Final Year Project Report Design of A ST

The Design of a New Administrative Building for the University of Guyana at the Turkeyen
Campus.
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements are given to the following persons, for their help and guidance throughout
this project.
Mr. Maxwell Jackson - Head of Department, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of

Technology, University of Guyana
Dr. Clifton Inniss – Lecturer, Department Civil Engineering Dept, University of Guyana
Mr. Akua Alder – Civil Engineer
Mr. Steven Jackson – Civil Engineer
Mr. Surendra Ramnath – Structural Engineer, Marcel Gaskin and Associates Limited
Mr. Dominique Harris – Structural Engineer, Marcel Gaskin and Associates Limited
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... i
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. v
1.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of Problem .................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Solution to Problem..................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Project Title ................................................................................................................. 2
1.5 Objectives .................................................................................................................... 2
1.6 Scope of Works ........................................................................................................... 2
2.0 Literature Review............................................................................................................ 4
2.1 Spatial Design ............................................................................................................. 4
2.2 Structures ..................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Structural Design ......................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Structural Analysis ...................................................................................................... 7
2.5 Construction Material .................................................................................................. 8
2.6 Cost Estimate............................................................................................................... 9
3.0 Steel Structures ............................................................................................................. 10
3.1 The advantages of steel ............................................................................................. 10
3.2 Design aims ............................................................................................................... 11
3.2.1 Technical aims ................................................................................................... 11
3.2.2 Architectural aims .............................................................................................. 11
3.2.3 Financial aims .................................................................................................... 12
4.0 Design Conditions - Site Conditions............................................................................. 13
4.1 Regional Prevailing Winds........................................................................................ 13
4.2 Wind Speed, Direction and Frequency at Site .......................................................... 14
4.3 Seismic Hazard .......................................................................................................... 18
4.4 Proposed Location ..................................................................................................... 20
5.0 Design Process .............................................................................................................. 21
5.1 Step 1: Initial design considerations.......................................................................... 22
5.1.1 Number of floors ................................................................................................ 23
5.1.2 Stability system .................................................................................................. 23
5.2 Step 2: Choice of grids .............................................................................................. 23
5.3 Step 3: Preliminary sizing ......................................................................................... 25
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5.4 Step 4: Analysis......................................................................................................... 26
5.4.1 Determining the loads ........................................................................................ 26
5.5 Step 5: Element design .............................................................................................. 28
5.6 Step 6: Other checks .................................................................................................. 29
5.6.1 Sway sensitivity ................................................................................................. 29
5.6.2 Fire ..................................................................................................................... 29
6.0 Design Specifications.................................................................................................... 30
6.1 Load Selection ........................................................................................................... 30
6.1.1 Dead Loads (Structural Elements) ..................................................................... 30
6.1.2 Dead Loads (Machinery and Building Components) ........................................ 30
6.1.3 Live Loads from occupants ................................................................................ 30
6.1.4 Wind Loads ........................................................................................................ 30
6.1.5 Seismic Loads .................................................................................................... 30
6.2 Initial Structural Element Selection .......................................................................... 31
6.2.1 Shear Walls ........................................................................................................ 31
6.2.2 Beams ................................................................................................................. 31
6.2.3 Columns ............................................................................................................. 31
6.2.4 Floor Slabs ......................................................................................................... 31
6.2.5 Floor Joists ......................................................................................................... 32
7.0 Design Methodology ..................................................................................................... 33
7.1 Design Code Selection .............................................................................................. 33
7.1.1 Loading .............................................................................................................. 33
7.1.2 Element Design .................................................................................................. 33
7.2 Model Creation .......................................................................................................... 34
7.2.1 Structural Physical Model .................................................................................. 36
7.2.2 Structural Element Modelling ............................................................................ 37
7.3 Beam and Column Design......................................................................................... 38
7.4 Model Analysis ......................................................................................................... 55
7.4.1 Static Analysis ................................................................................................... 55
7.4.2 Stability Analysis ............................................................................................... 55
7.4.3 Dynamic Analysis .............................................................................................. 56
7.5 Element Design Methods .......................................................................................... 56
7.5.1 Allowable Stress Design (ASD) ........................................................................ 56
7.5.2 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) ..................................................... 56
8.0 Estimated Budget .......................................................................................................... 58
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9.0 Availability of Materials ............................................................................................... 62
10.0 Construction Scheduling ............................................................................................... 62
11.0 Limitations .................................................................................................................... 62
12.0 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 62
13.0 Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 63
14.0 References ..................................................................................................................... 64
APPENDIX A – Building Information .................................................................................... 65
APPENDIX B – Material Properties ....................................................................................... 66
APPENDIX C – EIA Procedure .............................................................................................. 69
APPENDIX D – Environmental Impact of Steel..................................................................... 97
APPENDIX E - Superseded British Standards ...................................................................... 104
APPENDIX F – Loading for Buildings ................................................................................. 108
APPENDIX G – Fire Safety .................................................................................................. 114
APPENDIX H – Connections ................................................................................................ 119
APPENDIX I - Drawings....................................................................................................... 121
List of Figures
Figure 1: Showing Structural Elements. .................................................................................... 5
Figure 2: Showing Structural Combined Element ..................................................................... 6
Figure 3: Typical Cost Breakdown .......................................................................................... 12
Figure 4: North Easterly Trade Winds on the South American Continent (Yellow)............... 13
Figure 5: Map Extract Showing Low Coastal Plains of Guyana (Orange).............................. 14
Figure 6: Showing Annual Wind Rose (Speed Distribution) .................................................. 15
Figure 7: Annual Wind Rose (Frequency Distribution) .......................................................... 16
Figure 8: Monthly Wind Roses (Frequency Distribution) ....................................................... 17
Figure 9: Seismic Hazard Map of South America ................................................................... 18
Figure 10: Seismic Hazard Map of the Caribbean ................................................................... 19
Figure 11: Seismic Hazard Map of Upper South America ...................................................... 19
Figure 12: Map Showing Proposed Location of new Administration Building ...................... 20
Figure 13: Alternate Location for location of Proposed Building ........................................... 20
Figure 14: The Design Process ................................................................................................ 21
Figure 15: Relative merits of floor systems: ............................................................................ 24
Figure 16: Examples of trapezoidal deck profiles up to 60 mm deep ..................................... 32
Figure 17: A 3-D Rendered Model .......................................................................................... 34
Figure 18: A 3D Rendered Model from AutoDesk Revit 2014 ............................................... 35
Figure 19: AutoDesk Revit 2014 Structural Model ................................................................. 36
Figure 20: Layout of Columns ................................................................................................. 37
Figure 21: Layout of Beams .................................................................................................... 37
Figure 22: Flow diagram of the EIA process and parallel studies ........................................... 70
Figure 23: Key stages of EIA................................................................................................... 71
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Figure 24: A sample of the Table ............................................................................................ 82
Figure 25: Table 2 Ultimate net environmental impact assessment at a glance, Feitsui reservoir
.................................................................................................................................................. 83
Figure 26: Graphical comparison of alternatives. The final choice of either option B or option
C will depend on the 'weighting' chosen (Source: Ahmad and Sammy, 1985) ....................... 85
Figure 27: Example of network analysis showing the impact of a policy to utilize groundwater
by subsidizing tubewells .......................................................................................................... 86
Figure 28: World production of structural metals in 2010, millions of tonnes........................ 98
Figure 29: Historical development and forecast for total world production of steel and slag by
year 2050.................................................................................................................................. 99
Figure 30: Steel’s life cycle is a closed eco-cycle ................................................................. 100
Figure 31: Easy-to-grasp description of a Life Cycle Assessment ........................................ 100
Figure 32: Example of data collected for the respective sub-process. ................................... 101
Figure 33: Important stages in the Life Cycle Assessment of a steel structure. .................... 102
Figure 34: Calculation of environmental impact value of a process change. ........................ 103
Figure 35: Some different forms of fire protection to I-section members ............................. 116
Figure 36: Maximum ratios of exposed steel to give 30 minutes fire resistance ................... 116
Figure 37: Strength retention factor for grade 43 steel at elevated temperatures .................. 117
Figure 38: Temperature and stress variation .......................................................................... 117
Figure 39: Limiting temperatures for supporting concrete floors on the upper flange .......... 118
Figure 40: Base Plate Connection .......................................................................................... 119
Figure 41: Beam Column Connection (Major Axis) ............................................................. 119
Figure 42: Beam to Beam Connection ................................................................................... 120
Figure 43: Beam to Column Connection (Minor Axis) ......................................................... 120
List of Tables
Table 1: Typical floor-to-floor heights .................................................................................... 23
Table 2: Span to depth ratios for different beam solutions ...................................................... 25
Table 3: Typical structural depths (floor to ceiling) ................................................................ 25
Table 4: Typical column sizes for small and medium span composite floors ......................... 26
Table 5: Typical load magnitudes used in building design...................................................... 27
Table 6: Summary of Floor Levels .......................................................................................... 38
Table 7: Estimated Budget ....................................................................................................... 58
Table 8: Example of Pair wise comparison ............................................................................. 84
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1.0 Introduction
The University of Guyana was established in April 1963 and started functioning in October of
that year. The first batch of students consisted of 164 persons. The University functioned
temporarily out of the Queens College compound and in October of 1969 it was moved to its
current location at Turkeyen. The campus was 56 hectares in area and consisted of only 10
buildings that were constructed via funding from the Governments of the United Kingdom,
Canada and Guyana. Since its inception the University has gone through several additions and
modifications in order to facilitate the growing student population to provide adequate learning
facilities for each of the programmes offered. However, the Administration Building has not
seen a major upgrade since it was built, and thus this project will give the building the space it
needs for a more comfortable environment for the staff and the students.
1.1 Background
The University’s main campus is sited on 127.5 acres of land at Turkeyen, approximately 8km
east of the centre of the capital Georgetown. In order to extend services beyond Region 4, the
Department of Extra Mural Studies was established in 1976 and upgraded in 1996 to the
Institute of Distance & Continuing Education (IDCE).
The Administration Building of the University of Guyana houses the following departments
and services in a three storey building with each floor offering 218 m2 of usable space:
 The Vice-Chancellery
 The Registry
 Admissions Section
 Student Records
 Student Welfare
 Examinations Section.
The staff working in the building number 38 persons. Conditions are cramped to the extent that
only 16 students can be permitted in the customer service area at the same time; 10 for the
Admissions section and 6 for Examinations.
The University proposes that a new facility dedicated to student services should be constructed
at the Turkeyen Campus to house the following facilities:
 The Admissions Section
 Student Records and Data Management
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 Student Welfare
 Examinations
 Project Executing Unit
From the University of Guyana Strategic Plan 2009-2012
1.2 Statement of Problem
There University of Guyana’s Administration is somewhat inefficient due to a minimum
number of staff, also it cramped for space and in the current building cannot expand. Thus
efficiency cannot be increased unless there is more staff and also more space for both the staff
and the students.
1.3 Solution to Problem
One solution is apparent; this problem can be solved simply with a New Administrative
Building. That will have more space and will allow more staff to be hired, thus increasing the
efficiency of the Administration Department, and decreasing the frustrations of the current and
prospective students during their waiting times.
1.4 Project Title
With the current development of the University of Guyana, there will be growing demands on
the Administrative Staff, who are the first people that Prospective students interact with when
applying to enter the University. With all the improvements to the buildings, it is only
inevitable that the Administrative Building be upgraded also, which encouraged me to
undertake this project entitled: “The Design of a New Administrative Building for the
University of Guyana at the Turkeyen Campus.”
1.5 Objectives
To design a safe, efficient, and functional design building to house the new Administrative
Building for the University of Guyana in hope of solving the problems that the staff and the
students currently face.
1.6 Scope of Works
The scope of works for this project are as follows:
Spatial Design of the building paying keen respect to the effect to wind. Using the Graphic
Standards as the main authority on spatial designs.
Provide complete set of drawings.

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Analysis of the structural model under the influence of the following chosen loads:
Live Loads
Dead Loads
Wind Loads according to ASCE 7-05; ASCE 7-10
Seismic Loads according to ASCE 7-05; ASCE 7-10
The design of the building based on the following frame and element types:
 BS EN 1993-1-1 General rules and rules for buildings
 BS EN 1993-1-2 Structural fire design
 BS EN 1993-1-5 Plated structural elements
 BS EN 1993-1-8 Design of joints
 BS EN 1993-1-10 Material toughness and through-thickness properties
Provide an estimated cost of the building.

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2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Spatial Design
Merrit and Rickets (2001) defines a building as an assemblage that is firmly attached to the
ground and that provides total shelter for machines, processing equipment, performance of
human activities, storage of human possessions, or any combination of these. All buildings
must be designed before it can be constructed. Merrit and Rickets (2001) went on to state that
building design is the process of providing all information necessary for the construction of a
building that will meet the owner’s requirements and also satisfy public health, welfare, and
safety requirements.
The following are guidelines laid out by Merrit and Rickets (2001) for designing a building:
i. The building should be constructed to serve purposes specified by the client.
ii. The design should be constructible by known techniques and with available labour and
equipment, within an acceptable time.
iii. The building should be capable of withstanding the elements and normal usage for a
period of time specified by the client.
iv. Both inside and outside, the building should be visually pleasing.
v. No part of the building should pose a hazard to the safety or health of its occupants
under normal usage, and the building should provide for safe evacuation or refuge in
emergencies.
vi. The building should provide the degree of shelter from the elements and control of the
interior environment – air, temperature, humidity, light, and acoustics – specified by
the client and not less than the minimums required for safety and health of the
occupants.
vii. The building should be constructed to minimize adverse impact on the environment.
viii. Operation of the building should consume a minimum of energy while permitting the
structure to serve its purposes.
ix. The sum of costs of construction, operation, maintenance, repair, and anticipated future
alterations should be kept within the limit specified by the client.
“The ultimate objective of design is to provide all the information necessary for the
construction of a building. The objective is achieved by the production of drawings, or plans,
showing what is to be constructed, specifications stating what materials and equipment are to
be incorporated in the building, and a construction contract between the client and a contractor.

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Designers should also observe construction of the building while it is in process. This should
be done not only to assist the client in ensuring that the building is being constructed in
accordance with plans and specifications but also to obtain information that will be useful in
design of future buildings” (Merrit and Rickets 2001, p.1.2).
2.2 Structures
Hibbeler (2012) defines a structure as a system of connected parts used to support a load. Three
main elements that form the frame of a building are beams, columns and tie rods. A beam is
defined as a “straight horizontal member used primarily to carry vertical loads and is primarily
designed to resist Ultimate Bending Moment; however, the internal shear force may become
quite large and this force may govern their design” (Hibbeler 2012, p.4). A column is defined
as a “member that is generally vertical and resist axial compressive loads, however,
occasionally a column is subjected to both an axial load and a bending moment and is referred
to as a beam column” (Hibbeler 2012, p.6). A tie rod is defined as a “structural members
subjected to a tensile force. Due to the nature of this load, these members are rather slender,
and are often chosen from rods, bars, angles, or channels” (Hibbeler 2012, p.4).
Figure 1: Showing Structural Elements.
Hibbeler (2012) defines a structural system as the combination of structural elements and the
materials from which they are composed. Two such systems are trusses and frames. “When the
span of a structure is required to be large and its depth is not an important criterion for design,
a truss may be selected. Trusses consist of slender elements, usually arranged in triangular

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fashion. Planar trusses are composed of members that lie in the same plane and are frequently
used for bridge and roof support, whereas space trusses have members extending in three
dimensions and are suitable for derricks and towers” (Hibbeler 2012, p.6). “Frames are often
used in buildings and are composed of beams and columns that are either pin or fixed
connected. Like trusses, frames extend in two or three dimensions. The loading on a frame
causes bending of its members, and if it has rigid joint connections, this structure is generally
“indeterminate” from a standpoint of analysis. The strength of such a frame is derived from the
moment interactions between the beams and the columns at the rigid joints” (Hibbeler 2012,
p.8).
Figure 2: Showing Structural Combined Element
2.3 Structural Design
The structural design of buildings is directly related to the intended use and purpose of the
building, as well as its intended location. Different buildings require different approaches
towards their structural design. This is to ensure that each building’s structure is adequate for
the intended purpose of the building. Solomon and Johnson (1996) defines structural design as
a mixture of art and science, combining the experienced engineer's intuitive feeling for the
behaviour of a structure with a sound knowledge of the principles of statics, dynamics,
mechanics of materials, and structural analysis to produce a safe and economical structure that
will serve its intended purpose. All designs will be done according to limit state design which
is now the accepted method of designing since it is a combination of Permissible Stress Design
and Load Factor Design (methods previously used) and negates the short comings of both.
Limit State Design aims to “achieve acceptable probabilities that a structure will not become
unfit for its intended use during its design life, that is, the structure will not reach a limit state”
(Arya 2009, p.6).
Solomon and Johnson (1996) list the following procedure for the structural design of a
structure, for which the researcher is determined to follow.
i. Planning: establishment of the functions for which the structure must serve. Set criteria
against which to measure the resulting design for being an optimum.

