1] 4N [2] N/2 [3] 2N [4] N
Q.132 The yellow colour of ZnO and conducting nature produced in heating is due to
[1] Metal excess defects due to interstitial cation
[2] Extra positive ions present in an interstitial site
[3] Trapped electrons [4] All
 SOLID STATE

EXERCISE-2
Q.1 The coordination number of a metal crystallizing in a hexagonal close packed structure is

[1] 4 [2] 12 [3] 8 [4] 6

Q.2 How many chloride ions are there around sodium ion in sodium chloride crystal

[1] 3 [2] 8 [3] 4 [4] 6

Q.3 Most crystals show good cleavage because their atoms. ions or molecules are
[1] Weakly bonded together [2] Strongly bonded together
[3] Spherically symmetrical [4] Arranged in planes
Q.4 The low solubility of BaSO4 in water Can be attributed to
[1] High lattice energy [2] Dissociation energy
[3] Low lattice energy [4] Ionic bond
Q.5 In a solid lattice the cation has left a lattice site and is located at an interstitial position. the lattice defect is

[1] Interstitial defect [2] Valency defect

[3] Frenkel defect [4] Schottky defect
Q.6 Potassium has a bcc structure with nearest neighbour distance 4.52 A. Its atomic weight is 39. Its density (in kg
m –3) will be
[1] 454 [2] 804 [3] 852 [4] 908
Q.7 The number of atoms/molecules contained in one face centred cubic unit cell of a monoatomic substance is

[1] 1 [2] 2 [3] 4 [4] 6

Q.8 The characteristic features of solids are
[1] Definite shape [2] Definite size
[3] Definite shape and size [4] Definite shape, size and rigidity
Q.9 In cubic closest packing (ccp) structure of NaCl, the coordination number of Na+ ion is
[1] 2 [2] 4 [3] 6 [4] 8
Q.10 Which one of the following is the biggest ion
[1] Al+3 [2] Ba+2 [3] Mg+2 [4] Na+
Q.11 A match box exhibits
[1] Cubic geometry [2] Monoclinic geometry
[3] Orthorhombic geometry [4] Tetragonal geometry
Q.12 In the crystal of CsCl. the nearest neighbours of each Cs ion are
[1] Six chloride ions [2] Eight chloride ions
[3] Six Cs ions [4] Eight Cs ions
Q.13 Tetragonal crystal system has the following unit cell dimensions
[1] a = b = c and  =  =  = 90º [2] a = b  c and  =  =  = 90º
[3] a  b  c and  =  =  = 90º [4] a = b  c and  =  = 90º,  = 120
Q.14 Space lattice of CaF2 is
[1] Face centred cubic [2] Body centred cubic
[3] Simple cubic [4] Hexagonal closed packing
Q.15 The existence of a substance in more than one solid modifications is known as or Any compound having more
than two crystal structures is called
SOLID STATE

[1] Polymorphism [2] Isomorphism

[3] Allotropy [4] Enantiomorphism
Q.16 A compound is formed by elements A and B. This crystallizes in the cubic structure when atoms A are the
comers of the cube and atoms B are at the centre of the body. The simplest formula of the compounds is

[1] AB [2] AB2 [3] A2B [4] AB4

Q.17 Frenkel defect Is caused due to
[1] An ion missing from the normal lattice site creating a vacancy
[2] An extra positive ion occupying an interstitial position in the lattice
[3] An extra negative ion occupying an interstitial position in the lattice
[4] The shift of a positive ion from its normallattice site to an interstitial site
Q.18 Crystals can be classified into ........ basic crystal habits
[1] 3 [2] 7 [3] 14 [4] 4
Q.19 The radius of hydrogen atom in the ground state is 0.53 A. The radius of Li2+ ion (atomic number = 3) in the
similar state is
[1] 1.06 A [2] 0.265 A [3] 0.17 A [4] 0.53 A
Q.20 CsBr crystal has bcc structure. It has an edge length of 4.3Å. The shortest interionic distance between Cs+ and
Br – ions is
[1] 1.86 Å [2] 3.72 Å [3] 4.3 Å [4] 7.44 Å
Q.21 The following is not a function of an impurity present in a crystal
[1] Establishing thermal equilibrium [2] Having tendency to diffuse
[3] Contributing to scattering [4] Introducing new electronic energy levels
Q.22 Which is not a property of solids
[1] Solids are always crystalline in nature [2] Solids have high density and low compressibility
[3] The diffusion of solids is very slow [4] Solids have definite volume
Q.23 Which of the following statements is correct for CsBr3
[1] It is a covalent compound [2] It contains Cs3+ and Br– ions
[3] It contains Cs+ and Br3– ions [4] It contains Cs+ Br– and lattice Br2 molecule
Q.24 Due to Frenkel defect. the density of ionic solids
[1] Increases. [2] Decreases [3] Does not change [4] Changes
Q.25 How many space lattices are obtainable from the different crystal systems

