Sample Examination Manual

R. G. Swanson
Shell Oil Company
Explora tion Training

Methods in Exploration Series

Published by
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74101, USA
 Published by
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74101, USA

Copyright O 1981
'The American Association of Petroleum Geologists

All Rights Reserved

Published May 1981

Second Printing, January 1982
Third Printing, July 1985

ISBN: 0-89181-650-X
Publisher's Note:
The American A s s o c i a t i o n o f P e t r o l e u m G e o l o g i s t s g r a t e f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e s
t h e management a n d p e r s o n n e l o f S h e l l O i l Company, and p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e
E x p l o r a t i o n T r a i n i n g D e p a r t m e n t , f o r t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h i s manual t o
t h e p r o f e s s i o n . A s e x p l o r a t i o n i s t s r e l y more on s c i e n c e , p u b l i c a t i o n s o f
t h i s t y p e w i l l a i d t h e g e o l o g i s t i n h i s e v e r y d a y work. We hope t o s e t a
s t a n d a r d w i t h t h i s book.

But b e c a u s e t h i s book c a n n o t b e a l l t h i n g s t o a l l p e o p l e , w e d e l i b e r a t e l y
published i t a s a loose-leaf binder. This w i l l allow us t o update e n t i r e
s e c t i o n s from t i m e t o t i m e , and w i l l a l l o w t h e i n d i v i d u a l g e o l o g i s t t o
i n s e r t a n y m a t e r i a l s t h a t p e r t a i n s p e c i f i c a l l y t o h i s own g e o g r a p h i c
(or s t r a t i g r a p h i c ) area.

AAPG P u b l i c a t i o n s
T u l s a , Oklahoma
 This manual was prepared to provide the oil industry with a Standard
Lithologic Logging System. It sets forth the methods and procedures recommended
for rock examination and lithologic logging, primarily of drill cuttings, but
also of core and surface samples. The methods, procedures and legends
included herein are reasonably compatible with those used throughout the
industry. There is no intent to restrict interpretation through standardization.
On the contrary, it is hoped that this manual will encourage wider use of the
basic information derived from sample examination and create a renewed interest
in the acquisition of such information by improving the ease. and efficiency
of doing such work.

Good sample examination and logging goes beyond making generalized

lithologic descriptions and picking obvious formation tops. This includes
interpretation of rock genesis and diagenetic history from cuttings, which
in turn requires skill, diligence and perceptive analysis. As our knowledge
of sedimentary petrology, diagenetic processes, and criteria for recognition
of depositional environments increases, it is imperative that this information
be applied in routine sample examination. The greater the reservoir of
knowledge in the interpreter's mind, the more meaningful and imaginative
the interpretation of samples. Sample examination need not be a boring,
monotonous and tedious task. Done properly, it should be stimulating,
thought provoking, and professionally rewarding.
Acknowledgements
This manual is a revised and modified version of the Shell Oil Company
Sample Examination Manual that was prepared in 1967 as a standard for all
exploration divisions of the Company. That original manual was prepared by
a committee of Shell Oil Company geologists from different parts of the
United States and Canada which consisted of the author (chairman), J. Braunstein,
J.H. Clement, G. Herman, S.D. Kerr, A.W. Rupp, J.R. Taylor, and R.C. Vernon.
The author gratefully acknowledges the effort of the committee and is
indebted to them for valuable contributions, recommendations, and assistance
in preparing the original manual.

This manual was significantly revised and updated by the author from
the original version. It has been used by hundreds of Shell geologists in
classes on sample examination taught by the author, and in the course of
routine operations. Comments and criticisms from all these users have been
a contributing factor in improving the practical usage of the manual.

Much of the material in this manual is derived from unpublished

Company reports. I am particulary grateful to the following persons and
organizations for contributions they have made, either direct or indirect:
C.A. Barkell, J.M. Drindak, D.C. Fogt, W.O. Gigon, J.R. McGehee, P.F. Moore,
A. Thomson, E. Welbourn, Shell Development Company, and Shell International
Petroleum Maatschappij (The Hague).

I want to express thanks to Shell Oil Company for permission to

publish this manual, and particularly to G.D. OIBrien, manager of Exploration
Training, for suggesting and encouraging that the manual be submitted to the
American Association of Petroleum Geologists.

R.G. Swanson
Houston, Texas
Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 . 0 Log Forms. Symbols. a n d L e g e n d s ................ 2

2 . 1 Log Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.11Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 . 1 2 S p e c i a l Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2Symbols andLegends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 . 3 M e t h o d s of L o g g i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3.0 Sample D e s c r i p t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3 . 1 Sample Q u a l i t y a n d E x a m i n a t i o n T e c h n i q u e s . . . . . . . . 5
3 . 1 1 Use of T r a n s m i t t e d L i g h t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 . 3 Order of W r i t t e n D e s c r i p t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
3.31RockTypes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 6
3.32 Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.33Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
(1) Grain o r C r y s t a l S i z e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
( 2 ) S h a p e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
( 3 ) S o r t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
3.34 C e m e n t a n d M a t r i x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.35 F o s s i l s and A c c e s s o r i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3 . 3 6 S e d i m e n t a r y S t r u c t u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 0
3.37 P o r o s i t y and P e r m e a b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0
3 . 3 8 H y d r o c a r b o n Shows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0
3.4 Methods o f R e c o r d i n g D a t a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0

4 . 0 Some C r i t e r i a a n d P r o c e d u r e s f o r Rock a n d M i n e r a l
Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1 T e s t i n g Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4 . 1 1 T e s t s w i t h D i l u t e H C 1 ( 1 0 % ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.12 Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4 . 1 3 P a r t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4 . 1 4 S l a k i n g a n d S w e l l i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 2
4.2 Thin S e c t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3 S t a i n i n g T e c h n i q u e f o r C a r b o n a t e Rocks . . . . . . . . . .1 3
4.4 I n s o l u b l e R e s i d u e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 3
4.5 V e r s e n a t e A n a l y s i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 3
4.6' Heavy M i n e r a l S t u d i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3
4.7 T e s t s f o r S p e c i f i c Rocks a n d M i n e r a l s . . . . . . . . . . 1 3
4 . 7 1 C l a y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 4
4.72 Chert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4
 4.73 Evaporites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 4
4.74 Phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.75 Siderite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 5
4.76 Feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
4.77 B i t u m i n o u s Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 5
5.0 P o r o s i t y and Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5 . 1 D e t e c t i o n a n d Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6
5 . 2 C h o q u e t t e a n d P r a y ' s C a r b o n a t e P o r o s i t y C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . .1 7
5 . 3 A r c h i e ' s C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f P o r o s i t y i n C a r b o n a t e Rocks . .1 7

6.0 Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9
6 . 1 R o u t i n e H y d r o c a r b o n D e t e c t i o n Methods . . . . . . . . . . 1 9
6 . 1 1 Odor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 9
6.12 S t a i n i n g and Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6 . 1 3 R e a c t i o n i n Acid o f O i l - B e a r i n g Rock F r a g m e n t s . . .20
6 . 1 4 F l u o r e s c e n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6 . 1 5 R e a g e n t Cut T e s t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6 . 1 6 W e t t a b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6 . 2 O t h e r H y d r o c a r b o n D e t e c t i o n Methods . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6 . 2 1 Acetone-Water T e s t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6 . 2 2 Hot W a t e r T e s t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6 . 2 3 I r i d e s c e n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6 . 2 4 P y r o l y s i s T e s t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6 . 3 S o l i d H y d r o c a r b o n s a n d Dead O i l . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6 . 4 G e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

7.0 Problems i n I n t e r p r e t i n g D r i l l C u t t i n g s . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.1 C o n t a m i n a t i o n from P r e v i o u s l y P e n e t r a t e d Beds . . . . . . 25
7 . 1 1 C a v i n g s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.12 R e c i r c u l a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.2 O t h e r C o n t a m i n a n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.21Lost CirculationMaterial . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7 . 2 2 Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7 . 2 3 D r i l l i n g Mud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7 . 2 4 O i l C o n t a m i n a t i o n . P i p e Dope. e t c . . . . . . . . . .26
7.25 P i p e S c a l e a n d B i t S h a v i n g s . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.26 Miscellaneous Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
7.3 M i s c e l l a n e o u s I n t e r p r e t a t i o n P r o b l e m s . . . . . . . . . . 26
7 . 3 1 R o c k D u s t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.32 Powdering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7 . 3 3 F u s i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
7 . 3 4 A i r - G a s D r i l l i n g Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
7 . 3 5 Sample Lag C o r r e c t i o n E r r o r . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7 . 3 6 S p r e a d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
7 . 3 7 oiler-~ousing" o r "Dog-Housing1' o f Samples . . . .28
8.0 Geological Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.1 Unconformities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.2 Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.21 Environment Classification and Color Legend . . . . 30

APPENDICES:

.Equipment, Special Techniques. and Procedures..1

10.0 Appendix I . .
10.1 Equipment and Supplies for Routine Sample
Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I- 1
10.11 Comments on Some Essential Equipment and
Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I- 2
10.2 Thin Sections from Drill Cuttings . . . . . . . . . . .I- 4
10.21 Operational Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I- 4
10.22 Multiple Sample Thin Sections . . . . . . . . . .I- 5
10.23 Polyethylene Mold and Casting . . . . . . . . . .I- 6
10.24 Typical Thin Section of One Cavity of Casting . ..1 6
10.3 Staining Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I. 7
10.31 Techniques for Carbonate Rocks . . . . . . . . . I- 7
10.32 Techniques for Feldspars . . . . . . . . . . . . I- 8
10.4 Detailed Insoluble Residue Studies . . . . . . . . . . I- 8
10.5 Versenate Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I- 9
10.51 Percentage ~alcite/Dolomiteversus Reaction
Time Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11
10.6Acetate Peels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11
10.7 Choquette and Pray's Classification on Porosity
in Carbonate Rocks .................. 1-12
10.71 Classification of Carbonate Pore Types . . . . . 1-14
10.8 Archie's Classification of Porosity in Carbonate Rocks.1-15
10.81 Modified Archie Classification for Porosity
in Carbonate Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14
i0.9 Core Handling Prodecure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16
11.0 Appendix I1 ..Standard Abbreviations for Lithologic
Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11- 1

12.0 Appendix I11 .

.Miscellaneous Charts and Graphs . . . . . 111- 1
12.1 Chart for Estimating Percentage of a Given Rock Type
in a Tray of Cuttings ............... .I1I- 1
12.2 Chart for Estimating Particle Percentages . . . . . .I1.
I 3
 12.3 Chart for Estimating Particle Percentages (2nd) . . .III- 6
12.4 Grain Size Comparator (in envelope) ..... (See Binding)
12.5 Grain Size and Sorting Comparator (very fine 6 fine) 111-10
10.51 Grain Size and Sorting Comparator
(medium and coarse) ... .... . . . . . . .TII-11
12.6 Conversion Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-12
12.61 Conversion Graph for Micrometer Eyepiece . . . 111-13
12.7 Roundness and Sphericity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-14