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ii. Preliminary Structural Configuration: arrangement of the elements to serve the
functions in the above mentioned step.
iii. Establishment of Loads to be carried.
iv. Preliminary Member Section: based on the decisions of the steps, selection of a
member size varies to satisfy an objective criterion, such as least weight or cost.
v. Analysis: structural analysis involving modelling the loads and structural framework
to obtain internal forces and any desired deflections.
vi. Evaluation: are all the strength and serviceability requirements satisfied and is the
result optimum? Compare the result with the predetermined criteria.
vii. Redesign: repetition of any step 1 through 6 is done if necessary, since steps 1 through
6 represent an iterative process.
viii. Final Decision: the determination of whether or not and optimum design has been
achieved.
2.4 Structural Analysis
For such a project extensive structural analysis will have to be done. Chen and Lui (2005)
defines structural analysis as computation of internal forces, displacements, stresses, and
strains of a structure with known geometry, arrangement of components as well as component
and material properties under a set of applied loads. However, Karnovsky and Lebed (2010)
states that the analysis of a structure is investigated from the viewpoints of its stiffness,
strength, stability and vibrations. Karnovsky and Lebed (2010) went on to state the following:
i. The purpose of analysis of a structure from a viewpoint of its strength is determining

internal forces, which arise in all members of a structure as a result of external
exposures. These internal forces produce stresses; the strength of each member of a
structure will be provided if their stresses are less than or equal to permissible ones.
ii. The purpose of analysis of a structure from a viewpoint of its stiffness is determination
of the displacements of specified points of a structure as a result of external exposures.
The stiffness of a structure will be provided if its displacements are less than or equal
to permissible ones.
iii. The purpose of analysis of stability of a structure is to determine the loads on a structure,
which leads to the appearance of new forms of equilibrium. These forms of equilibrium
usually lead to collapse of a structure and corresponding loads are referred as critical
ones. The stability of a structure will be provided if acting loads are less than critical
ones.

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iv. The purpose of analysis of a structure from a viewpoint of its vibration is to determine
the frequencies and corresponding shapes of the vibration. These data are necessary for
analysis of the forced vibration caused by arbitrary loads.
To carry out the structural analysis on the design the building will be subjected to a wide variety
of loads and the building’s response will be assessed. “Loads are the external forces acting on
a structure. Stresses are the internal forces that resist them. Depending on that manner in which
the loads are applied, they tend to deform the structure and its components—tensile forces tend
to stretch, compressive forces to squeeze together, torsional forces to twist, and shearing forces
to slide parts of the structure past each other” (Merrit and Rickets 2001, p.5.2). This emphasizes
how important it is for the structural analysis to be done correctly and accurately.
2.5 Construction Material
The researcher intends to use reinforced concrete as the main building material for this
building, since it is the main construction material used in Guyana today and it is readily
available. “A structural building frame system relies on continuity between beam and column
members to distribute and resist shears and moments induced by various loadings. As a
building material, concrete naturally lends itself to frame-type construction, as it can easily be
shaped, via formwork, to resist the applied loads in an optimal manner. Continuity is achieved,
in part, by providing longitudinal reinforcement through the joint” (Nawy 2008, p.9.1).
Hassoun and Al-Manaseer (2008) summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of concrete
as follows:
Advantages:
o It has a relatively high compressive strength.
o It has better resistance to fire than steel.
o It has a long service life and low maintenance cost.
o In such types of structures such as dams, piers, and footings, it is the most economical
structural material.
o It can be cast to take the shape required, making it widely used in precast structural
components. It yields rigid members with minimum apparent deflection.
Disadvantages:
o It has low tensile strength of about one-tenth of its compressive strength.
o It needs mixing, casting and curing, all of which affect the final strength of concrete.

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o The cost of the forms used to cast concrete is relatively high. The cost of material and
artisan may equal the cost of concrete placed in forms.
o Cracks develop in concrete due to shrinkage and application of live loads.
2.6 Cost Estimate
A cost estimate is the approximation of the cost of a program, project, or operation. The cost
estimate is the product of the cost estimating process. The cost estimate has a single total value
and may have identifiable component values.
This will consist of the following elements:
 Quantity Takeoff
 Labour Hours & Hours
 Equipment Costs
 Material Prices
 Indirect Costs
 Profit Amount

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3.0 Steel Structures
3.1 The advantages of steel
In recent years the development of steel-framed buildings with composite metal deck floors
has transformed the construction of multi-storey buildings in the Guyana. During this time,
with the growth of increasingly sophisticated requirements for building services, the very
efficiency of the design has led to the steady decline of the cost of the structure as a proportion
of the overall cost of the building, yet the choice of the structural system remains a key factor
in the design of successful buildings.
The principal reasons for the appeal of steel for multi-storey buildings are noted below.
• Steel frames are fast to erect.
• The construction is lightweight, particularly in comparison with traditional concrete

construction.
• The elements of the framework are prefabricated and manufactured under controlled, factory
conditions to established quality procedures.
• The accuracy implicit in the manufacturing process by which the elements are produced
enables the designer to take a confident view of the geometric properties of the erected
framework.
• The dryness of the form of construction results in less on-site activities, plant, materials and
labour.
• The framework is not susceptible to drying-out movement or delays due to slow strength gain.
• Steel frames have potential for adaptability inherent in their construction. Later modification
to a building can be achieved relatively easily by unbolting a connection; with traditional
concrete construction such modifications would be expensive, and more extensive and
disruptive.
• The use of steel makes possible the creation of large, column-free internal spaces which can
be divided by partitions and, by eliminating the external wall as a loadbearing element, allows
the development of large window areas incorporated in prefabricated cladding systems.
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3.2 Design aims
For the full potential of the advantages of steel-frame construction to be realized, the design of
multi-storey buildings requires a considered and disciplined approach by the architects,
engineers and contractors involved in the project. They must be aware of the constraints
imposed on the design programme by the lead time between placing a contract for the supply
of the steel frame and the erection of the first pieces on site. The programme should include
such critical dates on information release as are necessary to ensure that material order and
fabrication can progress smoothly.
The designer must recognize that the framework is the skeleton around which every other
element of the building will be constructed. The design encompasses not only the structure but
also the building envelope, services and internal finishes. All these elements must be
coordinated by a firm dimensional discipline, which recognizes the modular nature of the
components, to ensure maximum repetition and standardization. Consequently, it is impossible
to consider the design of the framework in isolation. It is vital to see the frame as part of an
integrated building design from the outset: the most efficient solution for the structure may not
be effective in achieving a satisfactory solution for the total building.
In principle, the design aims can be considered under three headings:
• Technical
• Architectural
• Financial.
3.2.1 Technical aims
The designer must ensure that the framework, its elements and connections are strong enough
to withstand the applied loads to which the framework will be subjected throughout its design
life. The system chosen on this basis must be sufficiently robust to prevent the progressive
collapse of the building or a significant part of it under accidental loading. This is the primary
technical aim. However, as issues related to strength have become better understood and
techniques for the strength design of frameworks have been formalized, designers have
progressively used lighter and stronger materials. This has generated a greater need to consider
serviceability, including dynamic floor response, as part of the development of the structural
concept.
Other important considerations are to ensure adequate resistance to fire and corrosion. The
design should aim to minimize the cost, requirements and intrusion of the protection systems
on the efficiency of the overall building.
3.2.2 Architectural aims
For the vast majority of buildings, the most effective structural steel frame is the one which is
least obtrusive. In this way it imposes least constraint on internal planning, and produces

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maximum usable floor area, particularly for open-plan offices. It also provides minimal
obstruction to the routeing of building services. This is an important consideration, particularly
since building services are becoming more extensive and demanding on space and hence on
the building framework.
Occasionally the structure is an essential feature of the architectural expression of the building.
Under these circumstances the frame must achieve, among other aims, a balance between
internal planning efficiency and an expressed structural form. However, these buildings are
special, not appropriate to this manual, and will not be considered in more detail, except to give
a number of references.
3.2.3 Financial aims
The design of a steel frame should aim to achieve minimum overall cost. This is a balance
between the capital cost of the frame and the improved revenue from early occupation of the
building through fast erection of the steel frame: a more expensive framework may be quicker
to build and for certain uses would be more economic to a client in overall terms. Commercial
office developments are a good example of this balance. Figure below shows a breakdown of
construction costs for a typical development.
Figure 3: Typical Cost Breakdown

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4.0 Design Conditions ‐ Site Conditions
4.1 Regional Prevailing Winds
The site of the proposed building is located at the Turkeyen branch of the University of Guyana,
located on the Low Coastal Plain Region of the country. The major wind system experienced
by the coastal plains of the country is the north easterly trade winds which meet at the Inter-
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
Figure 4: North Easterly Trade Winds on the South American Continent (Yellow)

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Figure 5: Map Extract Showing Low Coastal Plains of Guyana (Orange)
4.2 Wind Speed, Direction and Frequency at Site
Although the prevailing winds on the coastal plains of the country and the north easterly trade
winds further analysis on collected wind data has shown that the direction of the wind varies
in direction from the North of North Easterly direction to the South of South Easterly direction,
with the most frequent wind direction being the East of North Easterly direction. The following
wind rose overlay on the site (Figure 6: Wind Rose Data Superimposed on Proposed Site)
produced from weather data obtained and the use of the Autodesk Vasari Beta 3.0 program
highlights the prominent wind directions experienced by the proposed site of the building
design.

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Figure 6: Wind Rose Data Superimposed on Proposed Site
Figure 6: Showing Annual Wind Rose (Speed Distribution)

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Figure 8: Annual Wind Rose (Speed Distribution) above produced from weather data obtained
and the use of the Autodesk Vasari Beta 3.0 program shows that wind speeds in excess of 23
km/h are experienced at the site in the East of North Easterly direction as well as the North
Easterly and Eastern directions. The wind rose also shows that this wind speed is experienced
at an average of 5% of the time with the wind speed between the range of 9 km/h and 11 km/h
being experienced at an average of 10% of the time.
Figure 9: Annual Wind Rose (Frequency Distribution) produced from weather data obtained
and the use of the Autodesk Vasari Beta 3.0 program displays an average amount of hours and
direction of the various wind speeds experienced on the proposed site. It can be seen from the
wind rose that wind speeds between the range of 6 km/h and 12 km/h are the most frequently
experienced at the site in the East of North Easterly direction.
Figure 7: Annual Wind Rose (Frequency Distribution)

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Figure 8: Monthly Wind Roses (Frequency Distribution)

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4.3 Seismic Hazard
Chen (1999) states that earthquakes are described as broad banded naturally occurring
vibratory ground motions which can be caused by various phenomena including tectonic
ground motions, volcanic eruptions, landslides and human made explosions. Chen (1999) also
states a seismic hazard can be defined as the phenomena and/or expectation of an earthquake-
related agent of damage, such as fault rupture, vibratory ground motion (i.e., shaking),
inundation (e.g., tsunami, seiche, dam failure), various kinds of permanent ground failure (e.g.,
liquefaction), fire, or hazardous materials released. While seismic risk can be defined as: the
product of the hazard and vulnerability (i.e., the expected damage or loss, or associated full
probability distribution).
Figure 9: Seismic Hazard Map of South America

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Figure 10: Seismic Hazard Map of the Caribbean
Figure 11: Seismic Hazard Map of Upper South America

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4.4 Proposed Location
Figure 12: Map Showing Proposed Location of new Administration Building
The location of the proposed Administration Building is in the North Western area of the
University of Guyana, Turkeyen Campus, near to the CIT building and the NBS Dorms.
Figure 13: Alternate Location for location of Proposed Building
An alternate location was also chosen. The alternate location is the site of the current
Administration Building. It was chosen as there is also significant space behind the current
building for the proposed one, and also a proper parking can be done for the proposed building,
and can ease the congestion in front of the current building, and also the turn that it is on.

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5.0 Design Process
Figure 14: The Design Process

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5.1 Step 1: Initial design considerations
Building specific requirements
The basic building shape will normally be chosen.. It will often be dictated by site restrictions,
be they physical or regulatory such as planning restrictions. Before developing this basic shape
into a design the engineer should make sure he/she is aware of any project specific
requirements.
Ground conditions may have a fundamental impact on a number of decisions:
Poor ground favours fewer, probably more expensive per unit, piled foundations. The wider
spacing of the foundations could dictate in a longer spanning structural frame solution.
If there are any existing foundations on a brownfield site, or underground services to be
avoided, these may affect column positions (possibly resulting in more widely spaced columns,
or an irregular grid pattern).
It is also worth noting that steel piled foundations (with their number minimised by adopting
a long spanning structural frame solution), can easily be removed at the end of building life,
avoiding the knock-on effects often found on redevelopment sites and improving the overall
‘sustainability’ of the solution.
Other aspects of a given site that may favour a certain building frame solution include any
access and height restrictions. If there is a restriction on the overall height of a building it may
favour the use of shallow floor solutions, even though their spanning ability is less than other
steel options, to minimise floor depth and therefore maximise the number of floors (and lettable
floor space) that can be accommodated within the overall height.
In addition to any peculiarities of a given site, there may be particular requirements for the
building and its use. For some types of use there are specific, published requirements, such as
the Building Bulletins for Education buildings and the Health Technical Memoranda
for Healthcare buildings. Particular requirements may include:
 A naturally ventilated solution may be required by the client or the architect.
 The service requirements are dependent on the building use, e.g. hospitals are highly
serviced.
 Different uses impose different requirements for the dynamic behaviour of floors, as
what is acceptable in terms of ‘bounciness’ depends on what a room is to be used for.
 The effective planning of the location of lifts, stairs, toilets and vertical distribution of
services. These are essential to the operational performance of a building, and but also
play a key role in the structural performance (stability) of the building frame.
If the building is speculative the developer may want maximum flexibility for floor use,
services etc. BS EN 1991-1-1 [2] presents minimum imposed floor loads for different building
uses. For offices, the imposed loading is typically 3kN/m2. In addition, up to 1kN/m2 may be
added to cover loading from movable partitions. For storage areas, a higher value of
5kN/m2 may be used. Often, an imposed load of 5kN/m2 is specified in speculative offices to

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allow for a wide range of client uses. As well as the self-weight of the floors, an additional load
of 0.7 kN/m2 should be considered for raised floors, ceilings and building services equipment.
5.1.1 Number of floors
To achieve maximum lettable floor space the design should balance the number of floors
against floor-to-floor height, paying attention to the intended building use.
The target floor to floor height is based on a floor to ceiling height of 2.5 m to 2.7 m for
speculative offices, or 3 m for more prestige applications, plus the floor depth including
services. The following target floor to floor depths as shown in the table below should be
considered at the concept design stage:
Table 1: Typical floor-to-floor heights
Prestige office 4 - 4.2 m

Speculative office 3.6 - 4.0 m
Renovation project 3.5 - 3.9 m
Shallow floor systems can be helpful for a designer trying to achieve the right balance.
Although they tend to have a higher cost per unit area, the reduced floor depth may provide the
designer with:
 More flexibility to achieve the best compromise between floor-to-floor height, number
of floors, and overall building height.
 A means to reduce building envelope area/cost.
 A means of reducing operational carbon by reducing heat loss through the envelope.
5.1.2 Stability system
The resistance of a steel frame against horizontal loading can be achieved in a number of ways.
The most appropriate choice depends on the scale of building:
 For low rise buildings steel bracing is normally used.
 For medium rise buildings (5 to 15 storeys) either concrete or braced steel cores are
used.
5.2 Step 2: Choice of grids
Having recognised any building specific requirements, decided on the most appropriate number
of floors and, in general terms, how the frame will be stabilised against horizontal loading, the
designer should start to consider in more detail how the frame will be laid out. The structural
grid is defined principally by a regular spacing of columns, with the primary beams spanning
between columns, secondary beams spanning between the primary beams, and floor slabs
spanning between the secondary beams. Wherever possible the beams are laid out in an
orthogonal arrangement to provide rectangular floor plates as this arrangement enables simple
orthogonal connection details between beams and columns to be adopted.

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Floor grids define the spacing of the columns in orthogonal directions, which are influenced
by:
 The planning grid (normally based on units of 300 mm but more typically multiples of
0.6, 1.2 or 1.5 m).
 The column spacing along the façades, depending on the façades material (typically 5.4
to 7.5 m).
 The use of the internal space, i.e. for offices or open plan space.
 The requirements for building service distribution (from the building core).
Although opting for a long span solution will increase internal flexibility and maximise the
lettable floor space, it should be recognised that spanning ability is only one of the attributes
of a given flooring solution. They are also differentiated in terms of fabrication cost, ease
of erection, ease of service integration, cost of fire protection, required structural depth for a
given span. A designer should decide on the best overall compromise for a given application,
remembering the basic mantra of standardisation, simplicity, familiarity. The table shows the
relative merits for common floor systems in multi-storey buildings.
Figure 15: Relative merits of floor systems:

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5.3 Step 3: Preliminary sizing
Once the grids are established it is possible to estimate preliminary sizes of the beams using
some rules of thumb for span to depth ratios.
An estimation of the preliminary sizes of the beams using some rules of thumb for span to
depth ratios for the floor systems mentioned above is presented in the table.
Table 2: Span to depth ratios for different beam solutions
Floor = span/20
Non-composite primary beams
Roof = span/25
Floor = span/25
Non-composite secondary beams
Roof = span/30
Span/16 to span/18
(note depth is steel beam plus slab)
Composite beams
Long span solutions tend to be shallower,up to span/20
The slabs that span between downstand beams are typically 130 to 150mm deep, using C30/37
or LC30/33 concrete. When shallow floor solutions are used the structural floor depth,
including the integrated beams, is typically 300 to 400mm. Typical structural depths (floor to
ceiling) are shown in the table.
Table 3: Typical structural depths (floor to ceiling)
Flooring system Target floor depth (mm)
Composite beam construction 800 – 1,200
Cellular beams (with service integration) 800 – 1,100
Downstand beams with precast concrete floor slabs 1,200 – 1,450
Shallow floor or integrated beams 600 – 800

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Columns
The columns in braced frame multi-storey buildings are usually hot rolled UC sections.
Rectangular or circular hollow sections can also be used but connections become more
complex than when an open cross section is adopted. Typical section sizes for UC columns are
given in the table below. The columns are normally continuous over 2 or 3 storeys and the
beams discontinuous where they meet the columns.
Table 4: Typical column sizes for small and medium span composite floors
Number of floors supported by column

Universal Column (UC) serial size
section
1 152
2-4 203
3-8 254
5 - 12 305
10 - 40 356

5.4 Step 4: Analysis
5.4.1 Determining the loads
Before the frame can be analysed and the structural members designed it is necessary to
determine the magnitude of loads and other actions such as thermal movements, which may
result in stresses in the structure. The main load types are the self-weight of the structure (and
non-structural components), imposed floor loadings, environmental loading including wind
and snow, and induced additional loads caused by frame imperfections and sway.
The structure will be subject to a number of realistic combinations of these load types (they
won’t all be at their maximum values simultaneously), considering a Limit State Design
philosophy where the frame and its members are designed to satisfy different ultimate and
serviceability limit states. The combinations, and different limit states, are defined in the
relevant Eurocodes.
Determining the internal moments and forces

Once the loads and preliminary member sizes have been identified, the structural analysis can
be carried out. This process results in calculation of the internal moments and forces the frame
members must be able to resist (against which the preliminary sizes can be checked and the
design refined).