[1] 7 [2] 14 [3] 32 [4] 230

Q.26 What type of lattice is found in potassium chloride crystal
[1] Face centred cubic [2] Body centred cubic
[3] Simple cubic [4] Simple tetragonal
Q.27 How many molecules are there in the unit cell of sodium chloride
[1] 2 [2] 4 [3] 6 [4] 8
Q.28 Potassium crystallizes with a
[1] Face-centred cubic lattice [2] Body-centred cubic lattice
[3] Simple cubic lattice [4] Orthorhombic lattice
Q.29 An example of a body cube is
[1] Sodium [2] Magnesium [3] Zinc [4] Copper
Q.30 Body centered cubic lattice has a coordination number of
[1] 4 [2] 8 [3] 12 [4] 6
 SOLID STATE

Q.31 Assertion: In crystal lattice, the size of the cation is larger in .a tetrahedral hole than in an octahedral hole
Reason: The cations occupy more space than anions in crystal packing
[1] Both assertion and reason are true state ments and reason is the correct explanation of assertion
[2] Both assertion and reason are true statements and reason is not the correct explanation of assertion
[3] Assertion is true but reason is a false statement
[4] Both assertion and reason are false statements
Q.32 Which of the following statement(s) is(are) correct
(a) The coordination number of each type of ion in CsCl crystal is 8
(b) A metal that crystallizes in bcc structure has a coordination number of 12
(c) A unit cell of an ionic crystal shares some of its ions with other unit cells
(d) The length of the unit cell in NaCl is 552 pm (rNa+ = 95 pm rCl– = 181 pm)
Correct answer is
[1] a,b,c [2] b,c,d [3] a,c,d [4] a,b,d
Q.33 The number of atoms in 100 g of an fcc crystal with density d = 10 g / cm 3 and cell edge equal to 100 pm. is
equal to
[1] 4 x 1025 [2] 3 x 1025 [3] 2 X 1025 [4] 1 x 1025
Q.34 Ionic solids, with Schottky defects: contain in their structure
[1] Equal number of cation and anion vacancies [2] Anion vacancies and interstitial anions
[3] Cation vacancies only [4] Cation vacancies and interstitial cations
Q.35 In the crystals of which of the following ionic compounds would you expect maximum distance between centres
of cations and anions
[1] LiF [2] CsF [3] CsI [4] LiI
Q.36 The ratio of close-packed atoms to tetrahedral U holes in cubic close packing is
[1] 1 : 1 [2] 1 : 2 [3] 1: 3 [4] 2 : 1
Q.37 The intermetallic compound LiAg crystallizes in cubic lattice in which both lithium and silver have coordination
number of eight. The crystal class is
[1] Simple cube [2] Body-centred cube
[3] Face-centred cube [4] None of these
Q.38 The edge length of body centred unit cubic cell is 508 pm. If the radius of the cation is 110 pm. the radius of
the anion is
[1] 285 pm [2] 398 pm [3] 144 pm [4] 618 pm
Q.39 Which of the following is ferroelectric compound
[1] BaTiO3 [2] K4[Fe( CN)6] [3] Pb2O3 [4] PbZrO3
Q.40 Example of unit cell with crystallographic dimensions a  b  c,  =  = 90°,   90° is
[1] Calcite [2] Graphite [3] Rhombic sulphur [4] Monoclinic sulphur
Q.41 An element (atomic mass = 100 g/mol) having bcc structure has unit cell edge 400 pm. Then density of the
element is .
[1] 10.376 g/cm 3 [2] 5.188 g/cm 3 [3] 7.289 g/cm 3 [4] 2.144 g/cm 3
Q.42 Which of the folloWing is true for diamond
[1] Diamond is a good conductor of electricity [2] Diamond is soft
[3] Diamond is a bad conductor of heat [4] Diamond is made up of C, H and O
Q.43 The lustre of a metal is due to
[1] Its high density [2] Its high polishing
[3] Its chemical inertness [4] Presence of free electrons
SOLID STATE