13.0 Appendix IV -- Legends and Classifications . . . . . . . . IV- 1

13.1 Standard Lithologic Log Form . . . . . . . . . . . . .IV- 1
13.2 Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks . . . . . . . . IV- 2
13.3 Classification of Carbonate Rocks According
to Depositional Texture . . . . . ..
... . . . . . IV- 3
13.4 Classification of Depositional Environment and
Environmental Color Legend .. .
. . . . . . . . . . .IV- 4
13.5 Standard Lithologic Legends: General Logging
Procedures . . . . . . . .............. .IV- 5
Standard Legends:

.Siliciclastic Rock Types

Chart I . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I.V 5
Chart I1 ..Carbonate Rock Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV- 7
Chart I11 ..Carbonate Particle Symbols . . . . . . . . . . .I.V 9
Chart IV .
.Miscellaneous Sedimentary Rock Types, Igneous.
and Metamorphic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IV.11
Chart V .
.Subordinate Components; Cements . . . . . . . . . IV-13
Chart VI ..Tops, Sample Quality Data. and Thin Sections . . IV-15
Chart VII ..Engineering Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IV.17

Chart VIII .
.Hydrocarbon Shows and Other Fluids; Source
Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IV-19
Chart IX ..Visible Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-21

Chart X ..Core Data; Textural Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-23

Chart XI ..Texture; Rock Colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-25
Chart XI1 ..Fossils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-27
Chart XI11 ..Fossils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IV.29

Chart XIV ..Fossils; Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IV.31

Chart XV ..Accessories; Chert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-33

Chart XVI .
.Structures (Stratification, Sedimentary.
and Diagenetic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-35
Chart XVII .
.Structures and Markings (Stratification,
Sedimentary. and Diagenetic) . . . . . . . . . IV-37
Chart XVIII .
.Structures (Stratification, Sedimentary. and
Diagenetic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-39
Chart XIX .
.Black and White Lithologic Symbols
Siliciclastic Rock Types, Carbonate Rock Types.
and Miscellaneous Rock Types . . . . . . . . . .IV.41
Chart XX .
.Black and White Lithologic Symbols
Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks, and Secondary
Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-43
Chart XXI .
.Black and White Lithologic Symbols
(Miscellaneous Symbols) . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-45
Sample Examination
General
 1.0 INTRODUCTION

A c c u r a t e s a m p l e d e s c r i p t i o n i s b a s i c g e o l o g i c work - t h e f o u n d a t i o n
upon w h i c h t h e e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e o f s u b s u r f a c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e s t s . T h i s manual
h a s b e e n c o m p i l e d t o f u r n i s h c o n v e n i e n t r e f e r e n c e d a t a on s t a n d a r d s t r a t i g r a p h i c
p r o c e d u r e s . T e c h n i q u e s o f e x a m i n i n g , d e s c r i b i n g , and l o g g i n g w e l l c u t t i n g s ,
c o r e s , and o u t c r o p samples a r e s e t f o r t h .

A l t h o u g h t h e p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e s a m p l e l o g g e r was o n c e
t h a t o f p r o v i d i n g c o r r e l a t i o n p o i n t s f o r s t r u c t u r a l m a p p i n g , i t h a s become
i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t f o r him t o p r o v i d e s t r a t i g r a p h i c d a t a . The s o u r c e ,
t r a n s p o r t i n g medium, e n v i r o n m e n t o f d e p o s i t i o n , a n d p o s t - d e p o s i t i o n a l h i s t o r y
o f t h e s e d i m e n t s a l l c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d by s a m p l e e x a m i n a t i o n . Two e l e m e n t s
a r e involved: l o g g i n g t o r e p r e s e n t what i s p r e s e n t i n t h e s a m p l e s , a n d i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n o f t h e g e o l o g i c h i s t o r y f r o m t h e m a t e r i a l which i s l o g g e d .

A d e s c r i p t i o n may become s o d e t a i l e d a n d v o l u m i n o u s a s t o o b s c u r e
i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; t h e s t r a t i g r a p h e r must l e a r n t o b e s e l e c t i v e a n d
r e p o r t o n l y s i g n i f i c a n t d e t a i l s . Sample s t u d i e s s h o u l d b e made c a r e f u l l y a n d
a t t e n t i v e l y . The a c c u r a c y o f a s t u d y i s d e p e n d e n t upon t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e
samples and t h e s k i l l o f t h e o b s e r v e r . Thorough and c a r e f u l i n i t i a l examina-
t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n o f s a m p l e s w i l l s a v e t i m e and a v e r t t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r
re- examination.
 2.0 LOG FORMS, SYMBOLS AND LEGEZJDS

2.1 Log Forms

2.11 Standard

The l i t h o l o g i c l o g form, shown i n Appendix I V Y h a s been a d o p t e d a s

t h e s t a n d a r d f o r t h e l o g g i n g s y s t e m and l e g e n d s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s manual. The
s t a n d a r d l o g form i s o b t a i n a b l e from K r a f t b i l t Company, T u l s a , Oklahoma, and
i s made i n two s t y l e s . The c o n v e n t i o n a l s t r i p l o g i s 3-1/2" wide and 44" l o n g .
A v a r i a n t o f t h i s l o g i s t h e modular w e l l l o g made i n 8" s e c t i o n s w i t h a v i n y l
hinge. S e c t i o n s may b e j o i n e d t o g e t h e r by removing t h e wax s h i e l d from t h e
a d h e s i v e h i n g e , t h e n p l a c e d i n p o s i t i o n and g l u e d t o e a c h o t h e r . Headings a r e
a s e p a r a t e module. The a d v a n t a g e of t h e modular l o g i s c o n v e n i e n c e . Logs c a n
b e f o l d e d and p l a c e d i n f i l e s w i t h o t h e r w e l l d a t a , and t h e y c a n b e e a s i l y
carried i n a brief case.

T h i s l o g form h a s a v e r t i c a l s c a l e of 1" = 1 0 0 ' . F o r more d e t a i l ,

t h e s c a l e c a n b e expanded. Convenient v a r i a t i o n s i n s c a l e a r e 1" = 5 0 ' , and
1" = 2 0 ' , c o r r e s p o n d i n g w i t h s t a n d a r d m e c h a n i c a l l o g s c a l e s w i t h which t h e
l i t h o l o g i c l o g s c a n b e compared d i r e c t l y . Expanded s c a l e s a r e e s p e c i a l l y
d e s i r a b l e f o r l o g g i n g c o r e d i n t e r v a l s f o r which t h e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s and
symbols u s u a l l y t a k e more s p a c e t h a n i s p r o v i d e d by t h e 1" = 1 0 0 ' s c a l e . Special
l o g s can be f i l e d s e p a r a t e l y o r can be a t t a c h e d a s a f l a p t o t h e standard w e l l
l o g . When t h e y a r e f i l e d s e p a r a t e l y , a n o t a t i o n s h o u l d b e made on t h e s t a n d a r d
well log indicating t h e i r existence.

2.12 S p e c i a l Types

S p e c i a l q u a n t i t a t i v e methods and t e c h n i q u e s o f r o c k a n a l y s i s , s u c h
a s v e r s e n a t e a n a l y s e s , t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of i n s o l u b l e r e s i d u e s , e x a m i n a t i o n of
heavy m i n e r a l s u i t e s , d e t a i l e d p e t r o g r a p h i c e x a m i n a t i o n s , and g r a n u l o m e t r y d a t a ,
r e q u i r e s p e c i a l l o g forms. Because of t h e wide v a r i a t i o n i n sample i n t e r v a l s ,
c o n s t i t u e n t s p l o t t e d , and l o g s c a l e s , no s t a n d a r d forms a r e recommended.

2.2 Symbols and Legends

Symbols a l l o w a maximum amount of i n f o r m a t i o n t o b e e n t e r e d i n a minimum

amount of s p a c e . They e l i m i n a t e t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r l e n g t h y w r i t t e n d e s c r i p t i o n ,
and f a c i l i t a t e c o m p a r i s o n of l o g s . W r i t t e n comment c a n n o t b e d i s p e n s e d w i t h
c o m p l e t e l y b u t s h o u l d b e employed o n l y f o r c l a r i t y , e m p h a s i s , o r f u l l e r r e c o r d i n g
o f l i t h o l o g i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t a r e n o t p r o v i d e d f o r by t h e u s e of symbols
alone. Every g e o l o g i s t , w h e t h e r h e p r e p a r e s l i t h o l o g i c l o g s r e g u l a r l y o r o n l y
c o n s u l t s them o c c a s i o n a l l y , s h o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e symbols.

The c o l o r e d symbols t o b e u s e d i n a l l sample l o g g i n g a r e shown i n

Appendix I V . B l a c k and w h i t e symbols f o r r e p r e s e n t i n g l i t h o l o g i c and o t h e r
i n f o r m a t i o n , as r e p r o d u c e d i n Appendix I V Y a r e t o b e u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y f o r
p l o t t i n g s t r a t i g r a p h i c columnar s e c t i o n s and c r o s s s e c t i o n s .

The s t a n d a r d l o g form p r o v i d e s a column f o r t h e r e c o r d i n g of

e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a , and C h a r t V I I , ,Appendix I V shows symbols f o r some of t h e
more common d a t a t h a t s h o u l d b e p l o t t e d on l o g s . The symbols shown a r e f a r
from c o m p l e t e ; i f needed symbols a r e n o t g i v e n , t h e g e o l o g i s t c a n c r e a t e
symbols t o f i l l h i s n e e d s . Any new symbols, however, s h o u l d b e n o t e d u n d e r
"Remarks" a t t h e h e a d i n g o f t h e l o g .
2.3 Methods o f L o g g i n g

T h e r e a r e two g e n e r a l m e t h o d s o f s a m p l e d e s c r i p t i o n and l o g g i n g ,
t h e i n t e r p r e t i v e s y s t e m and t h e p e r c e n t a g e s y s t e m . The i n t e r p r e t i v e l o g i s
p r e f e r a b l e b u t i t s a c c u r a c y d e p e n d s i n some m e a s u r e o n t h e q u a l i t y
of t h e samples, and t h e g e o l o g i s t ' s f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h t h e l o c a l s t r a t i g r a p h i c
section. Obvious caved m a t e r i a l i s t o b e d i s r e g a r d e d , and o n l y t h e
lithology believed t o b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e d r i l l e d section i s logged. I f
s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t r o c k t y p e s a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e s a m p l e , a l l assumed t o b e
d e r i v e d from t h e d r i l l e d i n t e r v a l , t h e y a r e logged a s d i s c r e t e b e d s , i n t e r b e d s ,
i n t e r c a l a t i o n s , l e n s e s , o r nodules, r a t h e r than a s percentages. The i n t e r p r e -
t a t i o n i n t h i s c a s e i s b a s e d on t h e g e o l o g i s t ' s k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s e c t i o n . On
i n t e r p r e t i v e l o g s , l i t h o l o g i c c o n t a c t s a r e drawn s h a r p l y , and t h e e n t i r e w i d t h
o f t h e l o g column i s f i l l e d w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e s y m b o l s . One h a z a r d i n t h i s f o r m
o f logging i s t h a t of overlooking. unexpected r e p e t i t i o n s of l i t h o l o g i c t y p e s .