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Table 5: Typical load magnitudes used in building design
Loading type Area loading (kN/m2)
Permanent loads
Steelwork 0.35 – 0.7
Composite slabs 1.9 – 3.0
Precast slabs 3.0 – 4.5
Partitions 1.0
Services 0.25
Ceiling 0.1
Imposed loads
Roof 0.6
Floors 2.5 – 5.0
Wind loads 0.8 – 1.5
Snow loads 0.6
The vast majority of steel frames are designed as ‘simple’. This means that the beams and
columns are assumed to behave as disconnected members (there is no moment continuity
between them). A simple frame does not in itself offer stability against lateral loads. Bracing,
or a core, typically fulfils this purpose. Assuming simple construction offers a number of
benefits and results in certain characteristics of the frame:
 It greatly simplifies analysis, with easy derivation of moments and forces for a structure
that is ‘determinate’ (solvable using simple calculations). The stiffness of one element does
not affect the moments and forces that it, and its neighbours, are subject to. The designer
should ensure that all element ends are ‘released’ in the analysis model to reflect this
‘simple’ philosophy.
 Columns only experience axial force and nominal bending moments due to the eccentricity
of beam connections.
 The resulting distribution of moments and forces means that beams will tend to be bigger
and columns smaller than when continuous construction is adopted.

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 Joints are less complex, and will tend to use less material (thinner plates, no stiffening or
need for haunches). But the designer should be aware of the need to design joints for tying
forces to prevent progressive collapse (make the structure ‘robust’). Simple joints are
assumed not to transfer moment, but if plates are thick enough to provide
adequate tying (axial resistance) will they be thin enough to bend? The behaviour of what
is actually built must always reflect what was assumed in the design. If thick plates are used
to achieve tying resistance, they may transfer moments into the columns for which those
members have not been designed.
 Composite beams are well suited to simple construction because they work well in sagging
(relying on the concrete slab in compression), but not so well in hogging (slab in tension).
 If trusses are used, it is important to design the members to work with ‘simple’ joints
between them. Trusses that require moment transfer between members (internals, chords)
are difficult to detail and expensive to fabricate (the member size may be governed by
the moment connections it can accommodate).
5.5 Step 5: Element design
Having determined the moments and forces in the frame members and joints it is possible to
move on to detailed design. As noted above, when a frame is continuous it may be necessary
to undertake some iteration because the size of the members affects the moments and forces
that are attracted to themselves and their neighbours.
Steel member design is based on the requirements given in BS EN 1993-1-1[4]. Composite
member design is based on those given in BS EN 1994-1-1[5]. The overall process in member
design for the ultimate limit state (ULS) involves:
 Classification of the cross section.
 Cross-sectional resistance.
 Member buckling resistance.
 Resistance to combined axial loading and bending, where applicable.
Additionally, members should be designed for any relevant serviceability limit states (SLS),
commonly these relate to deformations (deflections), and response to dynamic loading. For
most multi-storey commercial buildings, straightforward steel construction will meet the
required vibration performance criteria without modification. For more vibration sensitive
applications, such as hospital operating theatre floors, steel’s advantages can be captured with
additional stiffening applied to the steel frame if required. Long-span applications, for which
steel is the only option, have been found to offer very good vibration damping, despite common
preconceptions that damping of composite floors is lower than that of concrete structures.

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5.6 Step 6: Other checks
In addition to checking the frame members for gravity, imposed and wind loads, some other
verifications must also be made as they could affect the final size of the members and joints.
These other checks include, but are not restricted to, checking for sway
sensitivity, performance, robustness and acoustics performance.
5.6.1 Sway sensitivity
Even simple braced frames must be checked for sway sensitivity, as bracing would only
prevent all sway if it were infinitely stiff (which clearly nothing is). If the frame proves to be
sway sensitive, options (the viability of which will depend on the given building) to design for
this sensitivity include:
 Increase member sizes so the frame sways less under horizontal loading.
 For a simple frame this means the size of the bracing.
 For a continuous frame the size of the beams and columns affects the frame sway.
 This will not be a viable option for high rise buildings.
 Amplify the first order moments and forces to allow for the secondary (second order)
effects that arise as the frame sways.
 Carry out a second order analysis to explicitly allow for the secondary effects
5.6.2 Fire
One of the limit states that a designer must consider is fire. Steel loses strength as it is heated
(it will have lost approximately 50% of its room temperature strength at 600oC). In the UK the
most common way of dealing with fire is to protect the members – provide insulation so that
the steel temperature remains relatively low. Alternatively a fire engineering approach is
possible, whereby the members are designed to resist the loads associated with the fire limit
state with a reduced steel strength (as a function of the anticipated temperature).

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6.0 Design Specifications

6.1 Load Selection
The following are the category of design loads considered to be used in the analysis of the
structural model of the proposed building:
6.1.1 Dead Loads (Structural Elements)
These are building loads resulting from the structural elements used in the construction of the
proposed structure. They include structural columns, structural beams, structural floors and
structural connections. They are also inclusive of other building elements that may not serve a
structural purpose such as architectural columns.
6.1.2 Dead Loads (Machinery and Building Components)
These are building loads resulting from other building components not relating to the structure
of the building. These components include office and classroom furniture, laboratory
equipment, special machinery, etc.
6.1.3 Live Loads from occupants
These are loads due to the occupancy of the building and are determined based on the building
type and intended use.
6.1.4 Wind Loads
These are external loads acting on the structure as a result of wind forces from the external
environment. They are influenced by atmospheric conditions and terrain type. As a result the
most extreme and frequent conditions recorded will be designed for during the analysis of the
proposed structure.
6.1.5 Seismic Loads
These are externally generated loads applied to a structure as a result of earthquake generated
agitation.

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6.2 Initial Structural Element Selection
An initial selection of the size ranges of structural elements were chosen for the modelling of
the proposed building structure based on its intended purpose and initial designs. These
structural elements inclusive of beams, columns, joists, floor slabs and roof trusses were
assessed to determine the best options to meet both structural and economic targets by
structural optimization.
Steel Members used for the modelling and design of the proposed structure came from the
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) 14th Edition Shapes Database.
The following are a list of structural elements selected for the modelling of the proposed
building structure:
6.2.1 Shear Walls
These structural elements will not only form the casing for the elevators of the proposed
structure but will also assist in the resisting of lateral loads acting within the structure. The
walls cover the height of the three floors and the roof were designed with a wall thickness of
300mm. The general material chosen was reinforced concrete.
6.2.2 Beams
Based on the proposed building design with floor elevations being 4.267 m or 14 feet apart and
ceiling heights being 4 m or approximately 13 feet with a 1 m distance between floor and lower
ceiling to taking into consideration the installation of HAVC systems inclusive of ventilation
and air conditioning systems an upper limit of beam depth to be used in the design was set at
18 inches or 457.2 mm, with a maximum beam height of 24 inches or 609.6 mm being catered
for if necessary to meet structural designs.
6.2.3 Columns
The initial selections of the steel members to be used to model the structure corresponds the
those used for the modelling and designing of the structural steel beams of the proposed
structure. A maximum side or diameter dimension of 12 inches or 305 mm and a minimum
dimension of 10 inches or 254 mm were selected. However a higher limit of 18 inches or 457.2
mm was also considered if it became necessary to achieve structural requirements.
6.2.4 Floor Slabs
Based on the architectural model it was decided to limit the depth of any structural floor above
the ground floor to a thickness of 4 inches or 101.6 mm. Various type of structural floor were
considered during the design of the proposed structure. The two main types considered were
structural reinforced concrete floor slabs and composite steel and concrete deck slabs. In terms

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of the composite slab a maximum deck section depth of 80 mm was used for design purposes.
The following figures highlight deck sections considered during the design.
Figure 16: Examples of trapezoidal deck profiles up to 60 mm deep
6.2.5 Floor Joists
Floor joists are similar to structural beams. They serve the purpose of supporting the weight of
structural floor slabs and reducing mechanical vibrations within the structural slab itself. For
the system of floor joists an upper limit of joist depth to be used in the design was set at 12
inches or 304.8 mm, with a maximum beam height of 14 inches or 355.6 mm being catered for
if necessary to meet structural designs.

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7.0 Design Methodology
7.1 Design Code Selection
The local building design codes used by engineers and designers in Guyana are the British
Standard Codes. However, the Eurocodes consisting of 10 sections comprising of 58 parts has
been adopted in all EU Member States. They have replaced the exist British Standards that
were withdrawn on the 31st of March 2010.
In an attempt to keep to current design standards of loading selection and structural element
design the local British Standards will not be used in the design of the proposed structure.
7.1.1 Loading
The following structural code was used for the definition and determination of the structural
loads used in the analysis of the proposed building:
• American Society of Civil Engineers - Minimum design loads for buildings and other
structures - ASCE 7-10
7.1.2 Element Design
The following structural codes were used for the design of the various structural elements in
the proposed building:
• Steel Frame Design - AISC 360-10
• Composite Beam and Column Design - AISC 360-10
• Shear Wall Design - ACI 318-11
• Steel Connection Design - AISC 360-10

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7.2 Model Creation
A physical, conceptual and analytical model was created for the proposed building design to
better visualize and interpret the design challenges at hand. Autodesk Revit 2014, was used to
create the various models used for the analysis and design of the proposed structure. The
following figures highlight some of the many model views created to gain insight into the
problem.
Figure 17: A 3-D Rendered Model

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Figure 18: A 3D Rendered Model from AutoDesk Revit 2014

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7.2.1 Structural Physical Model
The figure below represents the structural model of the proposed building structure to be
analysed. The structure consists of a structural reinforced concrete ground floor and four (4)
upper structural floors. There are 440 beams and 216 columns in this structural model.
Figure 19: AutoDesk Revit 2014 Structural Model

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7.2.2 Structural Element Modelling
The following figures highlight the modelling of the structural elements used in the design of
the proposed building. The modelling of the structural elements was done in AutoDesk Revit
2014.
Figure 20: Layout of Columns
Figure 21: Layout of Beams

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7.3 Beam and Column Design
Table 6: Summary of Floor Levels
Roof Level Third Floor Second Floor First Floor

Column Size 305x305x118 305x305x118 305x305x118 305x305x118
Beam Size 254x102x22 254x122x25 254x122x25 254x122x25
Loads 132.7544022 289.1659318 436.7060387 578.3318637
Checks
Shear Strength Low Shear
Overall Buckling Section Size is Adequate
Axial Buckling All Passed
Web Buckling No stiffeners required.
Deflection
Checks Passed

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Level Roof
Name Value Unit

Loads 96300 kg
Length 4.267 m
Width 4.267 m
Area 18.209 m^2
Thickness 0.102 m
Volume 1.848 m^3
Concrete
Weight 2400.000 kg/m^3
Mass 23544.000 N/m^3
Mass 23.544 kN/m^3
Rounded 23.544 kN/m^3
Dead Load 43.514 kN

Live Load 1.000
1.848 kN
Dead Load 60.920 kN 1.4 Dead Load

Live Load 2.957 kN 1.6 Live Load
Total 63.877 kN
Design Load = W 63.877 kN
M = (W*L)/8 34.072 kNm

Fv = W/2 31.939 kN
Assume Py 275.000 N/mm^2
Sx = (M/Py) 123.899 cm^3
Beam Sizes
254x102x22 259.000 cm^3 This One
254x122x25 306.000 cm^3
203x103x23 234.000 cm^3

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Level Roof
Beam 254x102x22
D 254 mm d/t 39.5 mm E 2E+08
r 7.6 mm b/t 7.47 mm
T 6.8 mm S 259 cm^3
t 5.7 mm z 224 cm
I 2840 cm^4
T=7 <16mm
Py 275 N/mm^2
Section Classification
section classification
ε 1
CHECKS
ε x c/t(flange) 6.8
ε x c/t(web) 5.7
8.5 x ε 8.5 ε x c/t(flange) > 8.5x ε TRUE
79 x ε 79 ε x c/t(web) > 79x ε TRUE
Shear Strength
Pv = 0.6 x Py x t x D
Pv 238.887 kN
0.6 x Pv 143.3322 kN
Fv < Pv True
Fv < Pv Low Shear
Bending Moment
Mc = Py x S 71.225 kNm
<1.2 x Py x Z 73.92 kNm
M < Mc < 1.2PyZ TRUE
Moment Due to Self Weight
Msw = 1.4 x ( 25 x 9.81/10^3 ) x L^3/8
Msw 0.781507

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Level Roof
Total Moment
Mt 34.854 kNm
Mt < Mc < 1.2PyZ TRUE
Section is Adequate
Deflection Checks
ϭc = (5ῳI^3/384EI) 0.00032 m
0.321179 mm
Permissible Deflection
span/360 11.85333
Deflection check Passed
Web Buckling
Pc from table 129
Pw = (b1 + n1) x t x Pc 93483.1
93.4831 kN
Fv < Pw No stiffeners required.
Web Bearing
(b1 + n2) x t x Px
n2 = 2.5 (T + r) 36 mm
213180 213.18 mm
Fv < Pcrip OK
Pcs = (b1 x 2 (r + T) x Py 792000

792 kN
Fv < Pcs OK

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Level Roof
Column 305x305x118
D= 314.5 mm rx = 7.77 cm
Rt 132.754 kN B= 307.4 mm ry = 13.6 cm
t= 12 mm Ixx = 27,700 cm 4
Length 4.267 m T= 18.7 mm Iyy = 9060 cm 4
Eff. Length 3.62712 m r= 15.2 mm Zx = 1760 cm 3
d= 246.7 mm Zy = 589 cm 3
Mx 100 kNm Ay 150 cm 2 Sx = 1960 cm 3
My 25 kNm u= 0.851 Sy = 895 cm 3
x= 16.2 Py = 265 N/mm 2
Since 16<T<40, Py
Mcy = PySy 237.175 kNm

Mcx = PySx 519.4 kNm
Local Capacity Check F/AgPy + Mx/Mcx + My/Mcy

If Less than 1 pass
0.0334 0.19253 0.1054074 OK 0.33133
Overall Buckling Check

λ = Le/ ry 26.67 Table 27c Pc= 254
Axial Buckling
F/AyPc 0.03484
Lateral Torsional Buckling

From Table 13 Mb = PbSx 519.4 kNm
m 1
n 1 mMx/Mb 0.1925298
β 1
mMy/PyZy 0.1601691
λ/x 1.6463
From Table 14 Overall Buckling

V 0.77 If Less than 1, it Passed
F/AyPc + Mx/Mb + My/PyZy 0.3875
λLT nuv λ 17.4761
Section Size is Adequate
Table 11 Pb 265 N/mm^2

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Level Third Floor
Name Value Unit

Loads 96300 kg
Length 4.267 m
Width 4.267 m
Area 18.209 m^2
Thickness 0.102 m
Volume 1.848 m^3
Concrete
Mass 23544.000 N/m^3
Mass 23.544 kN/m^3
Dead Load 43.514 kN

Live Load 5.000
9.241 kN

Total 75.706 kN
M = (W*L)/8 40.381 kNm

Fv = W/2 37.853 kN
Sx = (M/Py) 146.842 cm^3
Beam Sizes
254x102x22 259.000 cm^3
254x122x25 306.000 cm^3 This One
203x103x23 234.000 cm^3

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Level Third Floor
Beam 254x102x25
D 257.2 mm d/t 37.5 mm E 2E+08
r 7.6 mm b/t 6.07 mm
T 8.4 mm S 306 cm^3
t 6 mm z 266 cm
I 3420 cm^4
T=7 <16mm
Py 275 N/mm^2
ε 1
CHECKS
ε x c/t(web) 6
Shear Strength
Pv 254.628 kN
0.6 x Pv 152.7768 kN
Fv < Pv True
Fv < Pv Low Shear
Bending Moment
<1.2 x Py x Z 87.78 kNm
Msw = 1.4 x ( 25 x 9.81/10^3 ) x L^3/8
Msw 0.781507

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Level Third Floor
Total Moment
Mt 41.163 kNm
Section is Adequate
Deflection Checks
ϭc = (5ῳI^3/384EI) 0.00133 m
1.333552 mm
span/360 11.85333
Web Buckling
Pc from table 27c 137 λ 93.75
Pw = (b1 + n1) x t x Pc 105809.2
105.8092 kN
Web Bearing
(b1 + n2) x t x Px
n2 = 2.5 (T + r) 40 mm
231000 231 kN
Fv < Pcrip OK
Pcs = (b1 x 2 (r + T) x Py 880000

