COMS 5483-35

Neuronal Pathways of Communication

Session 2
Development of the Nervous System
Nervous System: Big Picture
Central Nervous System: 1 of 2

https://scientiacerebri.wixsite.com/lescerebralmusings/post/embryology-of-the-central-nervous-system-cns

June Levitt, Ph.D., LDT, CCC-SLP

 Our plan for today
ü Gain basic knowledge about the development of
our nervous system.
ü Know neural tube formation and the structures
relevant to it.
ü Learn about the results of atypical development of
the nervous system.
ü Outline nervous system organization.
ü Describe the surface structures and functions of
the brain.

3
 Topics
Ø Review
Ø Neural Tube Formation
Ø Neuronal Development: Cellular/Molecular Processes
Ø Postnatal Development of the Brain
Ø Central Nervous System (CNS): 1 of 2
Ø Summary

4
 Topics
Ø Review
Ø Neural Tube Formation
Ø Neuronal Development: Cellular/Molecular Processes
Ø Postnatal Development of the Brain
Ø Central Nervous System (CNS): 1 of 2
Ø Summary

5
 Development: Big picture
• Before birth:
– Genetic/environmental
Genetic/environmental factors control
development and wiring of connections between
neurons
• After birth: “plasticity”
plasticity of connections
– Experience/environmental factors affect changes
in nervous system.
– Changes in healthy individuals.
– Before maturity: experience influences
development of circuitry.
– Adults: experience alters strength of synapse.
 Human Development: Day 2 to Day 5

i s ion
div
Formation of blastocyst

ll
on
Ce
isi
ll div
Ce

Blastocyst
A structure
formed in the
early
development of
Fertilization mammals. It has
of egg an inner cell mass
(ICM) to form the
embryo.

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology

from p. 1327: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/File:Human-oocyte_to_blastocyst.jpg
 Early steps in Development

Ectoderm
Ectoderm

Mesoderm
Mesoderm

Endoderm
Endoderm

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nI6kwDRkxac
 Cellular & Molecular Processes of Neuronal
Development
1. Induction
2. Proliferation
3. Migration
4. Aggregation
5. Differentiation
6. Circuit formation
7. Programmed cell death: loss of extra neurons
 1. INDUCTION: Neural tube induction by mesoderm
• Inductive signals called ‘trophic factors’ are released
by the notochord
– retinoic acid
• A portion of the ectoderm becomes the nervous
system.
• Retinoic acid binds to a receptor
– receptor/retinoic acid complex binds to DNA and
turns on genes for proteins specific to brain cells.
1. INDUCTION: Neural tube induction by mesoderm – cont.
• Developmental defects at this stage:
– Accutane (acne drug) is known to likely cause
defects in development of brain on this stage.
– Defects of neural tube closure (can be due to
folic acid (Vitamin B9) deficiency.
– Irreversible deficit during the induction
phase results in:
Anencephaly
• Anencephaly
Spina Bifida
• Spina Bifida
Unclosed Neural Tube…
Spina Bifida: Three types
Spina Bifida: Three types
Spinaocculta
spina bifida bifida occulta
The mildest type of Spina bifida. It
is sometimes called “hidden” spina
bifida. With it, there is a small gap
in the spine, but no opening or sac
on the back. It is often not
discovered until late childhood or
adulthood. This type of Spina bifida
usually does not cause any
disabilities.
Spina Bifida: Three types
Spina
Spina bifida
Bifida: cystica:
meningocele
meningocele
With meningocele
type, a sac of fluid
comes through an
opening in the baby’s
back. However, the
spinal cord is not in
this sac. There is
usually little or no
nerve damage. This
type of Spina bifida
can cause minor
disabilities.
 Spina Bifida: Three types
Spina
Spina bifida
Bifida: cystica: myelomeningocele
myelomeningocele
Myelomeningocele is the most serious
type of Spina bifida. With this condition,
a sac of fluid comes through an opening
in the baby’s back. Part of the spinal cord
and nerves are in this sac and are
damaged. This type of Spina bifida
causes moderate to severe disabilities,
such as problems affecting how the
person goes to the bathroom, loss of
feeling in the person’s legs or feet, and
not being able to move the legs.
 Development of the ventricles
• By about the third week of development, the
nervous system consists of a tube that is
closed at both ends and is somewhat hook
shaped. The cavity of the tube, the neural
canal, gives rise to the ventricles of the brain
and the central canal of the spinal cord.
2. PROLIFERATION: neurogenesis (stage of cellular division)
3. MIGRATION: movement of cells to their final destination

• Cell migration is guided by:

– cell surface proteins
– radial glial cells are important in brain areas
where cells are organized in layers; serve as
‘scaffolding’
• e.g. cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus
4. AGGREGATION: association of similar cells into specific neuronal
populations
 5. CELL DIFFERENTIATION
• Big Question: Where do the different cell
types come from?
• All precursor cells look the same: How do
they differentiate into these many types of
neurons and glia found in the mature brain?
– They arediffernentiated
They are differentiated from
from one onebyanother
another the
specific genes and their instructions
by the specific genes and their instructions.
 6. CIRCUIT FORMATION
• Cell body reaches its final position.
• Axon and dendrites grow out.
• Axon reaches appropriate target site.
• Axon makes synaptic contact with dendrites.
• Synapse forms and stabilizes.
 7. PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH
apoptosis
• Programmed cell death is called apoptosis.
• An over-abundance of neurons and synapses in
produced during development: many are naturally
lost before and after birth.
• Active axons that make the best connections win the
competition for growth factors and survive.
Webbed Fingers and Toes (Syndactyly)

PIX: https://tidsskriftet.no/en/2013/08/treatment-congenital-syndactyly-fingers
 Topics
Ø Review
Ø Neural Tube Formation
Ø Neuronal Development: Cellular/Molecular Processes
Ø Postnatal Development of the Brain
Ø Central Nervous System (CNS): 1 of 2
Ø Summary

24
 Postnatal development of the brain

• Human brain size increases from birth to

adulthood (most rapid growth by age 2)

Age Brain Weight (grams)

20 weeks of gestation 100
birth 400
18 months old 800
3 yeas old 1,100
adult 1,300-1,400
 Postnatal development of the brain
• No new neurons are created after birth.
• Growth is due to increased size of neurons
and growth in number of axons and synapses.
• Increase in number of synaptic connections
depends on experience.

Corel, JL. (1975)

Superior view of cerebral hemispheres of 18-20 weeks gestation fetus
https://www.drugabuse.gov/news-events/nida-notes/2017/03/why-are-our-brains-so-big-powerful
 Common causes of congenital abnormalities

• Genetic factors, such as chromosomal

abnormalities
• Environmental factors, such as drugs.
Nalivaeva, Turner, and Zhuravin, 2018
 Topics
Ø Review
Ø Neural Tube Formation
Ø Neuronal Development: Cellular/Molecular Processes
Ø Postnatal Development of the Brain
Ø Central Nervous System (CNS): 1 of 2
Ø Summary

32
 Brain
• Brain = encephalon
• The largest mass of brain tissue = cerebrum
cerebrum
– Cerebral hemispheres
– Limbic system (limbic lobe, basal ganglia, and
other structures located more inside of the brain)
– Limbic lobe = rhinencephalon
 Terms to know
Contralateral: related to the opposite side
• Contralateral
Ipsilateral: on the same side
• Ipsilateral
Bilateral: related to or having two sides
• Bilateral
Gyrus: “hill,” bumps from the enfolding of
• Gyrus
the cortex during development (plural – gyri)
Sulcus (or Fissure): “valley,” groove-like
• Sulcus
depressions that separate the gyri (plural –
sulci)
 Terms to know – cont.

Fasciculus: “little bundle” a distinct collection of

• Fasciculus
nerve fibers, often containing more than one tract.
Association
• Association Fiber: connects areas of the brain
Fiber
within the same hemisphere, e.g. arcuate fasciculus
Commissural
• Commissural Fiber: connects areas of one
Fiber
hemisphere with areas on the opposite hemisphere
of the brain, e.g. corpus callosum
Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology from pp. 504-505
Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/ psychology from p. 93
Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 Cerebrum: Main Parts
• Two cerebral hemispheres, each consisting of a
heavily wrinkled outer layer
• Three deep-lying structures
• Basal ganglia
• Hippocampus
• Amygdaloid nuclei. Kandel, Schwartz, Jessell, Siegelbaum, & Hudspeth, 2013

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology from pp. 504-505

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/ psychology from p. 557
 Let’s find the following parts of the Brain

Corpus Callosum
connects the right and left hemispheres
Central Sulcus (Rolandic Fissure)
bounds frontal lobe posteriorly
Lateral Sulcus (Sylvian Fissure)
bounds frontal lobe inferiorly
Arcuate Fasciculus
connects Broca’s Area to Wernicke’s Area
https://medium.com/@galynburke/child-development-post-3-of-3-when-your-kids-become-capable-of-certain-tasks-and-why-1c4e28be26c6
 Corpus Callosum
Its role is to transfer information from one
hemisphere to the other