E x p e r i e n c e a n d good t r a i n i n g a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r making a good i n t e r -

p r e t i v e l o g . G e n e r a l l y t h e person examining t h e samples i s b e s t q u a l i f i e d t o
r e c o g n i z e l i t h o l o g i c and f o r m a t i o n a l c o n t a c t s . Although f o r m a t i o n c o n t a c t s
s h o u l d b e p i c k e d on t h e b a s i s o f s a m p l e e v i d e n c e r a t h e r t h a n on m e c h a n i c a l l o g s ,
t h e l a t t e r , a s w e l l a s d r i l l i n g time l o g s , can be u s e f u l i n d e f i n i n g boundaries
o f s p e c i f i c l i t h o l o g i c u n i t s , and zones o f p o r o s i t y .

I n percentage logging, t h e g e o l o g i s t , a f t e r eliminating t h e obvious

f o r e i g n m a t t e r and u n q u e s t i o n a b l e caved m a t e r i a l , p l o t s each rock t y p e w i t h a
width of symbols p r o p o r t i o n a l t o i t s p e r c e n t a g e i n t h e s a m p l e . T h i s system o f
l o g g i n g may b e u s e d t o a d v a n t a g e i n a r e a s w h e r e :

1) t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y a r e unknown,

2) samples a r e o f v e r y poor q u a l i t y ,

3) no m e c h a n i c a l l o g s a r e a v a i l a b l e ,

4) t h e sampled i n t e r v a l i s v e r y l a r g e compared t o t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e
rock u n i t s ,

5) t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c s e q u e n c e i s i n t e r r u p t e d by s t r u c t u r a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s ,
or

6 ) t h e person s t u d y i n g t h e samples i s i n e x p e r i e n c e d o r i s n o t a p r o f e s -
sional geologist.

The p r i n c i p a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f t h i s s y s t e m a r e t h a t l i t h o l o g i c b r e a k s do n o t
show up s h a r p l y on t h e l o g , and t h e . i n t r i c a t e l o g g i n g o f e a c h r o c k p e r c e n t a g e
o f t e n g i v e s a c o n f u s e d and m e a n i n g l e s s p i c t u r e o f t h e r o c k p r e s e n t .

A m o d i f i c a t i o n o f i n t e r p r e t i v e l o g g i n g w h i c h h a s b e e n employed
o c c a s i o n a l l y i s a c o m b i n a t i o n i n t e r p r e t i ~ e l ~ e r c e n t a gl eo g . The o b j e c t i v e i n
t h i s c a s e i s t o i n d i c a t e on t h e l o g a s a p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e w h o l e s a m p l e o n l y
t h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e s a m p l e w h i c h t h e l o g g e r i n t e r p r e t s a s b e i n g i n p l a c e . The
r e m a i n d e r o f t h e l i t h i c column i s l e f t b l a n k . T h i s t y p e o f l o g g i n g h a s t h e
a d v a n t a g e of o t h e r i n t e r p r e t i v e l o g s , e x c e p t t h a t t h e l o g which r e s u l t s from
t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f p o o r s a m p l e s h a s few s y m b o l s p l o t t e d a n d i s t h e r e f o r e more
d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t . It does a f f o r d a g r a p h i c r e c o r d of t h e q u a l i t y of t h e
s a m p l e s , b u t t h i s f a c t c a n j u s t a s w e l l a p p e a r i n t h e column o f w r i t t e n
description.
 3.0 SAMPLE DESCRIPTION
3.1 Sample Q u a l i t y and Examination Techniques
The q u a l i t y of a sample l o g i s f r e q u e n t l y a d i r e c t measure of t h e
q u a l i t y of t h e samples. C l e a n , good q u a l i t y samples a r e e x c e p t i o n s r a t h e r
than t h e rule. The g e o l o g i s t l o g g i n g samples must l e a r n t o make h i s i n t e r p r e -
t a t i o n s from samples of w i d e l y v a r y i n g q u a l i t y . Cavings and o t h e r c o n t a m i n a n t s
must be r e c o g n i z e d and d i s r e g a r d e d . (See S e c t i o n 7.0)
Many methods of examining samples a r e i n u s e t h r o u g h o u t t h e i n d u s t r y .
Some g e o l o g i s t s pour and examine one sample a t a t i m e ; o t h e r s l a y o u t t h e
samples i n compartmented t r a y s s o t h a t a s e q u e n c e of from f i v e t o t e n samples
may b e o b s e r v e d i n a s i n g l e t r a y .
The f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e i s recommended: t h e samples a r e l a i d o u t
i n a s t a c k of f i v e - c e l l t r a y s w i t h t h e d e p t h s marked on t h e t r a y s . The c u t -
t i n g s s h o u l d j u s t c o v e r t h e bottoms of t h e t r a y s . I t i s sometimes d e s i r a b l e
t o s e p a r a t e t h e o b v i o u s c a v i n g s by e i t h e r s i e v i n g o r d r y panning. Attention
s h o u l d g e n e r a l l y b e f o c u s e d on t h e s m a l l e r c u t t i n g s w i t h a n g u l a r s h a p e and
f r e s h appearance.
A s t a n d a r d p r a c t i c e i s t o s c a n 100 o r more f e e t of s a m p l e s , o b s e r v i n g
t h e l i t h o l o g i c "breaks." The samples a r e t h e n re-examined f o r more d e t a i l e d
s t u d y , d r y f o r p o r o s i t y e s t i m a t e s , wet f o r a l l o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s . W e t t i n g t h e
samples n o t o n l y c l e a n s o f f mud and o t h e r c o n t a m i n a t i o n , b u t a l s o b r i n g s o u t
r o c k c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t a r e n o t a p p a r e n t i n d r y samples. The t r a y s h o u l d be
d i p p e d i n a b a s i n of w a t e r , a g i t a t e d g e n t l y t o remove any f i n e c o n t a m i n a n t s ,
and t h e n removed and d r a i n e d f o r s t u d y , l e a v i n g t h e s a m p l e s s t i l l covered by
a f i l m of w a t e r . A f t e r t h e c u t t i n g s have been l o g g e d , t h e y a r e set a s i d e t o
d r y and a r e t h e n r e t u r n e d t o t h e sample b a g s .
The t e c h n i q u e of s c a n n i n g s a m p l e s , o r l o o k i n g a h e a d , b e f o r e l o g g i n g
them i n d e t a i l h a s many a d v a n t a g e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o h e l p i n g t h e examiner p i c k
t o p s anL l i t h o l o g i c b r e a k s i t may a l s o a i d him i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e x t e n t of
porous and h y d r o c a r b o n b e a r i n g i n t e r v a l s . However, t h e p r i n c i p l e a d v a n t a g e of
t h i s t e c h n i q u e i s t h a t i t p r o v i d e s t h e g e o l o g i s t t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o o b s e r v e and
i n t e r p r e t d e p o s i t i o n a l s e q u e n c e s . When sample i n t e r v a l s a r e l a i d o u t i n sequence
s u b t i l e c h a n g e s i n t e x t u r e , m i n e r a l o g y , c o l o r and f a c i e s o f t e n become a p p a r e n t
even b e f o r e m i c r o s c o p i c e x a m i n a t i o n . Thus t h e o b s e r v e r i s a l e r t e d t o l o o k f o r
t h e s e c h a n g e s when making t h e d e t a i l e d e x a m i n a t i o n . T h i s method of examining
samples e n c o u r a g e s g e o l o g i s t s t o o b s e r v e and l o g l i t h o l o g i c r a t h e r t h a n sample
interval units. It e l i m i n a t e s t h e l a b o r i o u s and t i m e consuming t a s k of r o u t i n e l y
d e s c r i b i n g e a c h sample i n t e r v a l , i t i n c r e a s e s speed of l o g g i n g and i t i n v a r i a b l y
h e l p s t h e g e o l o g i s t make a more m e a n i n g f u l l o g .
T e x t u r e s i n c a r b o n a t e r o c k s c a n b e c l e a r l y o b s e r v e d w i t h t h e a i d of
s p e c i a l w e t t i n g a g e n t s such a s mineral o i l , g l y c e r i n e , clove o i l , e t c . A
f u r t h e r r e f i n e m e n t of t h i s t e c h n i q u e i s t h e u s e of t r a n s m i t t e d l i g h t d e s c r i b e d
below.
3.11 Use of T r a n s m i t t e d L i g h t
T e x t u r a l and s t r u c t u r a l d e t a i l s o f t e n become e v i d e n t when l i g h t i s
t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h t h i n s l i v e r s of c a r b o n a t e r o c k . This technique is
p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l f o r t h e r o u t i n e e x a m i n a t i o n of d r i l l c u t t i n g s .
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e c u t t i n g s s e l e c t e d f o r t h e i r t h i n , p l a t y shape a r e
e t c h e d l i g h t l y i n d i l u t e H C 1 , p l a c e d i n a c l e a r p y r e x s p o t p l a t e , and t h e n
completely covered w i t h a w e t t i n g agent. Light i s t r a n s m i t t e d through t h e
c h i p s by t h e u s e o f a s u b s t a g e m i r r o r , o r a s m a l l r e f l e c t i n g m i r r o r p l a c e d
d i r e c t l y on t h e s t a g e and u n d e r n e a t h t h e p l a t e .
A m i x t u r e o f w a t e r and g l y c e r i n e i s recommended a s t h e w e t t i n g a g e n t
b e c a u s e ( 1 ) i t e v a p o r a t e s s l o w l y , and ( 2 ) c h i p s may b e washed c l e a n w i t h w a t e r
a f t e r e x a m i n a t i o n ( a u s e f u l q u a l i t y when working w i t h s m a l l amounts o f s a m p l e s
which must b e r e f i l e d ) .