880 kN
Fv < Pcs OK

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Level Third Floor
Column 305x305x118
Fv 132.754 D= 314.5 mm rx = 7.77 cm
Rt 289.166 kN B= 307.4 mm ry = 13.6 cm
t= 12 mm Ixx = 27,700 cm 4
d= 246.7 mm Zy = 589 cm 3
Mx 100 kNm Ay 150 cm 2 Sx = 1960 cm 3
My 25 kNm u= 0.851 Sy = 895 cm 3
x= 16.2 Py = 265 N/mm 2
Since 16<T<40, Py


If Less than 1 pass
0.07275 0.19253 0.1054074 OK 0.37068

λ = Le/ ry 26.67 Table 27c Pc= 254
Axial Buckling
F/AyPc 0.0759

m 1
n 1 mMx/Mb 0.1835266
β 1
mMy/PyZy 0.1601691
λ/x 1.6463

λLT nuv λ 17.4761

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Level Second Floor
Name Value Unit

Loads 96300 kg
Length 4.267 m
Width 4.267 m
Area 18.209 m^2
Thickness 0.102 m
Volume 1.848 m^3
Concrete
Mass 23544.000 N/m^3
Mass 23.544 kN/m^3
Dead Load 43.514 kN

Live Load 3.500
6.469 kN

Total 71.270 kN
M = (W*L)/8 38.015 kNm

Fv = W/2 35.635 kN
Sx = (M/Py) 138.238 cm^3
Beam Sizes
254x102x22 259.000 cm^3
254x122x25 306.000 cm^3 This One
203x103x23 234.000 cm^3

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Level Second Floor
Beam 254x102x25
D 257.2 mm d/t 37.5 mm E 2E+08
r 7.6 mm b/t 6.07 mm
T 8.4 mm S 306 cm^3
t 6 mm z 266 cm
I 3420 cm^4
T=7 <16mm
Py 275 N/mm^2
ε 1
CHECKS
ε x c/t(web) 6
Shear Strength
Pv 254.628 kN
0.6 x Pv 152.7768 kN
Fv < Pv True
Fv < Pv Low Shear
Bending Moment
<1.2 x Py x Z 87.78 kNm
Msw = 1.4 x ( 25 x 9.81/10^3 ) x L^3/8
Msw 0.781507

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Level Second Floor
Total Moment
Mt 38.797 kNm
Section is Adequate
Deflection Checks
ϭc = (5ῳI^3/384EI) 0.00093 m
0.933486 mm
span/360 11.85333
Web Buckling
Pw = (b1 + n1) x t x Pc 104266
104.266 kN
Web Bearing
(b1 + n2) x t x Px
n2 = 2.5 (T + r) 40 mm
231000 231 kN
Fv < Pcrip OK
Pcs = (b1 x 2 (r + T) x Py 880000

880 kN
Fv < Pcs OK

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Level Second Floor
Column 305x305x118
Fv 289.166 D= 314.5 mm rx = 7.77 cm
Rt 436.706 kN B= 307.4 mm ry = 13.6 cm
t= 12 mm Ixx = 27,700 cm 4
d= 246.7 mm Zy = 589 cm 3
Mx 100 kNm Ay 150 cm 2 Sx = 1960 cm 3
My 25 kNm u= 0.851 Sy = 895 cm 3
x= 16.2 Py = 265 N/mm 2
Since 16<T<40, Py


If Less than 1 pass
0.10986 0.19253 0.1054074 OK 0.4078

λ = Le/ ry 26.67 Table 27c Pc= 254
Axial Buckling
F/AyPc 0.11462

m 1
n 1 mMx/Mb 0.1835266
β 1
mMy/PyZy 0.1601691
λ/x 1.6463

λLT nuv λ 17.4761

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Level First Floor
Name Value Unit

Loads 96300 kg
Length 4.267 m
Width 4.267 m
Area 18.209 m^2
Thickness 0.102 m
Volume 1.848 m^3
Concrete
Mass 23544.000 N/m^3
Mass 23.544 kN/m^3
Dead Load 43.514 kN

Live Load 2.500
4.621 kN

Total 68.313 kN
M = (W*L)/8 36.438 kNm

Fv = W/2 34.156 kN
Sx = (M/Py) 132.502 cm^3
Beam Sizes
254x102x22 259.000 cm^3
254x122x25 306.000 cm^3 This One
203x103x23 234.000 cm^3

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Level First Floor
Beam 254x102x25
D 257.2 mm d/t 37.5 mm E 2E+08
r 7.6 mm b/t 6.07 mm
T 8.4 mm S 306 cm^3
t 6 mm z 266 cm
I 3420 cm^4
T=7 <16mm
Py 275 N/mm^2
ε 1
CHECKS
ε x c/t(web) 6
Shear Strength
Pv 254.628 kN
0.6 x Pv 152.7768 kN
Fv < Pv True
Fv < Pv Low Shear
Bending Moment
<1.2 x Py x Z 87.78 kNm
Msw = 1.4 x ( 25 x 9.81/10^3 ) x L^3/8
Msw 0.781507

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Level First Floor
Total Moment
Mt 37.220 kNm
Section is Adequate
Deflection Checks
ϭc = (5ῳI^3/384EI) 0.00067 m
0.666776 mm
span/360 11.85333
Web Buckling
Pw = (b1 + n1) x t x Pc 104266
104.266 kN
Web Bearing
(b1 + n2) x t x Px
n2 = 2.5 (T + r) 40 mm
231000 231 kN
Fv < Pcrip OK
Pcs = (b1 x 2 (r + T) x Py 880000

880 kN
Fv < Pcs OK

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Level First Floor
Column 305x305x118
Fv 436.706 D= 314.5 mm rx = 7.77 cm
Rt 578.332 kN B= 307.4 mm ry = 13.6 cm
t= 12 mm Ixx = 27,700 cm 4
d= 246.7 mm Zy = 589 cm 3
Mx 100 kNm Ay 150 cm 2 Sx = 1960 cm 3
My 25 kNm u= 0.851 Sy = 895 cm 3
x= 16.2 Py = 265 N/mm 2
Since 16<T<40, Py


If Less than 1 pass
0.14549 0.19253 0.1054074 OK 0.44343

λ = Le/ ry 26.67 Table 27c Pc= 254
Axial Buckling
F/AyPc 0.15179

m 1
n 1 mMx/Mb 0.1835266
β 1
mMy/PyZy 0.1601691
λ/x 1.6463

λLT nuv λ 17.4761

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7.4 Model Analysis
From a structural stand point the primary function of the proposed structure was to support and
transfer all applied loads. These applied loads were grouped into 2 broad categories:
Dynamic Loads: - these loads can be defined as ‘any load of which its magnitude, direction,
and/or position varies with time.’
Static Loads: - These loads can be defined as ‘A noncyclic load that produces no dynamic
effects.’ They are characterized by forces that are slowly applied to members.
Structural analysis can be divided into the following three large principal groups:
• Static analysis
• Stability analysis
• Vibration analysis
7.4.1 Static Analysis
This analysis is used when the load acting one the structure are stationary or applied very slowly
over time. Static Analysis can be divided into two sub areas:
 Static linear analysis, which serves to determine the internal forces and displacements in
members due to time-independent loading conditions. And are based on the following
conditions:
o Material of a structure obeys Hook’s law.
o Displacements of a structure are small.
o All constraints are two-sided – it means that if constraint prevents displacement in some
direction then this constraint prevents displacement in the opposite direction as well.
o Parameters of a structure do not change under loading.
• Nonlinear static analysis which serves to determine the displacements and internal forces due
to time-independent loading conditions, as if a structure is nonlinear.
7.4.2 Stability Analysis
This type of analysis deals with structures which are subjected to compressed time-independent
forces and includes the following types of analysis:
• Buckling analysis which determines the critical load and corresponding buckling mode shape
induced on the structural elements.
• P-delta analysis which applies for tall flexible structures and takes into consideration the
additional bending moments due by axial compressed loads P on the displacements caused by
the lateral loads
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7.4.3 Dynamic Analysis
‘Dynamical analysis means that the structures are subjected to time-dependent loads, the shock
and seismic loads, as well as moving loads with taking into account the dynamical effects.’
The following are some of the types of dynamic analysis:
• Free-vibration analysis (FVA). The purpose of this analysis is to determine the natural
frequencies (eigenvalues) and corresponding mode shapes (Eigen functions) of vibration.
• Stressed free-vibration analysis. The purpose of this analysis is to determine the eigenvalues
and corresponding Eigen functions of a structure, which is subjected to additional axial time-
independent forces.
• Time-history analysis. The purpose of this analysis is to determine the response of a structure,
which is subjected to arbitrarily time-varying loads.
7.5 Element Design Methods
7.5.1 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
In this design method member stresses under the influence of service loads are computed and
subsequently compared against predesigned stresses known as allowable stresses. Allowable
stress is usually expressed as a function of the yield stress (Fy) or tensile stress (Fu) of the
material.
A factor of safety is usually applied to reduce the nominal resistance of the structural member
to a fraction of its capacity. This accounts for approximations used in structural analysis such
as overload and understrength of the material or member.
The general format for an allowable stress design has the form:
where Rn is the nominal resistance of the structural component expressed in a unit of stress; Qni
is the service, or working stresses computed from the applied working load of type i; F.S. is
the factor of safety; i is the load type (dead, live, wind, etc.), and m is the number of load type
considered in the design. The left-hand side of the equation, Rn/F.S., represents the allowable
stress of the structural component.
7.5.2 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
LRFD is a probability-based limit state design procedure. In its development, both load effects
and resistance were treated as random variables. Their variabilities and uncertainties were

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represented by frequency distribution curves. A design is considered satisfactory according to
the strength criterion if the resistance exceeds the load effects by a comfortable margin.
Handbook of Structural Engineering edited by Wai-Fah Chen and Eric M. Lui further stated
the following:
In actual design, a resistance factor φ is applied to the nominal resistance of the structural
component to account for any uncertainties associated with the determination of its strength
and a load factor is applied to each load type to account for the uncertainties and difficulties
associated with determining its actual load magnitude. Different load factors are used for
different load types to reflect the varying degree of uncertainty associated with the
determination of load magnitudes.
In general, a lower load factor is used for a load that is more predictable and a higher load
factor is used for a load that is less predictable.
Mathematically, the LRFD format takes the form
Where φRn represents the design (or usable) strength, and ΣγQni represents the required strength
or load effect for a given load combination. LRFD is based on the limit state design concept.

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8.0 Estimated Budget
Table 7: Estimated Budget
No Description Material Total

1 Roof $ 6,017,865.00
2 Floors $ 41,239,330.00
3 Ground Floor $ 15,315,005.00
4 Steel $ 30,470,520.00
5 Floors $ 41,239,330.00
6 Ceilings $ 3,526,875.00
7 Windows and Doors $ 35,870,000.00
8 Plumbing $ 8,945,000.00
9 Electrical Works $ 20,000,000.00
10 Miscellaneous $ 10,000,000.00
Total $ 212,623,925.00

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Item DESCRIPTION QTY UNIT RATE ($GY) TOTAL ($GY)
Concrete Works
Slab over elevator 7" thk. 4 cu.yd 31500 $ 126,000.00
1/4" dia. Bars at 6" ctrs. 51 lb 105 $ 5,355.00
1/4" dia. Bars at 5" ctrs. 62 lb 105 $ 6,510.00
Formwork 20 sq.yd 1800 $ 36,000.00
Floor
Steel Decking 5844 lin.ft 1000 $ 5,844,000.00
$ 6,017,865.00
DESCRIPTION QTY UNIT RATE ($GY) TOTAL ($GY)

Concrete Works, Block Work &
Reinforcement
1.25" diameter main bars 30857 lb 125 $ 3,857,125.00
1/2" diameter stirrups at 6" ctrs. 13288 lb 120 $ 1,594,560.00
1.25" diameter main bars 20795 lb 125 $ 2,599,375.00
1/2" diameter stirrups at 6" ctrs. 6755 lb 120 $ 810,600.00
Washroom Slab 8" thk. 20 cu.yd 31500 $ 630,000.00
1/4" dia. Bars at 5" ctrs. for washroom

slab 233 lb 105 $ 24,465.00
1/2" dia. Bars at 8" ctrs. For washroom

slab 579 lb 120 $ 69,480.00
Formwork 1331 sq.yd 1800 $ 2,395,800.00
External and Washroom Walls 4" x 8"

x 16" H.C.B. 468 sq.yd 1400 $ 655,200.00
1/2" thick cement / sand mortar (1:3) to

both sides of block work 936 sq.yd 1200 $ 1,123,200.00
1' x 1' ceramic non skid tiles to

washroom floor and walls
864 sq.yd 1800 $ 1,555,200.00
$ 15,315,005.00

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Internal Walls
Soul plate & wall plate 2" x 4" green

heart 1012 lin.ft 270 $ 273,240.00
2" x 4" green heart studs at 3' ctrs 2304 lin.ft 270 $ 622,080.00
Sheet rock to both sides of internal

walls 1350 sq.yd 1125 $ 1,518,750.00
Floor
Steel Decking 5844 lin.ft 1000 $ 5,844,000.00
Ceiling
3/8" thk. plywood 2090 sq.yd 1125 $ 2,351,250.00
$ 41,239,330.00
DESCRIPTION QTY UNIT RATE ($GY) TOTAL ($GY)

Windows and Doors
Casement windows (96" x 60") 80 nr. 60000 $ 4,800,000.00
Casement windows (96" x 30") 10 nr. 30000 $ 300,000.00
Fixed windows (96" x 60") 30 nr. 45000 $ 1,350,000.00
Internal panel doors (7' x 3') 60 nr. 20000 $ 1,200,000.00
External double hung panel doors (7' x 4

4') each nr 200000 $ 800,000.00
Light construction washroom doors (7' 40

x 3'-6") nr. 15000 $ 600,000.00
Glass 530 cu.yd 50000 $ 26,500,000.00
Emergency fire exit doors 4 nr. 80000 $ 320,000.00

$ 35,870,000.00

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Plumbing
Toilets 41 nr. 25000 $ 1,025,000.00
Sinks 22 nr. 10000 $ 220,000.00
Water Tank 24 sum 300000 $ 7,200,000.00
Plumbing fixtures 1 sum 500000 $ 500,000.00
$ 8,945,000.00
Electrical Work 1 sum 20000000 $ 20,000,000.00
Miscellaneous
Paint 3 No. coats 8000 sq.yd 300 $ 2,400,000.00
Elevator 2 nr. 3000000 $ 6,000,000.00
Stairs 8 sum 200000 $ 1,600,000.00

$ 10,000,000.00
TOTAL $ 119,630,000.00
Item Name Description Unit Quantity Length Total Weight Rate Amount
kg Tonne
1 Column 305x305x118 No 216 4.272 107314 107.314 200000 $ 21,462,826
2 Beam 254x102x22 No 110 4.272 10147.2 10.1472 200000 $ 2,029,434
3 Beam 254x122x25 No 330 4.272 34891.3 34.8913 200000 $ 6,978,260
$ 30,470,520.00

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9.0 Availability of Materials
With respect to the availability of construction materials for the steel design option, a
substantially large amount of the materials may require import due to the probability of custom
steel section sizes required by the design which may not stocked by local material suppliers.
The added cost of import of these structural elements will further impact on the overall cost of
the respective model option.
The desired structural concrete mix can be sourced from local concrete mix manufacturers
based on required concrete strength. Structural steel rebar can also be acquired locally from
material suppliers although cost for import may occur later in the project implementation stage.
10.0 Construction Scheduling
With respect to the scheduling of construction works for the steel option, structural steel
framing can be assembled once the required steel sections are available and the required labour
and machinery are on site. These steel section can be assembled continuously if need be.
11.0 Limitations
The following is a list of limitations experienced by the researcher:
Lack of readily available information, manuals and persons with knowledge of Autodesk Robot
Structural Analysis.
Lack of time due to courses commencing late and running into project dedicated time.
12.0 Conclusion
In conclusion this building will provide the following:
Infrastructure for the University’s growing population.
Adequate space for the Administrative Staff since the current building is cramped.
It will provide Guyanese students with the opportunity to further their education.
Ease the burden of long waiting time in the sun and prolonged periods of standing.
Faster processing time of students and enrolling students.
Easier access to Student and other records.
More available space, thus an increase in the number of staff can be done.

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13.0 Recommendations
The following is a list of recommendations made by the researcher:
Design of a Reinforced Concrete structure or a composite structure and a cost comparison to
determine which design is more economical.
Design of alternative floor systems in order to determine the most suitable one.
Structural Analysis of concrete options taking into consideration creep and shrinkage factors.
Greater research can be done with emphasis on earthquake resisting designs since Guyana has
been experiencing an increase in earthquake activity.