Q.44 Sodium metal crystallizes as a’ body centred cubic lattice with the cell edge 4.29 Aº. What is the radius of
sodium atom
[1] 1.857x 10–8cm [2] 2.371 x 10–7cm
[3] 3.817 x 10–8cm [4] 9.312 x 10–7cm
Q.45 Assertion (A) : Crystalline solids have short range order.
Reason (R) : Amorphous solids have long range order.
[1] Both A and R are true and the R is a correct explanation of the A
[2] Both A and R are true but the R is not a correct explanation of the A
[3] A is true but the R is false [4] Both A and R are false
Q.46 If the pressure on a NaCl structure is increased, then its coordination number will
[1] Increase [2] Decrease [3] Remain the same [4] Either [2] or [3]
Q.47 A pure crystalline substance, on being heated gradually, first forms a turbid looking liquid and then the turbidity
completely disappears. This behaviour is the characteristic of substances forming
[1] Isomeric crystals [2] Liquid crystals
[3] Isomorphous’ crystals [4] Allotropic crystals
Q.48 In a cubic structure of compound which is made from X and Y, where X atoms are at the corners of the cube and
Yat the face centres of the cube. The molecular formula of the compound is
[1] X2Y [2] X3Y [3] XY2 [4] XY3
Q.49 Which type of solid crystals will conduct heat and electricity
[1] Ionic [2] Covalent [3] Metallic [4] Molecular
Q.50 Ferrous oxide has a cubic structure and each edge of the unit cell is 5.0 A. Assuming density of the oxide as
4.0g cm –3, then the number of Fe2+ and O2– ions present in each unit cell will be
[1] Four Fe2+ and four O2– [2] Two Fe2+ and four 2–
[3] Four Fe2+ and two O2– [4] Three Fe2+ and three 2–
Q.51 In the Bragg’s equation for diffraction of X-rays, n represents for
[1] Quantum number [2] An integer
[3] Avogadro’s numbers [4] Moles
Q.52 The number of atoms in. a face-centred cubic unit cell are
[1] 4 [2] 5 [3] 6 [4] 2
Q.53 The number of unit cells in 58.5 g of NaCl is nearly
[1] 6 x 1020 [2] 3 x 1022 [3] 1.5 x 1023 [4] 0.5 x 1024
Q.54 The number of octahedral sites per sphere in a fcc structure is
[1] 8 (b} 4 [3] 2 [4] 1
Q.55 Which of the following statements is not true about NaCl structure
[1] Cl– ions are in fcc arrangement [2] Na+ ions has coordination number 4
[3] Cl– ions has coordination number 6 [4] Each unit cell contains 4NaCl molecules
Q.56 If a non-metal is added to the interstitial sites of a metal then the metal becomes
[1] Softer [2] Less tensile [3] Less malleable [4] More ductile
Q.57 The number of close neighbour in a bodycentred cubic lattice of identical sphere is
[1] 8 [2] 6 [3] 4 [4] 2
Q.58 The number of equidistant oppositely charged ions in a sodium chloride crystal is
[1] 8 [2] 6 [3] 4 [4] 2
Q.59 The arrangement ABC ABC ABC ......... is referred as
[1] Octahedral close packing [2] Hexagonal close packing
[3] Tetragonal close packing [4] Cubic close packing
 SOLID STATE

Q.60 In CsCl structure, the coordination number of Cs+ is

[1] Equal to that of Cl–, that is 6 [2] Equal to that of Cl–, that is 8
–
[3] Not equal to that of Cl that is 6 [4] Not equal to that of Cl– that is 8
Q.61 In a solid ‘AB having the NaCl structure. ‘A’ atoms occupy the corners of the cubic unit cell. If all the face-
centered atoms along one of the axes are removed. then the resultant stoichiometry of the solid is