3.2 A b b r e v i a t i o n s
A b b r e v i a t i o n s s h o u l d b e used f o r a l l d e s c r i p t i o n s r e c o r d e d on
l i t h o l o g i c l o g s . Appendix I1 i s a l i s t of t h e t e r m s n o s t conmonly u s e d i n
sample e x a m i n a t i o n , and t h e i r recommended a b b r e v i a t i o n s . Abbreviations f o r
nouns a r e d e s i g n a t e d w i t h c a p i t a l i n i t i a l l e t t e r s ; o t h e r terms a r e a b b r e v i a t e d
e n t i r e l y i n small l e t t e r s .

3.3 O r d e r of \ k i t t e n D e s c r i p t i o n
When w r i t t e n d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d a s t a n d a r d i z e d o r d e r of
d e s c r i p t i o n ( 1 ) r e d u c e s t h e c h a n c e of n o t r e c o r d i n g a l l i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t i e s ,
( 2 ) i n c r e a s e s t h e u n i f o r m i t y o f d e s c r i p t i o n among g e o l o g i s t s , and ( 3 ) s a v e s
t i m e i n o b t a i n i n g s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n from d e s c r i p t i o n s .

The f o l l o w i n g o r d e r i s u s e d :
1) Rock t y p e - u n d e r l i n e d and f o l l o w e d by c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
2) Color
3) Texture - i n c l u d i n g g r a i n s i z e , r o u n d n e s s , and s o r t i n g
4) Cement a n d / o r m a t r i x m a t e r i a l s
5) F o s s i l s and a c c e s s o r i e s
6) Sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s
7) P o r o s i t y and o i l shows
Examp 1e s
Ls:
- 001. G r s t . , b r n . , med.-crs., a r g . , Brach.-Bry.,
g l a u c . , gd. i n t p a r . p o r . , gd. S t n . , gd. c u t F l u o r .

Sst:
- l i t h i c , bu.-wh., f.-med., ang., s l i . a r g . , m i c a . ,
fx.-bd., f r . i n t g r a n . p o r . , gd. S t n . , gd. c u t F l u o r .

3.31 Rock Types .

A p r o p e r r e c o r d i n g of r o c k t y p e c o n s i s t s o f two f u n d a m e n t a l p a r t s :
t h e b a s i c r o c k name ( u n d e r l i n e d ) : e . g . , d o l o m i t e , l i m e s t o n e , s a n d s t o n e , and
t h e p r o p e r c o m p o s i t i o n a l o r t e x t u r a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n term: e.g., l i t h i c ,
o o l i t i c grainstone, etc.

3.32 Color
C o l o r of r o c k s may b e a mass e f f e c t of t h e c o l o r s of t h e c o n s t i t u e n t
g r a i n s , o r r e s u l t from t h e c o l o r o f cement o r m a t r i x , o r s t a i n i n g of t h e s e .
C o l o r s may o c c u r i n c o m b i n a t i o n s and p a t t e r n s , e . g . , m o t t l e d , banded, s p o t t e d ,
variegated. I t i s recommended t h a t c o l o r s b e d e s c r i b e d on wet s a m p l e s u n d e r
ten-power m a g n i f i c a t i o n . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o u s e t h e same s o u r c e of l i g h t a l l
of t h e t i m e and t o u s e c o n s t a n t m a g n i f i c a t i o n f o r a l l r o u t i n e l o g g i n g . G e n e r a l
t e r m s s u c h a s d a r k g r a y , medium brown, e t c . , g e n e r a l l y s u f f i c e , however, i f
more c o n c i s e d e s i g n a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d t h e c o l o r symbol a s d e t e r m i n e d from t h e
GSA Rock-color C h a r t may b e u s e d .
F e r r u g i n o u s , c a r b o n a c e o u s , s i l i c e o u s , and c a l c a r e o u s m a t e r i a l s a r e
t h e most i m p o r t a n t s t a i n i n g o r c o l o r i n g a g e n t s . From l i m o n i t e o r h e m a t i t e
come y e l l o w , r e d , o r brown s h a d e s . Gray t o b l a c k c o l o r c a n r e s u l t from t h e
p r e s e n c e of c a r b o n a c e o u s o r p h o s p h a t i c m a t e r i a l , i r o n s u l f i d e , o r manganese.
G l a u c o n i t e , f e r r o u s i r o n , s e r p e n t i n e , c h l o r i t e , and e p i d o t e i m p a r t g r e e n c o l o r i n g .
Red o r o r a n g e m o t t l i n g s a r e d e r i v e d from s u r f a c e w e a t h e r i n g o r s u b s u r f a c e
o x i d a t i o n by t h e a c t i o n of c i r c u l a t i n g w a t e r s .

The c o l o r s of c u t t i n g s may be a l t e r e d , a f t e r t h e samples a r e c a u g h t ,

by o x i d a t i o n c a u s e d by s t o r a g e i n a damp place, i n s u f f i c i e n t drying a f t e r
washing, o r by o v e r h e a t i n g . B i t o r pipe f r a g m e n t s i n samples can r u s t and s t a i n
t h e samples. D r i l l i n g mud a d d i t i v e s may a l s o cause staining.

3.33 Texture

T e x t u r e i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e s i z e , s h a p e , and arrangement of t h e
component e l e m e n t s of a r o c k .

1 ) Grain o r c r y s t a l s i z e s . S i z e g r a d e s and s o r t i n g of s e d i m e n t s a r e
important a t t r i b u t e s . They have a d i r e c t b e a r i n g on p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y
and may b e a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e environment i n which a sediment was d e p o s i t e d .
S i z e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , b a s e d on a m o d i f i e d Wentworth s c a l e , a r e shown i n Appendix I V ,
C h a r t X. The m i c r o s c o p i s t s h o u l d n o t t r y t o r e c o r d s i z e g r a d e s w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e
t o some s t a n d a r d comparator of mounted s i e v e d sand g r a i n s o r p h o t o g r a p h s of
these. A c o n v e n i e n t c o m p a r a t o r made of t r a n s p a r e n t f i l m p o s i t i v e i s i n c l u d e d
i n a n a t t a c h e d p o c k e t i n Appendix 111, S e c t i o n 12.4. T h i s comparator i s s m a l l
and handy and c a n b e p l a c e d on t o p o f , o r a d j a c e n t t o , c u t t i n g s i n a sample t r a y
so t h a t a d i r e c t v i s u a l comparison of g r a i n s i z e s c a n b e made. Lower f i n e i s
d e s i g n a t e d by u n d e r l i n i n g ( f ) . O t h e r c o m p a r a t o r s i n Appendix 111, S e c t i o n s
12.5 and 1 2 . 5 1 a r e p h o t o m i c ~ o g r a p h sof t h i n s e c t i o n s from Beard and Weyl (1973)
showing b o t h g r a i n s i z e and s o r t i n g . Both s i m p l e and u s e f u l i s a p h o t o g r a p h i c
g r i d of h a l f - m i l l i m e t e r s q u a r e s which may b e f i x e d on t h e bottom of a sample
examination t r a y .

2) Shape. Shape of g r a i n s h a s l o n g been u s e d t o d e c i p h e r t h e h i s t o r y

of a d e p o s i t o f which t h e g r a i n s a r e a p a r t . Shape i n v o l v e s b o t h s p h e r i c i t y
and r o u n d n e s s .

S p h e r i c i t y r e f e r s t o a comparison of t h e s u r f a c e a r e a of a s p h e r e
of t h e same volume a s t h e g r a i n , w i t h t h e s u r f a c e a r e a of t h e g r a i n i t s e l f .
For p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , d i s t i n c t i o n i s u s u a l l y made i n l a r g e p a r t i c l e s on t h e
b a s i s of a x i a l r a t i o s and i n g r a i n s by v i s u a l comparison w i t h c h a r t s such a s
t h o s e i n Appendix 111, S e c t i o n 12.6.

Roundness. Roundness, which r e f e r s t o t h e s h a r p n e s s of t h e e d g e s

and c o r n e r s of a f r a g m e n t , i s a n i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t d e s e r v e s c a r e f u l
a t t e n t i o n i n d e t a i l e d logging. F i v e d e g r e e s of r o u n d i n g may be d i s t i n g u i s h e d
a s shown on c h a r t s i n Appendix 111, S e c t i o n 12.6.
 Angular - edges and c o r n e r s s h a r p ; l i t t l e o r no evidence of wear.

Subangular - f a c e s untouched b u t edges and c o r n e r s rounded.

Subrounded - e d g e s and c o r n e r s rounded t o smooth c u r v e s ; a r e a s

of o r i g i n a l faces reduced.

Rounded - o r i g i n a l f a c e s a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y d e s t r o y e d , b u t some
c o m p a r a t i v e l y f l a t f a c e s may b e p r e s e n t ; a l l o r i g i n a l
e d g e s and c o r n e r s smoothed o f f t o r a t h e r b r o a d c u r v e s

Well rounded - no o r i g i n a l f a c e s , edges, o r c o r n e r s remain; e n t i r e

s u r f a c e c o n s i s t s of broad curves, f l a t a r e a s a r e a b s e n t .

3) S o r t i n g . S o r t i n g i s a measure o f d i s p e r s i o n o f t h e s i z e frequency
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f g r a i n s i n a sediment o r r o c k . It i n v o l v e s shape, roundness,
s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y , and m i n e r a l composition a s w e l l a s s i z e . A c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
g i v e n by P a y n e ( 1 9 4 2 ) t h a t c a n b e a p p l i e d t o t h e s e f a c t o r s i s :

Good: 90% i n 1 o r 2 s i z e c l a s s e s

Fair: 90% i n 3 o r 4 s i z e c l a s s e s

Poor: 90% i n 5 o r m o r e s i z e c l a s s e s

More n e a r l y p r e c i s e v a l u e s may b e d e t e r m i n e d b y d i r e c t c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e
s o r t i n g c o m p a r a t o r s shown i n A p p e n d i x 111, S e c t i o n s 1 2 . 5 a n d 1 2 . 5 1 .

3.34 Cement a n d M a t r i x

Cement i s a c h e m i c a l p r e c i p i t a t e d e p o s i t e d a r o u n d t h e g r a i n s a n d i n
t h e i n t e r s t i c e s o f a s e d i m e n t a s a g g r e -g a t e s o f c r y s t a l s o r a s g- r o w t h s on g- r a i n s
- -

o f t h e same c o m p o s i t i o n . M a t r i x c o n s i s t s o f s m a l l i n d i v i d u a l g r a i n s t h a t f i l l
i n t e r s t i c e s b e t w e e n t h e l a r g e r g r a i n s . Cement i s d e p o s i t e d c h e m i c a l l y and
matrix mechanically.