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14.0 References
 Arya, C., 2009. Design of Structural Elements. 3rd ed. New York: Taylor & Francis.
 Chen, W.-F. & Lui, E. M., 2005. Handbook of Structural Engineering. 2nd ed. New
York: Taylor & Francis.
 Hassoun, N. M. & Al-Manaseer, A., 2008. Structural Concrete Theory & Design.
4th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc..
 Hibbeler, R. C., 2012. Structural Analysis. 8th ed. New Jersey: Perason Prentice
Hall.
 Karnovsky, I. A. & Lebed, O., 2010. Advanced Methods of Structural Analysis. 5th
ed. New York: Springer.
 Karnovsky, I. A. & Lebed, O., 2010. Advanced Methods of Structural Analysis. 1st
ed. New York: Springer.
 Merrit, F. S. & Ricketts, J. T., 2001. Building Design and Construction. 6th ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
 Nawy, E. G., 2008. Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook. 2nd ed. London:
CRC Press.
 Solomon, C. G. & Johnson, J. E., 1996. Steel Structures Design and Behaviour. 4th
ed. New York: Harper Collins College Publishers.
 University of Guyana,. Strategic Plan: 2009-2012. 2009. Print.
 O. L. Igor A. Karnovsky, Advanced Methods of Structural Analysis, New York:
Springer, 2010.
 American Institute of Steel Construction, Specification for Structural Steel
Buildings, American Institute of Steel Construction, 2010.

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APPENDIX A – Building Information
Building Information Sheet
Building Name Proposed New Administration
Building
Building Type
Office Building
University of Guyana, Turkeyen
Location Campus, East Coast Demerara,
Guyana
Steel Framed Structure
Construction Type
Building Use Office, Administration
Estimated Number of
900
Occupants
Building Information
Number of Floors Above Grade 4
Number of Floors Below Grade 0
2
Total Floor Area 9408 ft
Storey Height 14 Ft
Structure Height 56 Ft
Structure Length 112 Ft
Structure Width 84 Ft
Structural Information
Combination of Steel and
Building Materials
Composite Members

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APPENDIX B – Material Properties
Concrete
The following section highlights some additional information on the material properties of
concrete used in the analysis and design of the proposed structure
These quantities are calculated with the assumption of sand having a bulk density of 1450
kg/m3 and stone 1600 kg/m3. The density of the aggregate material being 2650 kg/m3.

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Non-Linear Material Data
Time Dependent Properties

Time dependence was considered for the following
• Compressive Strength & Stiffness
• Creep
• Shrinkage

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APPENDIX C – EIA Procedure
Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure
The EIA process makes sure that environmental issues are raised when a project or plan is first
discussed and that all concerns are addressed as a project gains momentum through to
implementation. Recommendations made by the EIA may necessitate the redesign of some
project components, require further studies, suggest changes which alter the economic viability
of the project or cause a delay in project implementation. To be of most benefit it is essential
that an environmental assessment is carried out to determine significant impacts early in the
project cycle so that recommendations can be built into the design and cost-benefit analysis
without causing major delays or increased design costs. To be effective once implementation
has commenced, the EIA should lead to a mechanism whereby adequate monitoring is
undertaken to realize environmental management. An important output from the EIA process
should be the delineation of enabling mechanisms for such effective management.
The way in which an EIA is carried out is not rigid: it is a process comprising a series of steps.
These steps are outlined below and the techniques more commonly used in EIA are described
in some detail in the parts on Techniques. The main steps in the EIA process are:
• screening
• scoping
• prediction and mitigation
• management and monitoring
• audit
Figure below shows a general flow diagram of the EIA process, how it fits in with parallel
technical and economic studies and the role of public participation. In some cases, such as
small-scale irrigation schemes, the transition from identification through to detailed design may
be rapid and some steps in the EIA procedure may be omitted.
• Screening often results in a categorization of the project and from this a decision is made on
whether or not a full EIA is to be carried out.
• Scoping is the process of determining which are the most critical issues to study and will
involve community participation to some degree. It is at this early stage that EIA can most
strongly influence the outline proposal.
• Detailed prediction and mitigation studies follow scoping and are carried out in parallel
with feasibility studies.
• The main output report is called an Environmental Impact Statement, and contains a detailed
plan for managing and monitoring environmental impacts both during and after
implementation.

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• Finally, an audit of the EIA process is carried out some time after implementation. The audit
serves a useful feedback and learning function.
Figure 22: Flow diagram of the EIA process and parallel studies

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Figure 23: Key stages of EIA

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Resources
An EIA team for an irrigation and drainage study is likely to be composed of some or all of the
following: a team leader; a hydrologist; an irrigation/drainage engineer; a fisheries
biologist/ecologist; an agronomist/pesticide expert; a soil conservation expert; a
biological/environmental scientist; an economist, a social scientist and a health scientist
(preferably an epidemiologist). The final structure of the team will vary depending on the
project. Specialists may also be required for fieldwork, laboratory testing, library research, data
processing, surveys and modelling. The team leader will require significant management skill
to co-ordinate the work of a team with diverse skills and knowledge.
There will be a large number of people involved in EIA apart from the full-time team members.
These people will be based in a wide range of organizations, such as the project proposing and
authorizing bodies, regulatory authorities and various interest groups. Such personnel would
be located in various agencies and also in the private sector; a considerable number will need
specific EIA training.
The length of the EIA will obviously depend on the programme, plan or project under review.
However, the process usually lasts from between 6 and 18 months from preparation through to
review. It will normally be approximately the same length as the feasibility study of which it
should form an integral part. It is essential that the EIA team and the team carrying out the
feasibility study work together and not in isolation from each other. This often provides the
only opportunity for design changes to be made and mitigation measures to be incorporated in
the project design.
The cost of the study will vary considerably and only very general estimates can be given here.
Typically, costs vary from between 0.1 and 0.3 percent of the total project cost for large projects
over US$ 100 million and from 0.2 to 0.5 percent for projects less than US$ 100 million. For
small projects the cost could increase to between 1 and 3 percent of the project cost.
Screening
Screening is the process of deciding on whether an EIA is required. This may be determined
by size (eg greater than a predetermined surface area of irrigated land that would be affected,
more than a certain percentage or flow to be diverted or more than a certain capital
expenditure). Alternatively it may be based on site-specific information. For example, the
repair of a recently destroyed diversion structure is unlikely to require an EIA whilst a major
new headwork structure may. Guidelines for whether or not an EIA is required will be country
specific depending on the laws or norms in operation. Legislation often specifies the criteria
for screening and full EIA. All major donors screen projects presented for financing to decide
whether an EIA is required.
The output from the screening process is often a document called an Initial Environmental
Examination or Evaluation (IEE). The main conclusion will be a classification of the project

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according to its likely environmental sensitivity. This will determine whether an EIA is needed
and if so to what detail.
Scoping
Scoping occurs early in the project cycle at the same time as outline planning and pre-feasibility
studies. Scoping is the process of identifying the key environmental issues and is perhaps the
most important step in an EIA. Several groups, particularly decision makers, the local
population and the scientific community, have an interest in helping to deliberate the issues
which should be considered, and scoping is designed to canvass their views, (Wathern 1988).
Scoping is important for two reasons. First, so that problems can be pinpointed early allowing
mitigating design changes to be made before expensive detailed work is carried out. Second,
to ensure that detailed prediction work is only carried out for important issues. It is not the
purpose of an EIA to carry out exhaustive studies on all environmental impacts for all projects.
If key issues are identified and a full scale EIA considered necessary, then the scoping should
include terms of reference for these further studies.
At this stage the option exists for cancelling or drastically revising the project should major
environmental problems be identified. Equally it may be the end of the EIA process should the
impacts be found to be insignificant. Once this stage has passed, the opportunity for major
changes to the project is restricted.
Before the scoping exercise can be fully started, the remit of the study needs to be defined and
agreed by the relevant parties. These will vary depending on the institutional structure. At a
minimum, those who should contribute to determining the remit will include those who decide
whether a policy or project is implemented, those carrying out the EIA (or responsible for
having it carried out by others) and those carrying out parallel engineering and economic
studies relating to the proposal. A critical issue to determine is the breadth of the study. For
example, if a proposed project is to increase the area of irrigated agriculture in a region by 10%,
is the remit of the EIA to study the proposal only or also to consider options that would have
the same effect on production?
A major activity of scoping is to identify key interest groups, both governmental and non-
governmental, and to establish good lines of communication. People who are affected by the
project need to hear about it as soon as possible. Their knowledge and perspectives may have
a major bearing on the focus of the EIA. Rapid rural appraisal techniques provide a means of
assessing the needs and views of the affected population.
The main EIA techniques used in scoping are baseline studies, checklists,
matrices and network diagrams. These techniques collect and present knowledge and
information in a straightforward way so that logical decisions can be made about which impacts
are most significant. Risk and uncertainty are discussed further in the section Managing
uncertainty.

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Prediction and mitigation
Once the scoping exercise is complete and the major impacts to be studied have been identified,
prediction work can start. This stage forms the central part of an EIA. Several major options
are likely to have been proposed either at the scoping stage or before and each option may
require separate prediction studies. Realistic and affordable mitigating measures cannot be
proposed without first estimating the scope of the impacts, which should be in monetary terms
wherever possible. It then becomes important to quantify the impact of the suggested
improvements by further prediction work. Clearly, options need to be discarded as soon as their
unsuitability can be proved or alternatives shown to be superior in environmental or economic
terms, or both. It is also important to test the "without project" scenario.
An important outcome of this stage will be recommendations for mitigating measures. This
would be contained in the Environmental Impact Statement. Clearly the aim will be to
introduce measures which minimize any identified adverse impacts and enhance positive
impacts. Formal and informal communication links need to be established with teams carrying
out feasibility studies so that their work can take proposals into account. Similarly, feasibility
studies may indicate that some options are technically or economically unacceptable and thus
environmental prediction work for these options will not be required.
Many mitigating measures do not define physical changes but require management or
institutional changes or additional investment, such as for health services. Mitigating measures
may also be procedural changes, for example, the introduction of, or increase in, irrigation
service fees to promote efficiency and water conservation.
By the time prediction and mitigation are undertaken, the project preparation will be advanced
and a decision will most likely have been made to proceed with the project. Considerable
expenditure may have already been made and budgets allocated for the implementation of the
project. Major changes could be disruptive to project processing and only accepted if prediction
shows that impacts will be considerably worse than originally identified at the scoping stage.
For example, an acceptable measure might be to alter the mode of operation of a reservoir to
protect downstream fisheries, but a measure proposing an alternative to dam construction could
be highly contentious at this stage. To avoid conflict, it is important that the EIA process
commences early in the project cycle.
This phase of an EIA will require good management of a wide range of technical specialists
with particular emphasis on:
• prediction methods;
• interpretation of predictions, with and without mitigating measures;
• assessment of comparisons.
It is important to assess the required level of accuracy of predictions. Mathematical

modelling is a valuable technique, but care must be taken to choose models that suit the

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available data. Because of the level of available knowledge and the complexity of the systems,
physical systems are modelled more successfully than ecological systems which in turn are
more successfully modelled than social systems. Social studies (including institutional capacity
studies) will probably produce output in non-numerical terms. Expert advice, particularly from
experts familiar with the locality, can provide quantification of impacts that cannot be
modelled. Various techniques are available to remove the bias of individual opinion.
Checklists, matrices, networks diagrams, graphical comparisons and overlays, are all
techniques developed to help carry out an EIA and present the results of an EIA in a format
useful for comparing options. The main quantifiable methods of comparing options are by
applying weightings, to environmental impacts or using economic cost-benefit analysis or a
combination of the two. Numerical values, or weightings, can be applied to different
environmental impacts to (subjectively) define their relative importance. Assigning economic
values to all environmental impacts is not recommended as the issues are obscured by the
single, final answer. However, economic techniques, can provide insight into comparative
importance where different environmental impacts are to be compared, such as either losing
more wetlands or resettling a greater number of people.
When comparing a range of proposals or a variety of mitigation or enhancement activities, a

number of characteristics of different impacts need to be highlighted. The relative importance
of impacts needs agreeing, usually following a method of reaching a consensus but including
economic considerations. The uncertainty in predicting the impact should be clearly noted.
Finally, the time frame in which the impact will occur should be indicated, including whether
or not the impact is irreversible.
Management and monitoring
The part of the EIS covering monitoring and management is often referred to as
the Environmental Action Plan or Environmental Management Plan. This section not only
sets out the mitigation measures needed for environmental management, both in the short and
long term, but also the institutional requirements for implementation. The term 'institutional' is
used here in its broadest context to encompass relationships:
• established by law between individuals and government;

• between individuals and groups involved in economic transactions;
• developed to articulate legal, financial and administrative links among public agencies;
• motivated by socio-psychological stimuli among groups and individuals
The above list highlights the breadth of options available for environmental management,
namely: changes in law; changes in prices; changes in governmental institutions; and, changes
in culture which may be influenced by education and information dissemination. All the
management proposals need to be clearly defined and costed. One of the more straightforward
and effective changes is to set-up a monitoring programme with clear definition as to which

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agencies are responsible for data collection, collation, interpretation and implementation of
management measures.
The purpose of monitoring is to compare predicted and actual impacts, particularly if the
impacts are either very important or the scale of the impact cannot be very accurately predicted.
The results of monitoring can be used to manage the environment, particularly to highlight
problems early so that action can be taken. The range of parameters requiring monitoring may
be broad or narrow and will be dictated by the 'prediction and mitigation' stage of the EIA.
Typical areas of concern where monitoring is weak are: water quality, both inflow and outflow;
stress in sensitive ecosystems; soil fertility, particularly salinization problems; water related
health hazards; equity of water distributions; groundwater levels.
The use of satellite imagery to monitor changes in land use and the 'health' of the land and sea
is becoming more common and can prove a cost-effective tool, particularly in areas with poor
access. Remotely sensed data have the advantage of not being constrained by political and
administrative boundaries. They can be used as one particular overlay in a GIS. However,
authorization is needed for their use, which may be linked to national security issues, and may
thus be hampered by reluctant governments.
Monitoring should not be seen as an open-ended commitment to collect data. If the need for
monitoring ceases, data collection should cease. Conversely, monitoring may reveal the need
for more intensive study and the institutional infrastructure must be sufficiently flexible to
adapt to changing demands. The information obtained from monitoring and management can
be extremely useful for future EIAs, making them both more accurate and more efficient.
The Environmental Management Plan needs to not only include clear recommendations for
action and the procedures for their implementation but must also define a programme and costs.
It must be quite clear exactly how management and mitigation methods are phased with project
implementation and when costs will be incurred. Mitigation and management measures will
not be adopted unless they can be shown to be practicable and good value for money. The plan
should also stipulate that if, during project implementation, major changes are introduced, or
if the project is aborted, the EIA procedures will be re-started to evaluate the effect of such
actions.
Auditing
In order to capitalise on the experience and knowledge gained, the last stage of an EIA is to
carry out an Environmental Audit sometime after completion of the project or implementation
of a programme. It will therefore usually be done by a separate team of specialists to that
working on the bulk of the EIA. The audit should include an analysis of the technical,
procedural and decision-making aspects of the EIA. Technical aspects include: the adequacy
of the baseline studies, the accuracy of predictions and the suitability of mitigation measures.
Procedural aspects include: the efficiency of the procedure, the fairness of the public
involvement measures and the degree of coordination of roles and responsibilities. Decision-

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making aspects include: the utility of the process for decision making and the implications for
development, (adapted from Sadler in Wathern, 1988). The audit will determine whether
recommendations and requirements made by the earlier EIA steps were incorporated
successfully into project implementation. Lessons learnt and formally described in an audit can
greatly assist in future EIAs and build up the expertise and efficiency of the concerned
institutions.
Public participation
Projects or programmes have significant impacts on the local population. Whilst the aim is to
improve the well-being of the population, a lack of understanding of the people and their
society may result in development that has considerable negative consequences. More
significantly, there may be divergence between national economic interests and those of the
local population. For example, the need to increase local rice production to satisfy increasing
consumption in the urban area may differ from the needs as perceived by the local farmers. To
allow for this, public participation in the planning process is essential. The EIA provides an
ideal forum for checking that the affected public have been adequately consulted and their
views taken into account in project preparation.
The level of consultation will vary depending on the type of plan or project. New projects
involving resettlement or displacement will require the most extensive public participation. As
stated before, the purpose of an EIA is to improve projects and this, to some extent, can only
be achieved by involving those people directly or indirectly affected. The value of
environmental amenities is not absolute and consensus is one way of establishing values. Public
consultation will reveal new information, improve understanding and enable better choices to
be made. Without consultation, legitimate issues may not be heard, leading to conflict and
unsustainability.
The community should not only be consulted they should be actively involved in environmental
matters. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature, IUCN promotes the concept
of Primary Environmental Care whereby farmers, for example, with assistance from extension
services, are directly involved in environmental management. The earlier the public are
involved, the better. Ideally this will be before a development proposal is fully defined. It is an
essential feature of successful scoping, at which stage feedback will have the maximum
influence. Openness about uncertainty should be a significant feature of this process. As the
EIA progresses, public consultation is likely to be decreased though it is important to
disseminate information. The publication of the draft Environmental Impact Statement (EIS),
will normally be accompanied by some sort of public hearing that needs to be chaired by a
person with good communication skills. He/she may not be a member of the EIA team.
There are no clear rules about how to involve the public and it is important that the process
remains innovative and flexible. In practice, the views of people affected by the plan are likely
to be heard through some form of representation rather than directly. It is therefore important
to understand how decisions are made locally and what are the methods of communication,