[1] AB2 [2] A2B [4] A4B3 [3] A3B4

Q.62 Assertion [1] : In any ionic solid (MX) with Schottky defects, the number of positive and negative ions are
same.[lIT Screening 2001]
[1] Both A and R are true and the R is a correct explanation of the A
[2] Both A and R are true but the R is not a correct explanation of the A
[3] A is true but the R is false [4] Both A and R are false
[5] A is false but the R is true
Q.63 An AB2 type structure is found in
[1] NaCl [2] Al2O3 [3] CaF2 [4] N2O
Q.64 Schottky defect defines imperfection in the lattice structure of a
[1] Solid [2] Liquid [3] Gas [4] Plasma
Q.65 Na and Mg crystallize in BCC and FCC type crystals respectively. then the number of atoms of Na and Mg
present in the unit cell of their respective crystal is
[1] 4 and 2 [2] 9 and 14 [3] 14 and 9 [4] 2 and 4
Q.66 Which one of the following metal oxides is antiferromagnetic in nature
[1] MnO2 [2] TiO2 [3] VO2 [4] CrO2
Q.67 Which one of the following crystals does not exhibit Frenkel defect
[1] AgBr [2] AgCl [3] KBr [4] ZnS
Q.68 The interionic distance for cesium chloride crystal will be
3a 2a
[1] a [2] a/2 [3] [4]
2 3
Q.69 In graphite. carbon atoms are joined together due to
[1] Ionic bonding [2] Vander Waal’& forces
[3] Metallic bonding [4] Covalent bonding
Q.70 Which of the following shows electrical conduction
[1] Sodium [2] Potassium [3] Diamond [4] Graphite
Q.71 How many unit cells are present in a cube- shaped ideal crystal of NaCl of mass 1.00 g
[Atomic masses: Na = 23. Cl = 35.5]
[1] 2.57 x 1021 unit cells [2] 5.14 x 1021 unit cells
21
[3] 1.28 x 10 unit cells [4] 1.71 x 1021 unit cells
Q.72 The pyknometric density of sodium chloride crystal is 2.165 x 103 kg m –3 while its X-rays density is 2.178 x 103
kg m –3. The fraction of unoccupied sites in sodium chloride crystal is
[1] 5.96 x 10–3 [2] 5.96 [3] 5.96 x 10–2 [4] 5.96 x 10–1
Q.73 What is the coordination number of sodium in Na2O
[1] 6 [2] 4 [3] 8 [4] 2
Q.74 Frenkel and Schottky defects are
[1] Nucleus defects [2] Non-crystal defects [3] Crystal defects [4] None of these
Q.75 In solid CsCl each Cl is closely packed withhow many Cs
[1] 8 [2] 6 [3] 10 [4] 2
Q.76 An ionic comoiund has a unit cell consisting of A ions at the corners of a cube and B ions on the centres of the
faces of the cube. The empirical formula for this compound would be
[1] A2B [2] AB [3] A3B [4] AB3
Q.77 In which of the following FCC arrangement, the cations occupy the alternate tetrahedral voids
[1] NaCl [2] ZnS [3] Na2O [4] CaF2
SOLID STATE

ANSWER KEY
Exercise - 1
Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Ans. 4 2 2 3 1 3 1 3 2 3 1 3 2 1 3 4 3 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 1
Qus. 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Ans. 3 2 2 1 2 1 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 3 4 1 2 1 1 3 4 1 4 1 1
Qus. 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. 2 3 3 1 3 4 3 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 4 1 2 1 1 4 1 1 4 3
Qus. 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 3 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 2 1 4 2 4 2 2 4 3 2 3 4 2
Qus. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125
Ans. 4 3 4 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 3 4 1 4 1 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 4 4 3
Qus. 126 127 128 129 130 131 132
Ans. 4 3 2 4 3 3 4

Exercise - 2
Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Ans. 2 4 4 1 3 4 3 4 3 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 4 2 3 2 1 1 3 3 2
Qus. 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Ans. 1 2 2 1 2 4 2 1 1 3 2 2 3 1 4 2 3 4 1 4 1 2 4 3 1
Qus. 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. 2 1 3 4 2 2 3 2 4 2 4 1 3 1 4 1 3 3 4 4 1 1 2 3 1
Qus. 76 77
Ans. 4 2
 SOLID STATE

NOTES
SOLID STATE

NOTES
 SOLID STATE
CONTENTS
1. SOLID

2. STUDY OF CRYSTALS

3. LAWS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

4. ELEMENTS OF SYMMETRY

5. CRYSTAL SYSTEM

6. MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF CUBIC SYSTEM

7. IONIC RADII

8. CLASSIFICATION OF CRYSTALS

9. PACKING OF CONSTITUENTS IN CRYSTALS

10. IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLID

11. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD OF DETERMINING CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

12. SOLVED EXAMPLE

13. EXERCISE # 1

14. EXERCISE # 2 (Previous Competitive Exam. Question)