The o r d e r o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f cement d e p e n d s on t h e t y p e o f s o l u t i o n ,
number o f i o n s i n s o l u t i o n a n d t h e g e n e r a l g e o c h e m i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t . Several
d i f f e r e n t c e m e n t s , o r g e n e r a t i o n s o f c e m e n t , may o c c u r i n a g i v e n r o c k , s e p a -
r a t e l y o r o v e r g r o w n on o r r e p l a c i n g o n e a n o t h e r . C h e m i c a l c e m e n t i s uncommon
i n s a n d s t o n e w h i c h h a s a c l a y m a t r i x . T h e m o s t common c e m e n t i n g m a t e r i a l s a r e
s i l i c a and c a l c i t e .

S i l i c a c e m e n t i s common i n n e a r l y a l l q u a r t z s a n d s t o n e s . T h i s
cement g e n e r a l l y o c c u r s a s secondary c r y s t a l overgrowths d e p o s i t e d i n o p t i c a l
c o n t i n u i t y w i t h d e t r i t a l q u a r t z g r a i n s . O p a l , c h a l c e d o n y , and c h e r t a r e o t h e r
forms o f s i l i c e o u s c e m e n t . D o l o m i t e and c a l c i t e a r e d e p o s i t e d a s c r y s t a l s i n
t h e i n t e r s t i c e s a n d a s a g g r e g a t e s i n t h e v o i d s . D o l o m i t e a n d c a l c i t e may b e
i n d i g e n o u s t o t h e s a n d s t o n e , t h e s a n d s h a v i n g been a m i x t u r e o f q u a r t z and
d o l o m i t e o r c a l c i t e g r a i n s , o r t h e c a r b o n a t e may h a v e b e e n p r e c i p i t a t e d a s a
c o a t i n g around t h e sand g r a i n s b e f o r e they were l i t h i f i e d . C a l c i t e i n t h e
f o r m o f c l e a r s p a r may b e p r e s e n t a s v u g , o r o t h e r v o i d f i l l i n g i n c a r b o n a t e
r o c k s . A n h y d r i t e a n d gypsum c e m e n t s , a r e m o r e commonly a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d o l o -
m i t e and s i l i c a t h a n w i t h c a l c i t e . A d d i t i o n a l c e m e n t i n g m a t e r i a l s , u s u a l l y of
minor i m p o r t a n c e , i n c l u d e p y r i t e , g e n e r a l l y a s s m a l l c r y s t a l s , s i d e r i t e , hema-
t i t e , limonite, zeolites,and phosphatic m a t e r i a l .

S i l t a c t s a s a m a t r i x , h a s t e n i n g c e m e n t a t i o n by f i l l i n g i n t e r s t i c e s ,
t h u s d e c r e a s i n g t h e s i z e o f i n t e r s t i t i a l s p a c e s . Clay i s a common m a t r i x mate-
r i a l , which may c a u s e l o s s o f p o r o s i t y e i t h e r by c o m p a c t i o n , o r by s w e l l i n g
when w a t e r i s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n . A r g i l l a c e o u s m a t e r i a l can b e
e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n s i l i c i c l a s t i c o r c a r b o n a t e r o c k s , o r have l a m i n a t e d ,
l e n t i c u l a r d e t r i t a l o r nodular form.

Compaction and t h e p r e s e n c e o f v a r y i n g amounts of s e c o n d a r y q u a r t z ,

s e c o n d a r y c a r b o n a t e , and i n t e r s t i t ~ a lc l a y a r e t h e main f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g p o r e
s p a c e i n s i l i c i c l a s t i c r o c k s . While t h e r e i s a g e n e r a l r e d u c t i o n of p o r o s i t y
w i t h d e p t h due t o s e c o n d a r y c e m e n t a t i o n and c o m p a c t i o n , r a n g e s of p o r o s i t ~ v a r y
c o n s i d e r a b l y d u e p r i m a r i l y t o e x t r e m e v a r i a t ~ o n si n amoun t s o f s econdarb cenlt.nt.
F o r i n s t a n c e , c o a r s e - g r a i n e d s a n d s t o n e s h a v e g r e a t e r permeability t h a n f ~ n e r
o n e s when t h e same amount o f c e m e n t i n g m a t e r i a l i s a v a i l a b l e t o b o t h . However,
t h e same t h i c k n e s s o f cement w i l l form a r o u n d t h e g r a i n s r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r
s i z e , t h e r e f o r e t h e s m a l l e r i n t e r s t i c e s , which o c c u r Ln f i n e r g r a l n e d s a n d -
s t o n e s , w i l l be cemented e a r l i e s t .

3.35 F o s s i l s and A c c e s s o r i e s

M i c r o f o s s i l s a n d some s m a l l m a c r o f o s s i l s , o r e v e n f r a g m e n t s of
f o s s i l s , a r e u s e d f o r c o r r e l a t i o n and may a l s o b e e n v i r o n m e n t i n d i c a t o r s . For
a i d i n c o r r e l a t i o n , a n y o n e making s a m p l e l o g s s h o u l d f a m i l i a r i z e h i m s e l f w i t h
a t l e a s t a few d i a g n o s t i c f o s s i l s . The w o r l d w i d e C r e t a c e o u s f o r a m i n i f e r a 1
m a r k e r , G l o b o t r u n c a n a , f o r example, s h o u l d b e i n e v e r y o n e ' s g e o l o g i c " v o c a b u l a r y . "
Any g e o l o g i s t who e x a m i n e s s a m p l e s s h o u l d b e a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h s u c h f o r m s a s
f o r a m i n i f e r a , o s t r a c o d s , chara, bryozoa, c o r a l s , a l g a e , c r i n o i d s , brachiopods,
p e l e c y p o d s , a n d g a s t r o p o d s s o a s t o r e c o r d t h e i r p r e s e n c e and r e l a t i v e abundance
i n t h e s a m p l e s b e i n g examined. More d e t a i l e d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i l l p r o b a b l y h a v e
t o b e made w i t h t h e a i d o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e , a n d / o r t h e a d v i c e and a s s i s t a n c e of
a paleontologist. An e x c e l l e n t r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e more
common m a c r o f o s s i l s i s " R e c o g n i t i o n of I n v e r t e b r a t e F o s s i l F r a g m e n t s i n Rocks
a n d T h i n S e c t i o n s " , by 0 . P . Majewske ( 1 9 6 9 ) . F o s s i l s may a i d t h e s a m p l e
e x a m i n e r i n j u d g i n g what p a r t of t h e c u t t i n g s i s i n p l a c e and what p a r t i s
caved. F o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e Gulf C o a s t r e g i o n , f r e s h , s h i n y f o r a m i n i f e r a ,
e s p e c i a l l y w i t h buff o r w h i t e c o l o r , a r e u s u a l l y confined t o T e r t i a r y beds;
t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e i n s a m p l e s from a n y d e p t h below t h e t o p of t h e C r e t a c e o u s i s a n
i n d i c a t i o n of t h e p r e s e n c e of c a v e d m a t e r i a l . It would b e h e l p f u l t o e a c h
s a m p l e - l o g g e r t o h a v e a v a i l a b l e o n e o r more s l i d e s o r p h o t o g r a p h s i l l u s t r a t i n g
t h e p r i n c i p a l m i c r o f o s s i l s which m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r i n e a c h f o r m a t i o n
he w i l l be logging.

Accessory c o n s t i t u e n t s , a l t h o u g h c o n s t i t u t i n g o n l y a minor p e r c e n t a g e
of t h e b u l k o f a r o c k , may b e s i g n i f i c a n t i n d i c a t o r s of e n v i r o n m e n t of
deposition, a s well a s clues t o correlation. The most common a c c e s s o r i e s a r e
g l a u c o n i t e , p y r i t e , f e l d s p a r , m i c a , s i d e r i t e , c a r b o n i z e d p l a n t r e m a i n s , heavy
m i n e r a l s , c h e r t , and sand-sized r o c k fragments.
 3.36 Sedimentary S t r u c t u r e s

Most s e d i m e n t a r y s t r u c t u r e s a r e n o t d i s c e r n i b l e i n c u t t i n g s . On
t h e o t h e r h a n d , o n e o r more o f them c a n a l w a y s b e f o u n d i n a n y c o r e , a n d t h e y
should b e reported i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n thereof. S t r u c t u r e s i n v o l v e t h e rela-
t i o n s h i p o f masses o r a g g r e g a t e s o f r o c k c o m p o n e n t s . They a r e c o n d i t i o n e d b y
t i m e and s p a c e c h a n g e s ; e . g . , s t r a t i f i c a t i o n may r e s u l t f r o m d i s c r e t e v e r t i c a l
( t i m e ) change i n c o m p o s i t i o n , a s w e l l a s changes i n g r a i n s i z e s o r o f f a b r i c .
I n t i m e o f o r i g i n , t h e y a r e formed e i t h e r contemporaneously w i t h d e p o s i t i o n
( s y n g e n e t i c ) , o r a f t e r d e p o s i t i o n and b u r i a l ( e p i g e n e t i c ) . S y n g e n e t i c s t r u c -
t u r e s a r e o f t e n very important i n d i c a t o r s of t h e environments of d e p o s i t i o n of
sediments.

Symbols shown i n A p p e n d i x I V , C h a r t s X V I , X V I I a n d X V I I I s h o u l d b e u s e d
i n logging s e d i m e n t a r y s t r u c t u r e s observed i n o u t c r o p s , c o r e s , and s a m p l e s .

3.37 P o r o s i t y and P e r m e a b i l i t y

Among t h e most i m p o r t a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s made i n t h e c o u r s e o f s a m p l e

examination a r e t h o s e r e l a t i n g t o p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y . These a r e d i s -
cussed in Section 5 . 0 .

A number o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s c o n s i d e r i n g v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f c a r b o n a t e
p o r o s i t y a n d p e r m e a b i l i t y h a v e been d e v e l o p e d , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e b y P. W. C h o q u e t t e
and L. C . P r a y ( 1 9 7 0 ) a n d b y G. E. A r c h i e ( 1 9 5 2 ) . A d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of
t h e s e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s i s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 5.0 and i n Appendix I, S e c t i o n 10.7
and 10.8.
3.38 I I y d r o c a r b o n Shows
The r e c o g n i t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n o f h y d r o c a r b o n s p r e s e n t i n w e l l
s a m p l e s i s a n o t h e r o f t h e more i m p o r t a n t r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e g e o l o g i s t .
He s h o u l d b e f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e v a r i o u s m e t h o d s o f t e s t i n g f o r a n d d e t e c t i n g
h y d r o c a r b o n s , a n d s h o u l d u s e them f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e c o u r s e o f r o u t i n e s a m p l e
e x a m i n a t i o n s . C u t t i n g s w i t h good p o r o s i t y s h o u l d a l w a y s b e t e s t e d f o r h y d r o -
c a r b o n s . See S e c t i o n 6 . 0 f o r an e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n o f hydrocarbon d e t e c t i o n
tests.