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including available government extension services. The range of groups outside the formal
structure with relevant information are likely to include: technical and scientific societies;
Water User Groups; NGOs; experts on local culture; and religious groups. However, it is
important to find out which groups are under-represented and which ones are responsible for
access to natural resources, namely: grazing, water, fishing and forest products. The views of
racial minorities, women, religious minorities, political minorities and lower cast groups are
commonly overlooked, (World Bank, 1991).
There has been an enormous increase in the number of environmental NGOs and "Green"
pressure groups throughout the world. Such organizations often bring environmental issues to
the attention of the local press. However, this should not deter consultation with such
organizations as the approach to EIA should be open and positive with the aim of making
improvements. Relevant NGOs should be identified and their experience and technical capacity
put to good use.
In some countries, open public meetings are the most common technique to enable public
participation. However, the sort of open debate engendered at such meetings is often both
culturally alien and unacceptable. Alternative techniques must be used. Surveys, workshops,
small group meetings and interviews with key groups and individuals are all techniques that
may be useful. Tools such as maps, models and posters can help to illustrate points and improve
communication. Where resettlement is proposed, extensive public participation must be
allowed which will, at a minimum, involve an experienced anthropologist or sociologist who
speaks the local language. He/she can expect to spend months, rather than weeks, in the field.
Information dissemination can be achieved using a number of mechanisms including the

broadcasting media, in particular newspapers and radio. Posters and leaflets are also useful and
need to be distributed widely to such locations as schools, clinics, post offices, community
centres, religious buildings, bus stops, shops etc. The EIA process must be seen to be fair.
The public participation/consultation and information dissemination activities need to be

planned and budgeted. The social scientist team member should define how and when activities
take place and also the strategy: extensive field work is expensive. It is important to note that
public participation activities are often reported as a separate section of the final EIA. Where
experience of managing community involvement is limited, training is highly recommended.
Further reading on public participation can be obtained from: Ahmed L and G K Sammy (1988)
and on Rapid Rural Appraisal from Chambers R (1981). Rapid Rural Appraisal techniques may
be an appropriate and cost effective method of assessment.
Managing uncertainty
An EIA involves prediction and thus uncertainty is an integral part. There are two types of
uncertainty associated with environmental impact assessments: that associated with the process
and, that associated with predictions. With the former the uncertainty is whether the most
important impacts have been identified or whether recommendations will be acted upon or

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ignored. For the latter the uncertainty is in the accuracy of the findings. The main types of
uncertainty and the ways in which they can be minimized are discussed by de Jongh in Wathern
(1988). They can be summarized as follows:
• uncertainty of prediction: this is important at the data collection stage and the final certainty
will only be resolved once implementation commences. Research can reduce the uncertainty;
• uncertainty of values: this reflects the approach taken in the EIA process. Final certainty will
be determined at the time decisions are made. Improved communications and extensive
negotiations should reduce this uncertainty;
• uncertainty of related decision: this affects the decision making element of the EIA process
and final certainty will be determined by post evaluation. Improved coordination will reduce
uncertainty.
Techniques
The importance of very wide consultation cannot be overemphasized in minimizing the risk of
missing important impacts. The significance of impacts is subjective, but the value judgements
required are best arrived at by consensus: public participation and consultation with a wide
sector of the community will reduce uncertainty. One commonly recurring theme is the
dilemma of whether to place greater value on short-term benefits or long-term problems.
The accuracy of predictions is dependent on a variety of factors such as lack of data or lack of
knowledge. It is important not to focus on predictions that are relatively easy to calculate at the
expense of impacts that may be far more significant but difficult to analyse. Prediction
capabilities are generally good in the physical and chemical sciences, moderate in ecological
sciences and poor in social sciences. Surveys are the most wide-spread technique for estimating
people's responses and possible future actions.
The results of the EIA should indicate the level of uncertainty with the use of confidence limits
and probability analyses wherever possible. Sensitivity analysis similar to that used in
economic evaluation, could be used if adequate quantifiable data are available. A range of
outcomes can be found by repeating predictions and adjusting key variables.
EIA cannot give a precise picture of the future, much as the Economic Internal Rate of Return
cannot give a precise indication of economic success. EIA enables uncertainty to be managed
and, as such, is an aid to better decision making. A useful management axiom is to preserve
flexibility in the face of uncertainty.
Baseline studies
Baseline studies using available data and local knowledge will be required for scoping. Once
key issues have been identified, the need for further in-depth studies can be clearly identified

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and any additional data collection initiated. The ICID Check-list will be found useful to define
both coarse information required for scoping and further baseline studies required for
prediction and monitoring. Specialists, preferably with local knowledge, will be needed in each
key area identified. They will need to define further data collection, to ensure that it is efficient
and targeted to answer specific questions, and to quantify impacts. A full year of baseline data
is desirable to capture seasonal effects of many environmental phenomena. However, to avoid
delay in decision making, short-term data monitoring should be undertaken in parallel with
long-term collection to provide conservative estimates of environmental impacts.
The ICID Check‐list
A comprehensive and user-friendly checklist is an invaluable aid for several activities of an

EIA, particularly scoping and defining baseline studies. "The ICID Environmental Check-List
to Identify Environmental Effects of Irrigation, Drainage and Flood Control Projects" (Mock
and Bolton, 1993) is recommended for use in any irrigation and drainage EIA. The Check-list
has been prepared for non-specialists and enables much time-consuming work to be carried out
in advance of expert input. It includes extensive data collection sheets. The collected data can
then be used to answer a series of questions to identify major impacts and to identify shortages
of data. A matrix indicates which data are linked to which questions. Chapter 4 describes the
major impacts based on the 8 Check-list topics.
The very simple layout of the sheet enables an overview of impacts to be presented clearly
which is of enormous value for the scoping process. Similarly, data shortages can be readily
seen. The process of using the ICID Check-list may be repeated at different stages of an EIA
with varying levels of detail. Once scoping has been completed, the results sheet may be
modified to omit minor topics and to change the horizontal classification to provide further
information about the impacts being assessed. At this point the output from the Check-list can
be useful as an input to matrices. The ICID Check-list is also available as a WINDOWS based
software package. This enables the rapid production of a report directly from the field study.
Matrices
The major use of matrices is to indicate cause and effect by listing activities along the horizontal
axis and environmental parameters along the vertical axis. In this way the impacts of both
individual components of projects as well as major alternatives can be compared. The simplest
matrices use a single mark to show whether an impact is predicted or not. However it is easy
to increase the information level by changing the size of the mark to indicate scale, or by using
a variety of symbols to indicate different attributes of the impact. The choice of symbols in this
example enables the reader to see at a glance whether or not there was an impact and, if so,
whether the impact was beneficial or detrimental, temporary or permanent. Figure 8 is another
example of a matrix, in this case used to clearly indicate the importance of a range of wetland
values.

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ICOLD has prepared a large and comprehensive matrix for use in EIAs for dams. The system
of symbols for each box shows: whether the impact is beneficial or detrimental; the scale of
the impact; the probability of occurrence; the time-scale of occurrence; and, whether the design
has taken the impact into account, (ICOLD, 1980). This comprehensive approach, however,
makes the final output rather difficult to use and a maximum of three criteria is recommended
per impact to maintain clarity. Ahmad and Sammy (1985) suggest that the most important
criteria are: magnitude, or degree of change; geographical extent; significance; and, special
sensitivity. "Significance" could be further sub-divided to indicate why an impact is significant.
For example, it may be because of irreversibility, economic vulnerability, a threat to rare
species etc. "Special sensitivity" refers to locally important issues. A series of matrices at all
stages of the EIA process can be a particularly effective way of presenting information. Each
matrix may be used to compare options rated against a few criteria at a time.
The greatest drawback of matrices are that they can only effectively illustrate primary
impacts. Network diagrams, described below, are a useful and complementary form of
illustration to matrices as their main purpose is to illustrate higher order impacts and to indicate
how impacts are inter-related.
Matrices help to choose between alternatives by consensus. One method is to make pair-wise
comparisons. It provides a simple way for a group of people to compare a large number of
options and reduce them to a few choices. First a matrix is drawn with all options listed both
horizontally and vertically. Each option is then compared with every other one and a score of
1 assigned to the preferred option or 0.5 to both options if no preference is agreed.

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Figure 24: A sample of the Table

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Figure 25: Table 2 Ultimate net environmental impact assessment at a glance, Feitsui reservoir

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Table 8: Example of Pair wise comparison
Network diagrams
A network diagram is a technique for illustrating how impacts are related and what the
consequences of impacts are. For example, it may be possible to fairly accurately predict the
impact of increased diversions or higher irrigation efficiencies on the low flow regime of a
river. However, there may be many and far reaching secondary or tertiary consequences of a
change in low flow. These consequences can be illustrated using network diagrams. For
example, reduced low flows are likely to reduce the production of fish which may or may not
be of importance depending on the value (either ecological or economic) of the fish. If fish are
an important component of diet or income, the reduction may lead to a local reduction in the
health status, impoverishment and possibly migration. Also, reduced low flow coupled with
increased pollution, perhaps as a result of increased agricultural industry, may further damage
the fish population as well as reduce access to safe water.
Figure below shows an example of a network diagram for a proposed plan to increase the use
of groundwater for irrigation by providing subsidies for sinking deep tube wells. This shows
the primary through to quaternary impacts, as anticipated at the scoping stage. The main crop
in the area is rice. Detailed prediction work following scoping would estimate the level to which
the groundwater would fall and quantify the impacts which, together with economic analysis,
would clarify which impacts were most important and most likely and also determine the most
suitable mitigation measures

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Figure 26: Graphical comparison of alternatives. The final choice of either option B or option C will depend on the
'weighting' chosen (Source: Ahmad and Sammy, 1985)
Overlays
Overlays provide a technique for illustrating the geographical extent of different environmental
impacts. Each overlay is a map of a single impact. For example, saline effected areas,
deforested areas, limit of a groundwater pollution plume etc can be analysed and clearly
demonstrated to non-experts. The original technique used transparencies which is somewhat
cumbersome. However, the development of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can make
this technique particularly suitable for comparing options, pinpointing sensitive zones and
proposing different areas or methods of land management.
Mathematical modelling
Mathematical modelling is one of the most useful tools for prediction work. It is the natural
tool to assess both flow quantities and qualities (eg salt/water balances, pollution transport,
changing flood patterns). However, it is essential to use methods with an accuracy which
reflects the quality of the input data, which may be quite coarse. It should also be appreciated
that model output is not necessarily an end in itself but may be an input for assessing the
impact of changes in economic, social and ecological terms. Mathematical modelling was
used very effectively to study the Hadejia-Jama' are region in Nigeria. In this case the
modelling demonstrated the most effective method of operating upstream reservoirs in order
to conserve economically and socially valuable, and ecologically important downstream
wetlands. Optimal operation was found to be considerably different from the traditional

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method originally proposed. Under the revised regime the economic returns were also found
to be higher.
Figure 27: Example of network analysis showing the impact of a policy to utilize groundwater by subsidizing tubewells

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Expert advice
Expert advice should be sought for predictions which are inherently non-numeric and is
particularly suitable for estimating social and cultural impacts. It should preferably take the
form of a consensus of expert opinion. Local experience will provide invaluable insight. Expert
opinions are also likely to be needed to assess the implications of any modelling predictions.
For example, a model could be developed to calculate the area of wetlands no longer annually
flooded due to upstream abstractions. However, the impact on wetland species or the reduction
in wetland productivity resulting from the reduced flooding may not be so precisely
quantifiable but require a prediction based on expert opinion.
Economic techniques
Economic techniques have been developed to try to value the environment and research work
is continuing in environmental economics. This is a specialist subject and only a brief
introduction is included here. For more detailed information the reader is advised to read
Winpenny (1991) and other standard texts. It is important to stress that environmentally sound
development brings long term economic benefits. Unfortunately, short term gains are often
given priority.
The most commonly used methods of project appraisal are cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness
analysis. It has not been found easy to incorporate environmental impacts into traditional cost-
benefit analysis, principally because of the difficulty in quantifying and valuing environmental
effects. An EIA can provide information on the expected effects and quantify, to some extent,
their importance. This information can be used by economists in the preparation of cost-benefit
calculations. Cost effectiveness analysis can also be used to determine what is the most
efficient, least-cost method of meeting a given environmental objective; with costs including
forgone environmental benefits. However, defining the objective may not be straightforward.
Valuing the environment raises complex and controversial issues. The environment is of value
to the actual users (such as fishermen), to potential users (future generations or migrants), and
to those who do not use it but consider its existence to have an intrinsic value (perhaps to their
"quality of life"). Clearly it is difficult to quantify such values. Nevertheless, attempts have
been made and the two most useful methods for irrigation projects in developing countries are
"Effect on Production" (EOP) and "Preventive Expenditure and Replacement Costs" (PE/RC).
The EOP method attempts to represent the value of change in output that results from the
environmental impact of the development. This method is relatively easy to carry out and easily

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understood. An example would be the assessment of the reduced value of fish catches due to
water pollution or hydrological changes. The PE/RC method makes an assessment of the value
that people place on preserving their environment by estimating what they are prepared to pay
to prevent its degradation (preventive expenditure) or to restore its original state after it has
been damaged (replacement cost). Both methods have weaknesses and must be used
judiciously.
Environmental health effects present similar problems, cost-effectiveness analysis is a useful

tool in the selection of mitigating or control measures, but for ex-ante project appraisal the
incompatibility of human health and monetary values has forced economists to develop other
techniques and indicators. A recent publication by Phillips et al. (1993) deals with the
principles and methods of cost-effectiveness analysis and its application to decisions about the
control of vector-borne diseases, particularly the control of disease vectors. In its World
Development Report of 1993 (Investing in Health) the World Bank proposes the cost-utility
analysis which expresses health status in DALYs (Disability Adjusted Life Years).
Final report ‐ Environmental impact statement
The final report of an EIA is often referred to as an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). In
addition to summarizing the impacts of the alternatives under study this report must include a
section on follow up action required to enable implementation of proposals and to monitor
long-term impacts. The purpose of an EIA is not to reach a decision but to present the
consequences of different choices of actions and to make recommendations to a decision
maker. Recommendations are a crucial part of the Environmental Impact Statement. The
format of the report should preferably follow a standard as recommended by the appropriate
institution or required by legislation. The executive summary of the EIS should only be 2 to 5
pages long and the main report, excluding appendices should be preferably about 50 pages long
and no more than 100. An exceptionally complex study might require 150 pages.
Experts preparing an EIA must appreciate that the final report will be read by a wide range of
people and the subject matter may be technically complex. Senior administrators and planners
may not understand the importance of technical arguments unless they are presented carefully
and clearly. The quality of the executive summary is particularly important as some decision-
makers may only read this part of the report. The executive summary must include the most
important impacts (particularly those that are unavoidable and irreversible), the key mitigating
measures, proposed monitoring and supervision requirements, and the recommendations of the
report.
The main text should maximize the use of visual aids such as maps, drawings, photographs,
tables and diagrams. Matrices, network diagrams, overlays and graphical comparisons should
all be included. The main text should cover the following points (adapted from EBRD (1992)
and World Bank (1991)):

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• A description of the programme, plan or project including the physical, social and ecological
context as well as the time-scale of the proposals under study. Any major revisions made as a
result of the scoping process should be identified here.
• A summary of the EIA methodology, including the limits of the study and the reasons for
them.
• The policy, legal and administrative framework within which the project is situated.
• A summary of the baseline data providing an overall picture of present conditions and
physical, biological and ecological trends. The consequences of the "no-action" option should
be described together with a brief description of other developments taking place and their
relationship to the study proposal.
• A description of the governmental and non-governmental participation during the EIA.
• Environmental impacts. The most significant beneficial and adverse environmental impacts
associated with the options studied need to be clearly stated. Impacts need to be quantified
wherever possible and uncertainties in the results need to highlighted, whether due to a lack of
knowledge, lack of data or to critical but indeterminate assumptions such as future policy. The
results of economic analyses need to be presented in the same section. Mitigation and
enhancement measures that are proposed may either be presented together with information on
the environmental impacts or as a separate section. Impacts with no effective mitigation need
to be clearly identified as such.
• The Environmental Action Plan needs to be presented in two sections. The first part covers
the implementation of proposed mitigation measures, including both costs and training, and
institutional enhancements required to implement them. The second part should cover
monitoring requirements to measure predicted impacts and to determine the success of
mitigation measures. Again, costs and institutional requirements need to be included for each
major proposal. A clear programme of implementation should be given.
• Recommendations and guidance to the decision maker.
• A statement of provision for auditing, who should carry it out and when.
The appendixes should include:
• A glossary of technical terms and units
• A list of the team who prepared the EIA
• Records of public meetings and consultations
• A catalogue of information, both data and written material, and their source
• Technical information too detailed for the main text.

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Environmental Impact Assessment Basics

What is an EIA?
An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a study best carried out at the planning stage
of a project to identify and assess the effects a project may have on our environment and well-
being, both positive and negative. Measures are proposed to lessen the negative effects and
enhance the positive. The study will also outline a plan for monitoring these effects, and the
effectiveness of the mitigation measures put in place, and identify people and institutions who
will carry out these functions.
Why is an EIA needed?

EIAs are done in order to ensure that projects are carried out in a manner that does not threaten
our environment and the people in it. Once the effects on the environment are identified,
developers can properly plan and manage their operations and lessen their effects on the
environment. The EIA process in Guyana also allows the public to present their views on the
implementation of a project for consideration.
Who requires an EIA?

Any project that the EPA considers will have a significant impact on the environment will
require an EIA. Examples of projects that may have significant impacts are listed in the
Environmental Protection Act and include projects such as construction of airfields, hydro-
electric installations etc. The EPA has also developed a list of additional projects that may
require an EIA, such as chemical processing plants, resorts, etc. – this list may be obtained at
the EPA’s office.
Who conducts the EIA?
The EIA is done by a team of independent consultants selected by the developer and approved
by the EPA. Each consultant must have knowledge and experience relating to at least one
relevant area of the project, and together, the team must be able to comprehensively assess the
impacts of the project on all areas of the environment, including the human population.