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Corpus_callosum_small.gif
https://medium.com/@galynburke/child-development-post-3-of-3-when-your-kids-become-capable-of-certain-tasks-and-why-1c4e28be26c6
Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology
from p. 90: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 Central Sulcus
(Rolandic Fissure)

Lateral Sulcus
(Sylvian Fissure)

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology

from p. 90: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 Lateral surface
A German neurologist,
Korbinian Brodmann (1868-
1918), defined the Brodmann
areas (BA) 1 through 52.
Later, scientists identified
further details and added sub-
identifications.
https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Korbinian_Brodmann
Mid-sagittal Plane
 Central Sulcus
(Rolandic Fissure)

45 44 22

Wernicke’s area

Broca’s area
Lateral Sulcus
(Sylvian Fissure)

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology

from p. 90: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 Arcuate fasciculus

Wernicke’s
area

Broca’s area
 Arcuate fasciculus
Central Sulcus
(Rolandic Fissure)

Broca’s area
Wernicke’s area
Lateral Sulcus
(Sylvian Fissure)

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_classical_Wernicke-Lichtheim-Geschwind_model_of_the_neurobiology_of_language_fpsyg-04-00416-g001.jpg
Conduction aphasia: Repetition disturbance

literal (phonemic) paraphasia verbal (semantic) paraphasia

Perencil Art
 Central Sulcus
Precentral gyrus (Rolandic Fissure)
(Motor Strip)

2
Postcentral Gyrus

1,
(Sensory Strip)

3,
4

Postcentral Sulcus

Precentral Sulcus

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology

from p. 90: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe

Occipital lobe

Temporal lobe

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/psychology

from p. 92: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 The Frontal Lobe
• Functions: Attention, behavior, inhibition,
coordination of motor responses. The “senior
executive” of the rest of the brain.
• Anatomical Boundaries:
o Anterior boundary – the frontal pole
o Superior boundary -- the top of the brain
o Posterior boundary -- Central Sulcus
o Inferior boundary -- anterior portion of the
Lateral Sulcus
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe

Occipital lobe

Temporal lobe

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/psychology

from p. 92: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 The Frontal Lobe, cont.

• Important Areas:
o Precentral Gyrus:
– It comprises the majority of Primary Motor
Motor Strip
Cortex, Motor 4 of
Strip (Brodmann’s area 4)
both hemispheres
– Sends motor signals to body
– Voluntary contralateral (opposite-sided) motor
control of skeletal muscles
– Homunculus (little man): Map of motor control
on cerebral cortex
Motor Homunculus
 The Frontal Lobe, cont.
• Important Areas:
PremotorArea
o Premotor Area(BA
(BA6)6), motor
planning (both hemispheres).
This region receives information
from the sensory strip (BA 3, 1,
2) about the location of muscles
and joints and integrate the
sensory information with the
action plan.
https://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_06/i_06_cr/i_06_cr_mou/i_06_cr_mou.html

o Supplementary motor
Supplementary motor Area
Area (BA(BA
6, 6, superior and
medial portions) participate complex motoric
behaviors such as initiating and preparing for
speech production.
 The Frontal Lobe, cont.
• Important Areas:
Broca’s Area
o Broca's Area (Brodmann’s areas 44, 45)
44,45
– Left hemisphere only
– Handles grammar, fluent speech,
and motor programming.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Broca%27s_area_animation.gif
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe

Occipital lobe

Temporal lobe

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/psychology

from p. 92: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 The Parietal Lobe
• Functions: sensory
• Anatomical Boundaries:
o Anterior boundary – Central Sulcus (a.k.a.
Rolandic Fissure)
o Superior boundary – the top of the brain
o Posterior boundary – arbitrary line separating
occipital lobe from parietal and temporal lobes
o Inferior boundary – the posterior end of the
Lateral Sulcus
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe

Occipital lobe

Temporal lobe

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/psychology

from p. 92: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 Important Areas of the Parietal Lobe
Primary
• Postcentral
somatosensory Gyrus: Brodmann’s area 3, 1, 2
cortex
Supramarginal Gyrus: Brodmann’s area 40
• Supermarginal
Angular Gyrus: Brodmann’s area 39
• Angular

2
1,
3,
4
40 39

45 44 22

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology

from p. 90: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 Important Areas of the Parietal Lobe, cont’d.
• Postcentral
Post Central Gyrus (Brodmann’s area 3, 1, 2)
o Sensory strip – both hemispheres
o Perceives sensory information from various parts
of the body, (e.g. pain, temperature, touch, etc.)
o Homunculus: how sensory input is represented in
the brain
o Related image of homunculus in the motor strip
(of frontal lobe) as well.