3.4 Methods o f R e c o r d i n g D a t a

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l methods o f r e c o r d i n g sample d e s c r i p t i o n and o t h e r

d a t a on t h e s t a n d a r d l o g f o r m . The most commonly p r a c t i c e d o f t h e s e i s t h a t
o f t h e g e o l o g i s t p l o t t i n g t h e s y m b o l s a n d d a t a on t h e s t a n d a r d l o g f o r m a s h e
e x a m i n e s t h e s a m p l e s . T h i s may t e n d t o p r o d u c e a n u n t i d y l o g . I t i s more
d e s i r a b l e f o r t h e d a t a t o b e w r i t t e n on a pad o r r o c k d e s c r i p t i o n f o r m o r t o
b e r e c o r d e d on a d i c t a p h o n e o r t a p e r e c o r d e r f o r l a t e r t r a n s c r i p t i o n . A l t h o u g h
i n most s i t u a t i o n s t h e p l o t t i n g o f d a t a on l o g s i s done by g e o l o g i s t s , s e v e r a l
c o m p a n i e s employ l o g p l o t t e r s , c l e r k s , o r d r a f t s m e n f o r t h i s p u r p o s e . The u s e
o f nontechnical personnel for p l o t t i n g logs has t h e d i s t i n c t advantage o t per-
m i t t i n g t h e g e o l o g i s t t o u s e h i s time i n p r o f e s s i o n a l work. A w e l l - t r a i n e d
l o g p l o t t e r can u s u a l l y p l o t t h e l i t h o l o g i c d e s c r i p t i o n s o f s e v e r a l g e o l o g i s t s
w o r k i n g f u l l t i m e on s a m p l e s t u d i e s .

Condensed c o r e d e s c r i p t i o n s s h o u l d always be r e c o r d e d and p l o t t e d

on t h e s t a n d a r d l o g f o r m a l o n g w i t h a n d a t t h e same s c a l e a s t h e s a m p l e
d e s c r i p t i o n s . The c o m p l e t e d e t a i l e d c o r e d e s c r i p t i o n c a n b e r e c o r d e d a n d
p l o t t e d on a n e x p a n d e d s c a l e o f t h e s t a n d a r d l o g f o r m , o r on c o n v e n t i o n a l c o r e
record sheets.

4.0 SOME CRITERIA AND PROCEDURES

FOR ROCK AND MINERAL IDENTIFICATION

4.1 T e s t i n g Methods

4.11 T e s t s w i t h D i l u t e H C 1 (10%)

T h e r e a r e a t l e a s t f o u r t y p e s o f o b s e r v a t i o n s t o b e made on t h e
r e s u l t s of treatment with acid:

1 ) Degree o f e f f e r v e s c e n c e : l i m e s t o n e ( c a l c i t e ) r e a c t s immediately
and r a p i d l y , d o l o m i t e s l o w l y , u n l e s s i n f i n e l y d i v i d e d form ( e . g . , a l o n g a
newly made s c r a t c h ) . W h i l e t h e e f f e r v e s c e n c e t e s t c a n n o t y i e l d t h e p r e c i s i o n
of chemical a n a l y s i s o r X - r a y , i t i s g e n e r a l l y adequate f o r r o u t i n e examination.
U n l e s s t h e s a m p l e i s c l e a n , h o w e v e r , c a r b o n a t e d u s t may g i v e a n i m m e d i a t e r e a c -
tion t h a t w i l l stop quickly i f the p a r t i c l e i s dolomite. I m p u r i t i e s slow t h e
r e a c t i o n , b u t t h e s e can b e d e t e c t e d i n r e s i d u e s . O i l - s t a i n e d l i m e s t o n e s a r e
o f t e n mistaken f o r dolomites because t h e o i l c o a t i n g t h e rock s u r f a c e p r e v e n t s
a c i d f r o m r e a c t i n g i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h CaC03, and a d e l a y e d r e a c t i o n o c c u r s . The
s h a p e , p o r o s i t y , and p e r m e a b i l i t y w i l l a f f e c t t h e d e g r e e o f r e a c t i o n b e c a u s e
t h e g r e a t e r t h e e x p o s e d s u r f a c e , t h e more q u i c k l y w i l l t h e r e a c t i o n b e
completed.

2) Nature of residue: c a r b o n a t e r o c k s may c o n t a i n s i g n i f i c a n t p e r c e n t -

ages of c h e r t , anhydrite, sand, s i l t , o r a r g i l l a c e o u s materials t h a t a r e not
r e a d i l y d e t e c t e d i n t h e u n t r e a t e d r o c k f r a g m e n t s . Not a l l a r g i l l a c e o u s m a t e r i a l
i s d a r k c o l o r e d , a n d , u n l e s s an i n s o l u b l e r e s i d u e i s o b t a i n e d , l i g h t c o l o r e d
a r g i l l a c e o u s m a t e r i a l i s g e n e r a l l y m i s s e d . During t h e c o u r s e o f normal sample
examination i n carbonate sequences, determine t h e composition of t h e noncal-
c a r e o u s f r a c t i o n by d i g e s t i n g o n e o r more r o c k f r a g m e n t s i n a c i d and e s t i m a t e
t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f i n s o l u b l e r e s i d u e . T h e s e r e s i d u e s may r e v e a l t h e p r e s e n c e
o f s i g n i f i c a n t a c c e s s o r y m i n e r a l s t h a t might o t h e r w i s e be masked.

3) O i l reaction: i f o i l i s present i n a c u t t i n g , l a r g e bubbles w i l l

form on a f r a g m e n t when i t i s immersed i n d i l u t e a c i d . See S e c t i o n 6 . 1 3 under
" H y d r o c a r b o n D e t e c t i o n Methods" f o r more d e t a i l s o f t h i s m e t h o d .

4) E t c h i n g : etching a carbonate rock s u r f a c e with acid yi-elds valu-

a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e t e x t u r e , g r a i n s i z e , d i s t r i b u t i o n and n a t u r e
o f n o n c a r b o n a t e m i n e r a l s , and o t h e r l i t h o l o g i c f e a t u r e s o f t h e r o c k .

E t c h i n g i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by s a w i n g o r g r i n d i n g a f l a t s u r f a c e on a
s p e c i m e n , w h i c h i s t h e n s u b m e r g e d f o r a s h o r t t i m e ( 1 0 t o 30 s e c o n d s ) i n d i l u t e
acid with t h e f l a t surface p a r a l l e l t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e a c i d . A f t e r etching
t h e s u r f a c e i s c a r e f u l l y washed by g e n t l e i m m e r s i o n i n w a t e r , c a r e b e i n g t a k e n
not t o d i s t u r b t h e i n s o l u b l e m a t e r i a l adhering t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e specimen.
L i m e s t o n e s p e c i m e n s e t c h e d i n H C 1 u s u a l l y d e v e l o p an " a c i d p o l i s h . " Insoluble
m a t e r i a l s such a s c l a y , s i l t , sand, c h e r t , o r a n h y d r i t e w i l l stand out i n
r e l i e f a g a i n s t t h e s o l u b l e m a t r i x . Dolomite c r y s t a l s u s u a l l y s t a n d out a l s o ,
i n a s m u c h a s t h e y a r e a t t a c k e d by t h e a c i d more s l o w l y t h a n i s c a l c i t e . The
i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s o f f o s s i l s , o o l i t e s , a n d d e t r i t a l f r a g m e n t s a r e commonly
r e v e a l e d on a n e t c h e d s u r f a c e . I f t h e appearance of t h e etched surface is so
d i a g n o s t i c t h a t a p e r m a n e n t r e c o r d i s d e s i r e d , a n a c e t a t e p e e l c a n b e made
(Appendix I , S e c t i o n 1 0 . 6 ) , o r t h e s u r f a c e c a n b e photographed.

4.12 Hardness

S c r a t c h i n g t h e r o c k f r a g m e n t s u r f a c e i s o f t e n a n a d e q u a t e way o f
distinguishing different l i t h i c types. S i l i c a t e s and s i l i c i f i e d m a t e r i a l s ,
f o r example, c a n n o t b e s c r a t c h e d , b u t i n s t e a d w i l l t a k e a s t r e a k o f m e t a l from
t h e point of a probe. L i m e s t o n e a n d d o l o m i t e c a n b e s c r a t c h e d r e a d i l y , gypsum
and a n h y d r i t e w i l l b e grooved, a s w i l l s h a l e o r b e n t o n i t e . Weathered c h e r t i s
o f t e n s o f t enough t o b e r e a d i l y s c r a t c h e d , and i t s l a c k o f r e a c t i o n w i t h a c i d
w i l l d i s t i n g u i s h i t from c a r b o n a t e s . C a u t i o n must b e used w i t h t h i s t e s t i n
d e t e r m i n i n g whether t h e s c r a t c h e d m a t e r i a l i s a c t u a l l y t h e framework c o n s t i t u e n t
o r t h e cementing o r m a t r i x c o n s t i t u e n t . For example, s i l t s w i l l o f t e n s c r a t c h
o r g r o o v e , b u t e x a m i n a t i o n u n d e r h i g h m a g n i f i c a t i o n w i l l u s u a l l y show t h a t t h e
q u a r t z g r a i n s h a v e b e e n p u s h e d a s i d e a n d a r e u n s c r a t c h e d , a n d t h e g r o o v e was
made i n t h e s o f t e r m a t r i x m a t e r i a l .

Shaly p a r t i n g , although n o t a t e s t , i s an important rock c h a r a c t e r .

The sample l o g g e r s h o u l d always d i s t i n g u i s h between s h a l e , which e x h i b i t s p a r t -
i n g o r f i s s i l i t y , and m u d s t o n e , which y i e l d s f r a g m e n t s w h i c h do n o t h a v e
parallel plane faces.

4.14 S l a k i n g and S w e l l i n g

M a r k e d s l a k i n g a n d s w e l l i n g i n w a t e r i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f montmo-
r i l l o n i t e s ( a major c o n s t i t u e n t o f b e n t o n i t e s ) and d i s t i n g u i s h e s them from
k a o l i n s and i l l i t e s .

4.2 Tllin S e c t i o n s ( p r e p a r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s l i s t e d i n Appendix I , S e c t i o n 1 0 . 2 )

C e r t a i n f e a t u r e s o f r o c k s may n o t b e d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e e v e n u n d e r t h e
[nost f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s w i t h o u t t h e a i d o f t h i n s e c t i o n s . Thin s e c t i o n s
adequate f o r r o u t i n e examination can be prepared without t h e use o f t h e r e f i n e d
techniques necessary t o produce s l i d e s suitabl-e f o r petrographic s t u d y .