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Objectives of the study
Reducing the burden of environmental impacts is necessary if development is to become
sustainable. As resources become limited, environmental impacts become more complex, EIA
has become of ever increasing importance as a tool for development and decision making. This
role is formally recognized in principle 17 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development (UNCED 1992).
” Environmental impact assessment, as a national instrument, shall be undertaken for

proposed activities that are likely to have significant adverse impact on the environment and
are subject to a decision of a competent national authority”.
In practice, EIA is applied primarily to prevent or minimize the adverse effects of major
development projects. It is also used as a planning tool to promote sustainable development by
integrating environmental considerations into a wide range of proposed actions. Most notably,
the use of policies and plans to focus on the highest levels of decision making and take care of
the environment in considering development alternatives and options. More limited forms of
EIA can be used to ensure that smaller scale projects conform to appropriate environmental
standards or site and design criteria.
The aim and objective of EIA can be divided into two categories. The immediate aim of EIA
is to inform the process of decision making by identifying the potentially significant
environmental effects and risks of development projects. The ultimate (long term) aim of EIA
is to promote sustainable development by ensuring that development projects do not undermine
critical resource and ecological functions or the well-being, lifestyle and livelihood of the
communities and people who depend on them.
The main objective of this study consist in carrying out a comprehensive Environmental Impact
Assessment study for the Steel Structure project on the environment during the site preparation
and operation phase.
The specific objectives of the study are the following:
• To detect the effects of the project on the neighbouring environment such as the water bodies,
the soil, he people, the infrastructure, the fauna, the flora and the atmosphere;
• To detect the effect of the neighbouring environment on the project, this means the effect on
the soil of the project and the surrounding activities;
• To detect the effect of the project on the environment;
• To propose alternative measures where it is noticed that adverse effect may occur;
• To enable the proposal mitigation measures where adverse effects may have occurred;
• To carry out a diagnosis of the existing environment and activities in the area of the project;
• To propose enforcement measures where beneficial effects from the project are detected;

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• To set up an environmental management plan that will govern all activities of the project for
the better protection of the environment.
Methodology used for the study

Based on terms of reference (ToR) usually prepared by the consultant, the methodology used
consisted of the following:
a. Literature review: Documentation on policies, laws, regulations and guidelines related
environmental management, industry sector, waste management, land use EIA process
etc., at the national level as well as the international level have been done.
b. Interviews: The consultant has interviewed people in the area of the project as well as
in the Ministries and other governmental institutions related to this project.
c. Data collection: Through site visits, required qualitative and quantitative data will be
collected
d. Stakeholders consultation: the consultant analyzed key partners/stakeholders including
The Government of Guyana and the University of Guyana
e. Mapping and zoning of the site
f. Reporting: the data and information collected would be organized and compiled in a
report.

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Guyana: National Laws and Regulations
The University of Guyana Project implementation is subject to comply with Guyana national
legal framework.
Important environmental regulations were under study by the Government (for instance related
to the declaration of new protected areas) and these new regulations can later become
applicable to the UG project implementation. In the future, the Environmental and Social
Manual of this project should be updated and improved to accommodate new regulations
applicable to Project implementation.
Project activities area also subject to the application of international treaties and agreements in
which Guyana is signatory. These treaties pursue the conservation of biological diversity,
wetlands and marine ecosystems and promote adequate management of pesticides, climate
change, among other topics.
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT, 1996 (AS AMENDED BY THE

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION (AMENDMENT) ACT, 2005
The Environmental Protection Act, 1996, and the Environmental Protection Amendment Act
2005, establishes the basic institutional and regulatory framework within which all activities
that may significantly impact on the natural, social, and cultural environments are assessed.
The Act also provides that the EPA will be the central coordinating agency for environmental
management in the relevant sectors in Guyana. For example, the EPA also has Memoranda of
Understanding with the Guyana Geology and Mines Commission and the Guyana Forestry
Commission.
Section 68 of the Act provides for the elaboration of regulations to articulate specific areas of
environmental management, and of relevance are the Regulations on hazardous waste
management, water quality, air quality, noise management and environmental authorization
which were established under the Environmental Protection Act in 2000. These pollution
management regulations were developed to regulate and control the activities of developmental
projects during construction and operation. Standards establishing the permissible parameters
under these regulations are being developed.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION (AIR QUALITY) REGULATIONS 2000

These Regulations were formulated to protect the air quality and provide the necessary
infrastructure for controlling the number of contaminants by stipulating specific allowable
levels of emissions that are released into the atmosphere at any given time. Parameters are
specified for several contaminants including smoke, solid particles and carbon monoxide.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION (WATER QUALITY) REGULATIONS 2000

These Regulations were developed to manage the discharge of waste matter into inland and
coastal water bodies. They provide for minimizing the contamination of potential and existing
water supply sources.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION (NOISE MANAGEMENT) REGULATIONS 2000

These regulations are concerned with the control and management of noise emission in
Guyana. In practice, the EPA (Guyana) combines the Regulation with the GNBS Noise
Standard into the atmosphere, since the Regulation is silent on measurements and parameters
for ambient noise emission etc.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION (HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT)

REGULATIONS 2000
These Regulations cover the management of waste4 including chemical waste and cover
industrial, commercial and any other activity that produces waste. Some of the key activities
which are covered under the Regulations are generation, treatment and disposal5 of hazardous
waste. The Regulation is read and construed as being in addition to, and not in contravention
of the Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals Control Act 2000 (No. 13 of 2000). Based on the
definition all chemical wastes including persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are covered under
these Regulations for the purposes of management. Permits are required for the generation of
waste which is monitored throughout the production, storage, transport and release phases. The
waste streams on which focus is centered for control are as follows:
(a) Clinical Waste from medical care in hospitals, medical centers and clinics;
(b) Waste from the production and preparation of pharmaceutical products;
(c) Waste from the production, formulation and use of biocides and phytopharmaceuticals;
(d) Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines; and
(e) Waste from the manufacture, formulation and use of wood preserving chemicals.
Specific constituents are also listed in this Regulation.
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION (AUTHORIZATIONS) REGULATIONS 2000

These Regulations are concerned with the guidelines for granting authorization for projects that
can have medium to high environmental impacts in Guyana. Guidelines and procedures are
specified in its contents and a fee structure in its schedule.
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION (WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AND
CONSERVATION) REGULATIONS, 2013

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The Wildlife Management and Conservation Regulations (2013) was made under the
Environmental Protection Act. This critical piece of legislation focuses on the management and
conservation of wildlife. It addresses issues including the capturing, gathering, collecting,
hunting, killing and taking of wildlife. The regulations cover the use of wildlife for any
purposes, including as bush meat, for research, and for medicinal purposes. It also makes
provisions for the classification of wildlife, as well as areas within Guyana. The regulations are
already being enforced.
LITTER ENFORCEMENT REGULATIONS 2014

The Litter Regulations addresses the littering of public spaces and outlines several offences
and penalties and provides for Litter Wardens with authority to enforce these Regulations and
with special powers of court on convicting offenders. Under ‘offences’, “A person who,
without reasonable excuse, deposits litter in or on any public place… is guilty of an offence”.
Also, persons who deposit litter from a moving vehicle unto a public place will be considered
an offender. Enforcement activities for these Litter Regulations commenced April 2014 with
the establishment of a Litter Enforcement Unit at the EPA.
FORESTRY ACT, 2009

The Forestry Act 2009 sets a regime for the sustainable management of the state forests, by
providing State forests through concessions for forest activities, including the conservation of
biological diversity and environmental services provided by the forest. The second part of the
Act provides for the issuance of five types of state forest authorizations: concessions,
exploratory permits, use permits, community forest management agreements and afforestation
agreements. This section also addresses compliance with occupational health. The Act prohibits
acts that could cause forest fires in State Forest areas and allows the GFC to declare certain
areas to be fire protection areas. The Act places emphasis on value added activities by
addressing issues of quality control through legally binding codes of practice which can be
subject to amendments from time to time. Issues of under-pricing, unlawful exportation of
forest produce, trade of timber in contravention to the GFC’s guidelines, and procedures for
ownership of concession areas and change thereof, are also outlined in the Act.
State Forests are to be declared by public notice under s. 3 of the Act, and exclude:
 village lands as identified under the Amerindian Act, 2006

 Iwokrama Rainforest
 Kaieteur National Park
A particular feature of the Act is that it merges exploitation and conservation with respect to
State forests, and creates some degree of uncertainty. Additionally, the Act contemplates the
use of State forests for eco-tourism, but does not identify control measures such as carrying
capacity. As with the previous Forestry Act, the 2009 Forestry Act allows logging concessions
to be issued over untitled traditional lands. Amerindian are thus in the same position as other

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citizens of Guyana with respect to these land, with the financial benefits from leases to these
lands will accrue to the lessee.
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT 1997 (NO. 32 OF 1997)

The provisions for registration and regulation of industrial establishments and for occupational
safety and health of persons at work are enshrined in the Occupational Safety and Health Act
1997. The Act covers hazardous chemicals at workplaces which can endanger the health of
workers, and allows for the limited or restricted use of such chemicals. It also covers the
introduction of new chemicals in the workplace. Implementation of this Act is the
responsibility of the Occupational Safety and Health Department of the Ministry of Labour.
WILD BIRDS PROTECTION ACT, 1919

The Wild Birds Protection Act was enacted in 1919 and seeks to enforce fines and penalties on
persons who are inclined to injure, harm or capture wild birds without consent.
PLANT PROTECTION ACT, 2011

The Plant Protection Act, which was enacted in 2011, provides for the prevention, eradication
and control of diseases and pests affecting plants. The Act is administered by the National
Agricultural Research and Extension Institute.
NATIONAL TRUST ACT, (No. 7 of 1972)

The Act provides for the preservation of monuments, sites, places and objects of historic
interest or national significance. The main body vested with this responsibility is the Office of
the National Trust of Guyana which was established in 1972. The Act states that “ when it
appears to the National Trust that in the public interest that any monument (defined as: “any
building structure, object or other work of man or of nature whether above or below the surface
of the land or the floor of the sea within the territorial waters of Guyana and any site cave or
excavation”) should be preserved on account of the historic, architectural or archaeological
attaching to it or its national importance, the National Trust may declare the monument to be a
national monument.” At present there are nine gazette National Monuments.

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APPENDIX D – Environmental Impact of Steel
Introduction
Industrial activities have as their goal to provide a return on input labour. It is the same principle
that made the world’s first farmers start to cultivate the earth and to raise livestock. A hundred
fistfuls of planting seed could give a 50 000-fold return when the seed came to be harvested.
This insight changed the way that mankind lived and the striving for an improved standard of
living gradually laid the foundations for the society we know today. The most important driving
force behind this development has undoubtedly been the ambition to increase consumption and
raise living standards. With industrialisation, mankind has developed new possibilities for
harvesting an ample return from input labour.
As the consumption of goods grows, so too does the impact on our environment. At the same
time, economic activities become more global in scale and acquiring a proper overview of them
more difficult. It is increasingly important, therefore, to be able to deal with environmental
issues not only locally but from a global perspective. With the help of environmental
assessments, the effect of consumption on the environment can be quantified and a factual basis
for decisions on sustainable development be provided. Steel, which is the world’s most used
and recycled material, has been developed over a long period and has been used by mankind
for thousands of years. It might be thought that this material is fully developed; in fact,
specialised steel grades are being developed all the time and at an ever faster rate. From a
sustainability perspective, the steel grades of today and tomorrow offer considerable scope for
improving the efficiency of energy and material use and for providing a longer lifespan for
products and plants in contemporary society.
The increased costs of energy and raw materials, as a general rule, presuppose large-scale
production and a copious market or else active specialisation with global leadership. For the
steel industry, this means that its customers are to be found worldwide and that the products
are frequently transported over long distances.

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Steel is the world’s most used and recycled material
Steel is the world’s most intensively used metallic construction material, figure below. It is,
therefore, especially important that it is assigned a quantitative environmental impact value
that can gradually be improved. During 2010, almost 1,500 million tonnes of steel were
produced for a range of products, structures and buildings across the world. Stainless steels
comprised about 32 million tonnes of this total while all other metals together accounted for
less than 80 million tonnes.
Figure 28: World production of structural metals in 2010, millions of tonnes
Several forecasts indicate that the world’s steel consumption will increase by the order of 2,500
million tonnes up to the year 2050, figure 1.3. Consumption growth is so large that the supply
of steel scrap, despite high recycling rates, is insufficient to meet more than 30 per cent of steel
consumption globally. By the year 2050, the recycling of steel scrap will only suffice for about
50 per cent of the world’s total steel production. To avoid a shortage of steel in society, the
remaining amount must be produced from an increasing share of iron ore, even allowing for
maximum rates of steel recycling.

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Figure 29: Historical development and forecast for total world production of steel and slag by year 2050
Steel becomes stronger and more resistant

The heavy demand for steel means that the requirement for alloying metals for steel production
is large and increasing. These alloys are needed for producing base steel, but also for producing
ever more advanced steel grades that are both stronger and more resistant, even though
advanced cooling, quenching and temper rolling can limit the amount of alloys used. Higher
strength steels permit significant material savings in steel structures. A doubling of strength
delivers a weight saving of about 30 % for those structural elements manufactured of high
strength steel according to the so-called root formula (weight reduction is inversely
proportional to the square root of the yield strength quotient).
This weight reduction, besides the lesser environmental impact through the need for a smaller
quantity of steel for a particular function, also delivers substantial environmental benefits by
economising on the use of natural resources and through more energy-efficient end products.
Environmental evaluation gives the full picture

Environmental evaluation, as we use the term here, describes how the environmental impacts
of different steel grades can be assessed from a life cycle perspective. Besides forming a factual
basis for different environmental comparisons, this data may also serve as a foundation for
decisions on product development or process changes in the production of steel.
The great challenge is to be able to set the individual change within a larger perspective and to
analyse the consequences that arise from a life cycle perspective. For steel, this means that the
change needs to be quantified and analysed during steel’s entire eco-cycle: from raw material
to production of steel and steel products, transportation, manufacture and utilization of end

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products and structures right up to the recovery of steel scrap and residual material. Figure
below shows steel’s life cycle, covering production and use as well as the recycling of steel
scrap which becomes new steel in a wholly new product. This is a pattern that can be repeated
time and again without loss of steel’s special properties.
Figure 30: Steel’s life cycle is a closed eco-cycle
Steel is, and remains, the material that is most used and recycled in the world today. The high
level of recycling makes steel unique among modern materials.
Figure 31: Easy-to-grasp description of a Life Cycle Assessment

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The most common list of mandatory impact categories includes the five classic categories:
 climate change
 acidification
 eutrophication (over-fertilisation)
 ground-level ozone
 ozone depletion.
The latter is a declining environmental problem and is therefore seldom taken into account.
The quantity of residual products of different types is always shown. Also included on
occasions are some summary measure of toxic discharges as well as a number of indicators for
resource utilisation such as water use, land use and non-renewable energy raw materials and
input raw materials.
Figure 32: Example of data collected for the respective sub-process.
The sub-processes may correspond to individual process stages or summarise the entire
production processes, depending on the level of detail required for the description or in which
aggregated form (aggregation level) the data can be collected most easily. On production of
steel, the categorisation is as follows: steel production, hot rolling including possible hardening
and tempering, cold rolling including annealing, pickling and coating. The processes shall thus
include all supply chain and supplementary processes as well as residual product and energy
flows involved in making the end product. Where a more detailed analysis is required, the
metallurgical steel production process for carbon steel can be divided up into coke oven, blast
furnace, converter and continuous casting. The production of stainless steel can be divided into
the production stages of electric arc furnace, converter and continuous casting.
The core processes are modelled in as detailed form as possible whereas other processes are
described in more summary form.

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An important aspect for all processes is to calculate the yield of raw materials and the energy
efficiency since this directly affects the end result. As the level of processing increases so the
yield becomes increasingly important to take into account.
Environmental evaluation of steel and steel structures

This section describes the environmental evaluation of a steel structure and clarifies the
principles and working procedure for determining the environmental impact value of different
steel grades in steel applications.
The challenge for today’s product developers is to develop new steel grades and to fabricate
products with these so that chemical composition, steel production, use of the steel in
structures, recycling and handling of residual products are all optimised from an eco-cycle
perspective.
To evaluate a steel structure’s environmental performance during its entire life cycle, it is best
to divide up the analysis into a number of sub phases. These different phases are illustrated in
figure below
Figure 33: Important stages in the Life Cycle Assessment of a steel structure.

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Environmental evaluation of process changes
General working methodology for environmental analysis of process changes
An environmental analysis of this type compares two scenarios, the present one and the
modified procedure. The difference between the environmental impact value of the newly
modified process and the existing one is then calculated using a differential calculus. The
analysis is facilitated by the fact that the technical change is described in a flow chart; also that
the data for the mass and energy flows, before and after the change, are noted so that the
difference between the two alternatives is clearly shown. In practice, this involves quantifying
the inflows and outflows of the process, for example:
 Consumption of raw materials such as iron ore, coal, coke, alloys and chemicals.
 Use of energy (electricity and fuels), e.g. coal, oil, natural gas, LPG and bio fuels.
 Emissions to air and water. It is preferable to select data that has already been
prepared in other contexts.
 Residual products and residual energies and their utilisation with the existing and the
new process.
 In the case where the process constitutes one part of a production chain, e.g. an LD
converter (oxygen converter), the product’s mass and energy flows from the
preceding and subsequent process stages are recorded in such a way that the
difference is clearly evident.
Data is related to the amount of product produced, for example one tonne. Such a process
description is illustrated schematically in figure below
Figure 34: Calculation of environmental impact value of a process change.