2
1,
3,
4
40 39

45 44 22

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology

from p. 90: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 SENSORY
MOTOR Homunculus SENSORY Homunculus
Homunculus
 Area 40
Supramarginal gyrus

Area 39
Angular gyrus

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology from p. 559

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/ psychology from p. 87
Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
Important Areas of the Parietal Lobe, cont.
• Supramarginal
Angular Gyrus (Brodmann’s Area 39 40)
o Largest bending gyrus in parietal lobe, curves
around posterior end of lateral / Sylvian fissure
o Necessary for fine (detailed) processing of
sensory information

2
1,
3,
4
40 39

45 44 22

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology

from p. 90: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supramarginal_gyrus
 Important Areas of the Parietal Lobe, cont.
• Angular Gyrus (Brodmann’s Area 39)
o Posterior to supramarginal gyrus and curves around
end of superior temporal sulcus.
o Contributes to word finding, writing and reading
skills, math skills, and left / right orientation.
o Damage in the angular gyrus can result in:
- Agraphia
- Acalculia
- Alexia

2
1,
3,
- Anomia
4
40 39

45 44 22

- Limb Apraxia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_gyrus

- Left- Right Disorientation

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology
from p. 90: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe

Occipital lobe

Temporal lobe

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/psychology

from p. 92: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 The Temporal Lobe

• Functions: language, seat of auditory processing in

the brain
• Anatomical Boundaries:
o Anterior boundary – anterior portion of the
Lateral Sulcus
o Superior boundary – the Lateral Sulcus
o Posterior boundary – arbitrary line separating
occipital from parietal and temporal lobes
o Inferior boundary – the bottom of the cerebrum
 The Temporal Lobe, cont.
• Important Areas of the temporal lobe
o Superior Temporal Gyrus
- Primary auditory cortex
- Heschl’s Gyrus (Brodmann’s
Heschl's Gyrus
Areas 41, 42
42). Cortical center for
hearing. Processes incoming
sound signals. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Primary_auditory_cortex_-_animation.gif

- Wernicke’s Area (Brodmann’s

Wernicke's Area
Area 22
22) in the posterior area of
left temporal lobe (important to
language comprehension)

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wernicke%27s_area_animation.gif
BA 41, 42, and BA 22: Close locations

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Brodmann_area_41
 The Temporal Lobe, cont.
• Damage to this lobe may result in:
Agnosia- inability to recognize sounds in the
o Auditory Agnosia
absence of a sensory deficit.
o Bilateral lesions in the auditory cortex = Cortical
deafness.
o Unilateral lesions in the auditory cortex = difficulty
interpreting a sound or locating a sound in space.
o Wernicke’s Aphasia (Receptive Aphasia) – fluent,
paraphasic speech and language; poor comprehension
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe

Occipital lobe

Temporal lobe

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/psychology

from p. 92: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 The Occipital Lobe
• Functions: Processes visual input
• Boundaries: Frontal lobe Parietal lobe

o Anterior and Superior – arbitrary Occipital lobe

line separating occipital from

Temporal lobe

parietal and temporal lobes

o Posterior – back of the cerebrum
Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/psychology
from p. 92: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented

o Inferior – bottom of the cerebrum

• Areas: Primary Visual Cortex
(Brodmann’s Area 1717) and Primary
Visual Association Areas (Brodmann’s
Areas 18,
18, 19)
19
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occipital_lobe
 3, 1, 2

4
40 39

19
45 44 22 19
18
19 18
17
19 18

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology

from p. 90: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 19
18 19 19
17 18 18 19
1817 171718 19 19
18 17 18 19
19 19 18 17 17
1918 18 17
19
19

Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology

from p. 95: Summarized, Rearranged, and/or Supplemented
 The Occipital Lobe, cont.

• Damage to this lobe may result in:

o Total blindness
o Visual field cuts / deficits
o Visual agnosia
Agnosia – the inability to recognize

visual stimuli in the absence of a sensory

deficit.
 Topics
Ø Review
Ø Neural Tube Formation
Ø Neuronal Development: Cellular/Molecular Processes
Ø Postnatal Development of the Brain
Ø Central Nervous System (CNS): 1 of 2
Ø Summary

75
 Now we know…
Type text he
• Neural plate development
• Stages of neuronal process
• Potential causes and consequences of atypical
development.
• Blood flow to the brain and its mechanism
• Roles of ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid
• Central Nervous System:
– Components
– Surface structures of the brain