Some o f t h e q u e s t i o n s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h m i g h t b e c l a r i f i e d b y
the use of t h i n sections include t h e following: mineral identification, grain-
m a t r i x r e l a t i o n s h i p s , grain-cement r e l a t i o n s h i p s , pore space r e l a t i o n s h i p s and
d i s t r i b u t i o n , g r a i n s i z e s , source rock q u a l i t y . Although wetting t h e s u r f a c e
of a c a r b o n a t e r o c k w i t h w a t e r , o r mineral o i l , permits " i n depth" o b s e r v a t i o n
o f t h e r o c k , some p a r t i c l e s , o r p a r t i c l e - m a t r i x r e l a t i o n s h i p s s t i l l r e m a i n
o b s c u r e u n t i l t h e r o c k i s examined by t r a n s m i t t e d l i g h t , p l a n e a n d / o r p o l a r i z e d .
Once t h e s e f e a t u r e s h a v e b e e n r e c o g n i z e d i n t h i n s e c t i o n s , t h e y a r e f r e q u e n t l y
d e t e c t a b l e i n w h o l e f r a g m e n t s , a n d o n l y a f e w t h i n s e c t i o n s may b e n e e d e d i n
the course o f logging a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r v a l . It i s i m p o r t a n t t o h a v e p o l a r i z -
i n g e q u i p m e n t a v a i l a b l e f o r u s e i n t h i n s e c t i o n e x a m i n a t i o n - many f e a t u r e s o f
t h e r o c k t e x t u r e , and some m i n e r a l s , a r e most r e a d i l y r e c o g n i z e d by t h e u s e o f
polarized l i g h t .

4.3 S t a i n i n g T e c h n i q u e f o r C a r b o n a t e Rocks

The d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n c a l c i t e and d o l o m i t e i s o f t e n q u i t e i m p o r t a n t
i n s t u d i e s o f c a r b o n a t e r o c k s . For many y e a r s s e v e r a l o r g a n i c and i n o r g a n i c
s t a i n s havc bt.erl u s e d f o r t h i s p u r p o s e , b u t w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f s u c c e s s .
F r i e d m a n (1959) i n v e s t i g a t e d a g r e a t v a r i e t y of s t a i n s f o r u s e i n
identifying carbonate minerals. Ile d e v e l o p e d a s y s t e m o f s t a i n s and f l o w
c h a r t s f o r t h i s purpose. T h e s e v a r y i n e a s e o f a p p l i c a t i o n , b u t most a r e n o t
p r a c t i c a l f o r r o u t i n e sample examination. The r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o F r i e d m a n ' s
paper f o r a n e x t e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n of c a r b o n a t e m i n e r a l s t a i n s .

One s t a i n t h a t i s a p p l i c a b l e t o r o u t i n e s a m p l e e x a m i n a t i o n and i s
b o t h s i m p l e a n d r a p i d , i s A l i z a r i n Red S. T h i s s t a i n c a n b e u s e d o n a n y t y p e
o f r o c k s p e c i m e n , and i t h a s p r o v e d e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l i n t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f
cuttings. The r e a c t i o n s t o a c i d o f c h i p s o f d o l o m i t i c l i m e s t o n e o r c a l c a r e o u s
d o l o m i t e a r e o f t e n m i s l e a d i n g , and t h e r a p i d e x a m i n a t i o n o f e t c h e d c h i p s d o e s
n o t a l w a y s c l e a r l y show t h e c a l c i t e and d o l o m i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . A l i z a r i n Red S
shows c l e a r l y t h e m i n e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . C a l c i t e t a k e s o n a d e e p r e d c o l o r ;
o t h e r minerals a r e uncolored. S e e Appendix I , S e c t i o n 1 0 . 3 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n
of t h e p r e p a r a t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s s t a i n .

4.4 Insoluble Residues

C a r b o n a t e r o c k s may c o n t a i n s i g n i f i c a n t p e r c e n t a g e s o f c h e r t , a n h y d r i t e
sand, s i l t , o r a r g i l l a c e o u s m a t e r i a l s t h a t a r e n o t r e a d i l y d e t e c t e d i n t h e
u n t r e a t e d rock fragments. The s t u d y o f c h e r t s and a s s o c i a t e d r e s i d u e s h a s b e e n
a common p r a c t i c e f o r many y e a r s i n c e r t a i n a r e a s . For r o u t i n e l o g g i n g of micro-
i n s o l u b l e r e s i d u e s , s y m b o l s f o r a c c e s s o r y m i n e r a l s , a s shown i n t h e s t a n d a r d
l i t h o l o g i c l e g e n d , Appendix I V , C h a r t s X I V and XV, s h o u l d b e u s e d . A description
o f t h e m e t h o d s f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n , e x a m i n a t i o n , and d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e s i d u e
a r e p r o v i d e d i n Appendix I , S e c t i o n 10.4.

4.5 Versenate Analvsis

V e r s e n a t e a n a l y s i s i s a r e l a t i v e l y f a s t and i n e x p e n s i v e method f o r
d e t e r m i n i n g q u a n t i t a t i v e l y t h e c a l c i t e / d o l o m i t e r a t i o s of g i v e n c a r b o n a t e
rocks. The method h a s shown m e r i t i n t h e mapping o f i n t i m a t e l y a s s o c i a t e d
l i m e s t o n e and d o l o m i t e . I t i s b a s e d on t h e c o l o r r e a c t i o n o f a r e a g e n t on
crushed and s i e v e d c a r b o n a t e samples. ( P r e p a r a t i o n and T e c h n i q u e i n Appendix I ,
S e c t i o n 10.5) .
4.6 Heavy M i n e r a l S t u d i e s

Heavy m i n e r a l s t u d i e s a r e u s e d t o d a y p r i m a r i l y when a g e o l o g i s t i s
s e e k i n g i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e s o u r c e a r e a s and d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n s o f
s i l i c i c l a s t i c sediments. Their use a s a correlation t o o l is limited.
E x c e l l e n t d e s c r i p t i o n s of t e c h n i q u e s a r e a v a i l a b l e i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

4.7 T e s t s f o r S p e c i f i c Rocks and M i n e r a l s

Many o f t h e more p e r p l e x i n g p r o b l e m s o f r o c k and m i n e r a l i d e n t i f i -

c a t i o n can b e s o l v e d by t h e u s e of t h i n s e c t i o n s . However, c e r t a i n s i m p l e and
rapid t e s t s a r e discussed a s follows.

4.71 Clay

S h a l e s and c l a y s o c c u r i n a broad s p e c t r u m of c o l o r s , m i n e r a l
c o m p o s i t i o n , and t e x t u r e s . G e n e r a l l y , t h e i r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s done w i t h e a s e ;
however l i g h t c o l o r e d c l a y i s commonly m i s t a k e n f o r f i n e l y d i v i d e d a n h y d r i t e .
The two may b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a s i m p l e t e s t .

A n h y d r i t e w i l l d i s s o l v e i n h o t d i l u t e h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d and, when
cooled, w i l l r e c r y s t a l l i z e out of s o l u t i o n a s a c i c u l a r needles. Clay remains
insoluble i n t h e hot d i l u t e acid.

4.72 Chert

R e c o g n i t i o n of t h e more common v a r i e t i e s of c h e r t and s i l i c e o u s

c a r b o n a t e s g e n e r a l l y i s n o t a problem. Weathered c h e r t , however, i s o f t e n
found t o b e s o f t enough t o b e r e a d i l y s c r a t c h e d and m i s t a k e n f o r c l a y o r
carbonate. Lack of r e a c t i o n w i t h a c i d g e n e r a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h i s t y p e of
c h e r t from c a r b o n a t e s . C l a y and t r i p o l i t i c c h e r t may r e q u i r e p e t r o g r a p h i c
techniques f o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . I n t h i n s e c t i o n s under p o l a r i z e d l i g h t , c h e r t
commonly h a s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c honey-brown c o l o r .