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APPENDIX E ‐ Superseded British Standards
List of Superseded British Standards that are to be withdrawn on 31 March 2010:
Loading for buildings
• BS 6399-1:1996 loading for buildings. Code of practice for dead and imposed loads
Superseded by EN 1991
• BS 6399-2:1997 Loading for buildings. Code of practice for wind loads. Superseded by EN
1991
• BS 6399-3:1988 Loading for buildings. Code of practice for imposed roof loads Superseded
by EN 1991
Structural use of concrete
• BS 8110-1:1997 Structural use of concrete. Code of practice for design and construction.
• BS 8110-2:1985 Structural use of concrete. Code of practice for special circumstances
• BS 8110-3:1985 Structural use of concrete. Design charts for singly reinforced beams, doubly
reinforced beams and rectangular columns. Superseded by EN 1992
• BS 8007: 1987 Code of practice for design of concrete structures for retaining aqueous liquids
Structural use of steel
• BS 5950-1:2000 Structural use of steelwork in building. Code of practice for design. Rolled
and welded sections. Superseded by EN 1993
• BS 5950-2:2001 Structural use of steelwork in building. Specification for materials,
fabrication and erection. Rolled and welded sections. Superseded by EN 1994
• BS 5950-3.1:1990 Structural use of steelwork in building. Design in composite construction.
Code of practice for design of simple and continuous composite beams. Superseded by EN
1994
• BS 5950-4:1994 Structural use of steelwork in building. Code of practice for design of

composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting. Superseded by EN 1994
• BS 5950-5:1998 Structural use of steelwork in building. Code of practice for design of cold
formed thin gauge sections. Superseded by EN 1993
• BS 5950-6:1995 Structural use of steelwork in building. Code of practice for design of light
gauge profiled steel sheeting. Superseded by EN 1993
• BS 5950-7: 1992 Structural use of steelwork in building. Specification for materials and
workmanship: cold formed sections. Obsolescent

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• BS 5950-8:2003 Structural use of steelwork in building. Code of practice for fire resistant
design. Superseded by EN 1993
• BS 5950-9:1994 Structural use of steelwork in building. Code of practice for stressed skin
design. Superseded by EN 1993
• BS 449-2: 1969 Specification for the use of structural steel in building. Metric units.
• BS 4604-1: 1970 Specification for the use of high strength grip bolts in structural steelwork.
Metric series. General grade. Superseded by EN 1993
• BS 4604-2: 1970 Specification for the use of high strength grip bolts in structural steelwork.
Metric series. Higher grade (parallel shank). Superseded by EN 1993
Structural use of timber
• BS 5268-2:2002 Structural use of timber. Code of practice for permissible stress design,
materials and workmanship. Superseded by EN 1995
• BS 5268-3:2006 Structural use of timber. Code of practice for trussed rafter roofs. Superseded
by EN 1995
• BS 5268-4.1:1978 Structural use of timber. Fire resistance of timber structures.
Recommendations for calculating fire resistance of timber members. Superseded by EN 1995
• BS 5268-4.2:1990 Structural use of timber. Fire resistance of timber structures.
Recommendations for calculating fire resistance of timber stud walls and joisted floor
constructions. Superseded by EN 1995
• BS 5268-5:1989 Structural use of timber. Code of practice for the preservative treatment of
structural timber. Obsolescent
• BS 5268-6.1:1996 Structural use of timber. Code of practice for timber frame walls.
Dwellings not exceeding seven storeys. Superseded by EN 1995
• BS 5268-6.2:2001 Structural use of timber. Code of practice for timber frame walls. Buildings
other than dwellings not exceeding seven storeys. Superseded by EN 1995
• BS 5268-7.1:1989 Structural use of timber. Recommendations for the calculation basis for
span tables. Domestic floor joists. Superseded by EN 1995
span tables. Joists for flat roofs. Superseded by EN 1995
span tables. Ceiling joists. Superseded by EN 1995
• BS 5268-7.4:1989 Structural use of timber. Ceiling binders. Superseded by EN 1995
span tables. Domestic rafters. Superseded by EN 1995
span tables. Purlins supporting rafters. Superseded by EN 1995

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span tables. Purlins supporting sheeting or decking. Superseded by EN 1995
Structural use of masonry
• BS 5628-1:2005 Code of practice for the use of masonry. Structural use of unreinforced
masonry. Superseded by EN 1996
• BS 5628-2:2005 Code of practice for use of masonry. Structural use of reinforced and
prestressed masonry. Superseded by EN 1996
• BS 5628-3:2005 Code of practice for use of masonry. Materials and components, design and
workmanship. Superseded by EN 1996
Geotechnics
• BS 8002:1994 Code of practice for earth retaining structures. Superseded by EN 1997-1
• BS 8004: 1986 Code of practice for foundations. Superseded by EN 1997-1
Structural use of Aluminium
• BS 8118-1:1991 Structural use of aluminium. Code of practice for design. Superseded by EN
1999
• BS 8118-2:1991 Structural use of aluminium. Specification for materials, workmanship and
protection. Superseded by EN 1999
Bridges
• BS 5400-1:1988 Steel, concrete and composite bridges. General statement. Superseded by
EN 1990, EN 1991
• BS 5400-2: 2006 Steel, concrete and composite bridges. Specification for loads. Superseded
by EN 1990, EN 1991
• BS 5400-3:2000 Steel, concrete and composite bridges. Code of practice for design of steel
bridges. Superseded by EN 1993
• BS 5400-4: 1990 Steel, concrete and composite bridges. Code of practice for design of
concrete bridges. Superseded by EN 1992
• BS 5400-5:2005 Steel, concrete and composite bridges. Code of practice for design of
composite bridges. Superseded by EN 1994
• BS 5400-6: 1999 Steel, concrete and composite bridges. Specification for materials and
workmanship, steel. Superseded by EN 1090-2
• BS 5400-7:1978 Steel, concrete and composite bridges. Specification for materials and
workmanship, concrete, reinforcement and prestressing tendons. Superseded by EN 1992
• BS 5400-8: 1978 Steel, concrete and composite bridges. Recommendations for materials and
workmanship, concrete, reinforcement and prestressing tendons. Superseded by EN 1992
• BS 5400-9.1 and 9.2 bearings - not affected
• BS 5400-10C: 1999 Steel, concrete and composite bridges. Charts for classification of details
for fatigue

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Towers, Masts and Chimneys
• BS 8100-1:1986 Lattice towers and masts. Code of practice for loading Code of practice for
loading. Superseded by EN 1993
• BS 8100-2:1986 Lattice towers and masts. Guide to the background and use of Part 1 'Code
of practice for loading'. Superseded by EN 1993
• BS 8100-3:1999 Lattice towers and masts. Code of practice for strength assessment of
members of lattice towers and masts. Superseded by EN 1993
• BS 8100-4:1995 Lattice towers and masts. Code of practice for loading of guyed masts.
• BS 4076:1989 Specification for steel chimneys. Superseded by EN 1993

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APPENDIX F – Loading for Buildings

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APPENDIX G – Fire Safety
Introduction
Fire safety must be regarded as a major priority at the earliest stage as it can have a major
impact on the design of a building and its structural form. Nevertheless, it should not stifle
aesthetic or functional freedom; fire engineering techniques are now available which permit a
more rational treatment of fire development and fire protection in buildings.
The strength of all materials reduces as their temperature increases. Steel is no exception. It is
essential that the structure should not weaken in fire to the extent that collapse occurs
prematurely, while the occupants are seeking to make their way to safety. For this reason it is
necessary to provide a minimum degree of fire resistance to the building structure.
Additionally, a measure of property protection is implied in the current Approved Document
B of the Building Regulations, although in principle the only concern of the Building
Regulations is safety of life.
There are two basic ways to provide fire resistance: first, to design the structure using the
ordinary temperature properties of the material and then to insulate the members so that the
temperature of the structure remains sufficiently low, or secondly, to take into account the high-
temperature properties of the material, in which case no insulation may be necessary.
Building regulations
All buildings in the UK are required to comply with the Building Regulations,1 which are
concerned with safety of life. The provisions of Approved Document B, for England and
Wales, are aimed at reducing the danger to people who are in or around a building when a fire
occurs, by containing the fire and ensuring the stability of the structure for sufficient time to
allow the occupants to reach safety.
The fire-resistance requirements of Document B apply only to structural elements
used in:
(a) buildings, or parts of buildings, of more than one storey,
(b) single-storey buildings that are built close to a property boundary.
The degree of fire resistance required of a structural member is governed by the building
function (office, shop, factory, etc.), by the building height, by the compartment size in which
the member is located, and by whether or not sprinklers are installed.
Fire resistance provisions are expressed in units of time: 1/2, 1, 11/2 and 2 hours. It is important
to realize that these times are not allowable escape times for building occupants or even
survival times for the structure. They are simply a convenient way of grading different
categories of buildings by fire load, from those in which a fire is likely to be relatively small,
such as low-rise offices, to those in which a fire might result in a major conflagration, such as
a library.
BS 5950: Part 8
BS 5950: Part 82 permits two methods of assessing the fire resistance of bare steel members.
The first, the load ratio method, consists of comparing the design temperature, which is defined
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as the temperature reached by an unprotected member in the required fire-resistance time, with
the limiting temperature, which is the temperature at which it will fail.
The load ratio is defined as:

If the limiting temperature exceeds the design temperature no protection is necessary. The
method permits designers to make use of reduced loads and higher strength steels to achieve
improved fire-resistance times in unprotected sections. The second method, which is applicable
to beams only, gives benefits when members are partially exposed and when the temperature
distribution is known. It consists of comparing the calculated moment capacity at the required
fire-resistance time with the applied moment. When the moment capacity exceeds the applied
moment no protection is necessary. This method of design is used for unusual structural forms
such as ‘shelf-angle’ floor beams. Some examples of the use of the moment capacity method
are given in the handbook to BS 5950: Part 8.
The rate of heating of a given section is related to its section factor which is the ratio of the
surface perimeter exposed to radiation and convection and the mass, which is directly related
to cross-sectional area:
A member with a low Am/V value will heat up at a slower rate than one with a high Am/V value
and will require less insulation (fire protection) to achieve the same fire resistance rating.
Standard tables are available listing Am/V ratios for structural sections. These factors are
calculated as indicated
Sections at the heavy end of the structural range have such low Am/V ratios, and therefore such
slow heating rates, that failure does not occur within 1/2 hour under standard BS 476 heating
conditions even when they are unprotected. Limiting section factors for various structural
elements are given in Figure below (corresponding to a load ratio of 0.6).

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Figure 35: Some different forms of fire protection to I-section members
Figure 36: Maximum ratios of Am/V (m-1) of exposed steel to give 30 minutes fire resistance
Strength of steel at elevated temperatures

Steel begins to lose strength at about 200°C and continues to lose strength at an increasing rate
up to a temperature of about 750°C, when the rate of strength loss flattens off. This relationship
is shown in Fig. 34.3. An important parameter is the strain at which the strength is assessed. It
is reasonable to take a higher strain limit than in normal design, because fire is an ultimate limit
state and much higher deflections are allowed in fire tests than in normal structural tests.

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Figure 37: Strength retention factor for grade 43 steel at elevated temperatures
Performance of beams
Beams supporting concrete slabs behave better than uniformly heated sections, for which the
material performance is the dominant factor. The concrete slab causes the top flange to be
significantly cooler than the bottom flange and thus, as the section is heated, the plastic neutral
axis of the section rises towards the top flange (see Figure below). The section resistance is
determined by the strength of steel at 1.5% strain, but in this case more of the web is effective
in resisting tension.
The limiting temperatures of beams supporting concrete slabs are shown in Figure below with
the test results for a range of beam sizes and load ratios. These limiting temperatures are
increased by about 60°C relative to a uniformly heated section. This temperature differential
effect, and its beneficial influence on moving the neutral axis, can be enhanced by partially or
fully embedding steel beams into the floors that they support.
Figure 38: Temperature and stress variation in I-beam supporting concrete slab when limiting temperature is reached. (a)
Section through beam and slab. (b) Temperature variation. (c) Stress variation

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Figure 39: Limiting temperatures for I-section beams supporting concrete floors on the upper flange
Performance of columns
Steel columns are considered to fail at a cross-section strain of less than 1%, and the 0.5%
strain limit is taken as being appropriate when determining the limiting temperature of the
members. This is applicable for columns up to the slenderness of 70 normally encountered in
buildings.
The fire resistance of columns can also be increased by partial protection in the form of concrete
blocks or bricks, either by building into a wall or by fitting blocks between the flanges. A
minimum fire resistance of 30 minutes can usually be achieved in this way. The fire resistance
of columns can be increased to 1 hour or more by partial protection in the form of concrete
poured between the flanges before delivery to site.

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APPENDIX H – Connections
Figure 40: Base Plate Connection
Figure 41: Beam Column Connection (Major Axis)

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Figure 42: Beam to Beam Connection
Figure 43: Beam to Column Connection (Minor Axis)

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APPENDIX I ‐ Drawings

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Flag Pole Top
75' - 10"
06. Roof Top

68' - 0"
I H G F E D C B A
05. Roof
56' - 0"
04. Third Floor

42' - 0"
03. Second Floor

28' - 0"
02. First Floor

14' - 0"
Ref. Level 01. Ground Floor

0' - 0" 0' - 0"
00. Base
-6' - 0"
12 11 10 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Flag Pole Top

75' - 10"
06. Roof Top

68' - 0"
05. Roof
56' - 0"
04. Third Floor

42' - 0"
03. Second Floor

28' - 0"
02. First Floor

14' - 0"

0' - 0" 0' - 0"
00. Base
-6' - 0"
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12
Flag Pole Top

75' - 10"
06. Roof Top

68' - 0"
05. Roof
56' - 0"
04. Third Floor

42' - 0"
03. Second Floor

28' - 0"
02. First Floor

14' - 0"

0' - 0" 0' - 0"
00. Base
-6' - 0"
Flag Pole Top
75' - 10"
06. Roof Top

68' - 0"
A B C D E F G H I
05. Roof
56' - 0"
04. Third Floor

42' - 0"
03. Second Floor

28' - 0"
02. First Floor

14' - 0"

0' - 0" 0' - 0"
00. Base
-6' - 0"
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12
14' - 0" 14' - 0" 14' - 0" 14' - 0" 14' - 0" 14' - 0" 14' - 0" 14' - 0" 6' - 0" 40' - 0"
A
14' - 0"
B
14' - 0"
C
14' - 0"
D
14' - 0"
E
- - - -
14' - 0"
F
14' - 0"
102
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12
E
- - - -
102
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12
E
- - - -
102
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12
E
- - - -
DN
UP
102
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12
E
- - - -
DN
102

Final Year Project Report Design of A ST

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Final Year Project Report Design of A ST

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Mr. Maxwell Jackson - Head of Department, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of

Mr. Akua Alder – Civil Engineer

Mr. Steven Jackson – Civil Engineer

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 i|Page

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 iii | P a g e

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 iv | P a g e

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 v|Page

 The Admissions Section

 Student Records and Data Management

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 1|Page

 Project Executing Unit

From the University of Guyana Strategic Plan 2009-2012

Provide complete set of drawings.

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 2|Page

Wind Loads according to ASCE 7-05; ASCE 7-10

Seismic Loads according to ASCE 7-05; ASCE 7-10

 BS EN 1993-1-1 General rules and rules for buildings

 BS EN 1993-1-2 Structural fire design

 BS EN 1993-1-5 Plated structural elements

 BS EN 1993-1-8 Design of joints

 BS EN 1993-1-10 Material toughness and through-thickness properties

Provide an estimated cost of the building.

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 3|Page

2.0 Literature Review

i. The building should be constructed to serve purposes specified by the client.

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 4|Page

Figure 1: Showing Structural Elements.

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 5|Page

Figure 2: Showing Structural Combined Element

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 6|Page

iii. Establishment of Loads to be carried.

i. The purpose of analysis of a structure from a viewpoint of its strength is determining

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 7|Page

o It has a relatively high compressive strength.

o It has better resistance to fire than steel.

o It has a long service life and low maintenance cost.

o It has low tensile strength of about one-tenth of its compressive strength.

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 8|Page

o Cracks develop in concrete due to shrinkage and application of live loads.

This will consist of the following elements:

 Labour Hours & Hours

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 9|Page

• Steel frames are fast to erect.

• The construction is lightweight, particularly in comparison with traditional concrete

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 10 | P a g e

In principle, the design aims can be considered under three headings:

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 11 | P a g e

Figure 3: Typical Cost Breakdown

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 12 | P a g e

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 13 | P a g e

Figure 5: Map Extract Showing Low Coastal Plains of Guyana (Orange)

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 14 | P a g e

Figure 6: Wind Rose Data Superimposed on Proposed Site

Figure 6: Showing Annual Wind Rose (Speed Distribution)

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 15 | P a g e

Figure 7: Annual Wind Rose (Frequency Distribution)

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 16 | P a g e

Figure 8: Monthly Wind Roses (Frequency Distribution)

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 17 | P a g e

Figure 9: Seismic Hazard Map of South America

Rafael Lewis – USI 1006367 18 | P a g e

Figure 10: Seismic Hazard Map of the Caribbean

Figure 11: Seismic Hazard Map of Upper South America