4.73 Evaporites
1 ) A n h y d r i t e and pypsum a r e u s u a l l y r e a d i l y d e t e c t e d i n c u t t i n g s .
A n h y d r i t e i s more commonly a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d o l o m i t e s t h a n w i t h l i m e s t o n e s , and
i s much more abundant i n t h e s u b s u r f a c e t h a n gypsum. At p r e s e n t , t h e r e a p p e a r s
t o b e l i t t l e r e a s o n t o d i s t i n g u i s h a n h y d r i t e from gypsum i n samples. A n h y d r i t e
i s g e n e r a l l y h a r d e r and h a s a pseudo-cubic c l e a v a g e ; t h e c l e a v a g e f l a k e s of
gypsum have " s w a l l o w - t a i l " t w i n s . A n h y d r i t e c a n b e r e a d i l y r e c o g n i z e d i n t h i n
s e c t i o n s by i t s pseudo-cubic c l e a v a g e , a n d , u n d e r p o l a r i z e d l i g h t , by i t s
bright interference colors.
The d i l u t e h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d t e s t r e f e r r e d t o i n S e c t i o n 4.71 i s a
v a l i d and s i m p l e t e s t f o r a n h y d r i t e o r gypsum i n c u t t i n g s . P l a c e o t h e c u t t i n g ( s )
i n a watch g l a s s and c o v e r w i t h a c i d . Heat on a h o t p l a t e t o 250 F +
0
(120 C +) and w a i t f o r t h e sample t o s t a r t d i s s o l v i n g . If anhydrite or
gypsum i s p r e s e n t , a c i c u l a r gypsum c r y s t a l s w i l l form around t h e edge of t h e
a c i d s o l u t i o n as i t e v a p o r a t e s . I f t h e sample c o n t a i n s much c a r b o n a t e , a
c a l c i u m c h l o r i d e p a s t e may form and o b s c u r e t h e a c i c u l a r gypsum c r y s t a l s .
D i l u t e t h e r e s i d u e w i t h w a t e r , e x t r a c t and d i s c a r d t h e s o l u t i o n and r e p e a t t h e
test.
A s i m p l e method of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f i n e l y d i v i d e d a n h y d r i t e from s i l t
is a scratch t e s t . T h i s c a n b e done by two methods:
a) Rub g l a s s r o d on r e s i d u e i n bottom of g l a s s t e s t p l a t e and
l i s t e n f o r g r i t t y sound.
b) P l a c e a d r o p of l i q u i d c o n t a i n i n g t h e r e s i d u e on a g l a s s cover-
s l i p , and c o v e r w i t h a n o t h e r s l i p . Rub them t o g e t h e r between
thumb and f o r e f i n g e r . Examine s l i p s under m i c r o s c o p e f o r
s c r a t c h marks, o r l i s t e n f o r g r i t t y sound.
 2) - S a l t s a r e r a r e l y found a t t h e s u r f a c e and g e n e r a l l y do n o t o c c u r
i n w e l l s a m p l e s . U n l e s s s a l t - s a t u r a t i o n o r o i l - b a s e mud i s u s e d , s a l t f r a g m e n t s
o r c r y s t a l s dissolve before reaching t h e surface. The b e s t c r i t e r i a f o r
detecting a s a l t section are: ( a ) t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f " s a l t h o p p e r s " (molds o f
d i s s o l v e d s a l t c r y s t a l s i n o t h e r r o c k f r a g m e n t s ) , ( b ) marked i n c r e a s e i n
s a l i n i t y o f t h e d r i l l i n g mud, ( c ) a sudden i n f l u x of a b u n d a n t caved m a t e r i a l
i n t h e s a m p l e s , ( d ) a s h a r p i n c r e a s e i n d r i l l i n g p e n e t r a t i o n r a t e , and
( e ) m e c h a n i c a l l o g c h a r a c t e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e s o n i c , d e n s i t y , and c a l i p e r
l o g s . c o r e s a r e t h e most d i r e c t method o f d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r s a l t i s p r e s e n t ,
but they a r e not usually c u t i n s a l t sections.
S a l t s a r e commonly a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c y c l i c a l c a r b o n a t e s e c t i o n s and
m a s s i v e r e d bed s e q u e n c e s . I n t h e f o r m e r , t h e y a r e u s u a l l y t h i n bedded and
o f t e n occur above a n h y d r i t e beds. P o t a s s i u m - r i c h s a l t s , t h e l a s t p h a s e of
a n e v a p o r a t i o n c y c l e , a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r h i g h r e s p o n s e on gamma r a y
log curves.
4.74 Phosphate
P l a c e on t h e s u s p e c t e d m i n e r a l ( e i t h e r on t h e hand specimen o r on
a n u n c o v e r e d t h i n s e c t i o n ) a s m a l l c r y s t a l of p u r e w h i t e ammonium m o l y b d a t e .
Allow o n e o r two d r o p s of d i l u t e n i t r i c a c i d t o f a l l on t h e c r y s t a l . If the
r o c k c o n t a i n s p h o s p h a t e , t h e c r y s t a l r a p i d l y t a k e s on a b r i g h t y e l l o w c o l o r .
4.75 Siderite
S i d e r i t e i s u s u a l l y r e a d i l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d by i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
brown c o l o r and s l o w r a t e of e f f e r v e s c e n c e w i t h d i l u t e H C 1 . The m i n e r a l o f t e n
occurs a s buckshot-sized p e l l e t s . The p r e s e n c e o f s i d e r i t e o r i r o n d o l o m i t e
i n t h e same r o c k w i t h c a l c i t e may b e d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o g n i z e and t h e f o l l o w i n g
s t a i n p r o c e d u r e i s recommended f o r u s e when s u c h c a s e s a r e s u s p e c t e d .
P o l i s h e d f a c e o f c h i p i s immersed f o r 5-10 m i n u t e s i n a h o t ,
c o n c e n t r a t e d s o l u t i o n o f c a u s t i c p o t a s h t o which a l i t t l e hydrogen p e r o x i d e
i s added a t i n t e r v a l s d u r i n g t r e a t m e n t . The s u r f a c e i s f i n a l l y washed and
dried i n the air. S i d e r i t e i s s t a i n e d brown w h i l e f e r r o u s d o l o m i t e ( a n k e r i t e )
t a k e s a weaker s t a i n and o r d i n a r y d o l o m i t e r e m a i n s c o l o r l e s s ; c a l c i t e i s
roughened b u t i s n o t d e s t r o y e d and c h a m o s i t e r e t a i n s i t s g r e e n c o l o r u n l e s s
c a r b o n a t e of i r o n i s p r e s e n t . T h i s method i s e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o powders.
4.7 6 Feldspar
The p r e s e n c e , q u a n t i t y and t y p e of f e l d s p a r c o n s t i t u e n t s c a n b e
i m p o r t a n t i n t h e s t u d y o f r e s e r v o i r p a r a m e t e r s i n some s a n d s t o n e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
t h e c o a r s e a r k o s i c s a n d s o r " g r a n i t e washes." Staining techniques, operationally
a p p l i c a b l e t o r a t h e r l a r g e e t c h e d c o r e ( o r s u r f a c e ) sample s u r f a c e s , a l l o w s
a b e t t e r e s t i m a t i o n of t h e amount and d i s t r i b u t i o n of f e l d s p a r g r a i n s . One
o f t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s i s d e s c r i b e d i n Appendix I , S e c t i o n 1 0 . 3 . The u s e of
s e c t i o n s t o make t h e s e e s t i m a t e s i s e x p e n s i v e , and o f t e n d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e of t h e
small s u r f a c e s provided.
4.77 B i t u m i n o u s Rocks
Dark s h a l e s and c a r b o n a t e s may c o n t a i n o r g a n i c m a t t e r i n t h e form
of k e r o g e n o r bitumen. C a r b o n a t e s and s h a l e s i n which t h e p r e s e n c e of
b i t u m i n o u s m a t t e r i s s u s p e c t e d s h o u l d b e examined by t h i n s e c t i o n and
p y r o l y s i s - f l u o r o m e t e r methods f o r p o s s i b l e s o u r c e r o c k q u a l i t i e s . Dark,
b i t u m i n o u s s h a l e s h a v e a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c h o c o l a t e brown s t r e a k which i s v e r y
distinctive.
 5.0 POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY

5.1 Detection and Types

The detection and evaluation of porosity and the inferred presence

or absence of permeability in the course of rock examination is one of the
most important responsibilities of the geologist. Porosity is a measure
of the volume of the void space in the rock; permeability is a measure of
the capacity of a rock for transmitting a fluid. Permeability is dependent
on the effective porosity and the mean size of the individual pores; it
has a direct bearing on the ,amount of fluid recoverable, whereas porosity
determines the amount that is present. Generally, the smaller the grain
or crystal size, the lower the ~ e r m e a b i l i t ~ .

The ability to estimate porosity accurately comes through practice

and experience in examining samples. Although magnification of about loX
is frequently adequate to detect porosity, higher magnification is often
necessary. Pores are easier to recognize in dry samples than in wet ones.
Qualitative estimates of the pore size range and mean should be made for
all porous intervals. Quantitative permeability measurements are not possible
by microscopic examination, but qualitative indications often may be seen.
The speed with which water is absorbed by a rock fragment is an indication
of its relative permeability. Conversely, water will stand up in a bead
on a completely impermeable fragment.

If porosity of any category is observed, it should be thoroughly

described using the proper symbols to denote its relative quality. Additional
comments about it should be made in the remarks column. Samples with porosity
should always be checked for hydrocarbons regardless of whether or not stain-
ing is observed on the rock surface. High gravity oils may leave little
or no visible staining on the rock. A chlorothene or other nontoxic solvent
cut should dissolve any trapped hydrocarbons from the inner pores that have
not been previously dissipated.

In siliciclastic rocks three types of porosity are common:

intergranular, moldic and fracture. Intergranular is by far the most common
type and the most readily seen in cuttings. Normally it is difficult to
detect moldic or fracture porosity in cuttings. Moldic porosity, the result of
leaching of soluble grains is often difficult to differentiate from plucked
grains. The presence of fragments of coarsely crystalline vein calcite
in cuttings is often the only indication of the occurrence of fractures.

Porosity in carbonate rocks is generally classified in one of

the following categories: interparticle, intercrystal, vuggy, moldic and
fracture. These broad categories can be further subdivided into such specific
types as inter-oolitic, leached fossil, pel-moldic, etc. These have genetic
significance and should be described in detail on the log. (see Section 5.2
Choquette and Pray Carbonate Porosity Classification.) Interparticle porosity,
the pore space between particles of the rock, and intercrystal, that between
crystals, usually is not larger than the particles or crystals. Vuggy porosity,
comprising pore space equal to or larger than the particles of the rock,
commonly results from the leaching of particles, and may have the form of
irregular shaped voids.
 It i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o r d t h e s i z e s o f v u g s , a s w e l l a s t h e i r
p r e s e n c e . Where v u g s a r e a s l a r g e a s , o r l a r g e r t h a n , t h e c u t t i n g s , t h e
o n l y e v i d e n c e of t h e i r p r e s e n c e may b e t h e o c c u r r e n c e of c r y s t a l s , e i t h e r
f r e e , o r cemented t o a s u r f a c e which i s a c t u a l l y a p o r t i o n of t h e w a l l of
a vug. I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n i t may b e i m p o s s i b l e t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e vuggy from
f r a c t u r e porosity i n carbonate rocks.

Two c a r b o n a t e p o r o s i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s a r e l i s t e d below. One

d e v e l o p e d by C h o q u e t t e and P r a y e m p h a s i z e s g e o l o g i c o r g e n e t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
The o t h e r by A r c h i e d e a l s p r i m a r i l y w i t h p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s u s e d f o r e v a l u a t i n g
o r e x p l o i t i n g t h e f l u i d c o n t e n t s of r o c k .

5.2 C h o q u e t t e and P r a y ' s C a r b o n a t e P o r o s i t y C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

T h i s i s o n e o f t h e b e s t and most w i d e l y u s e d c a r b o n a t e p o r o s i t y
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s and was p u b l i s h e d i n t h e AAPG B u l l e t i n i n F e b r u a r y 1970
(V. 5 4 , No. 2 , p. 207-250). The a u t h o r s r e c o g n i z e t h a t c a r b o n a t e s a r e g e n e r a l l y
complex i n t h e i r geometry and g e n e s i s , and t h e i r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s d e s i g n e d
t o a i d i n g e o l o g i c d e s c r i p t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f p o r e s y s t e m s and t h e i r
carbonate host rocks.

A d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e b a s i c p o r e t y p e s used i n t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
i s g i v e n i n Appendix I , S e c t i o n 10.7. Although f i f t e e n b a s i c p o r e t y p e s
a r e l i s t e d , F i g u r e 1 0 . 7 1 , i t s h o u l d b e emphasized t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f
a l l t h e s e p o r e t y p e s from c u t t i n g s i s i m p o s s i b l e . Generally, both
i n t e r p a r t i c l e and i n t e r c r y s t a l p o r o s i t y a r e r e c o g n i z a b l e i n c u t t i n g s . Often
m o l d i c p o r o s i t y i s i d e n t i f i a b l e , b u t t h e l a r g e r t h e p o r e s t h e more d i f f i c u l t
i t becomes t o d i s t i n g u i s h among m o l d i c , vuggy, i n t r a p a r t i c l e , f e n e s t r a l and
s h e l t e r porosity. I n l o g g i n g samples i t i s b e s t t o c o n s i d e r t h e s e v o i d s a s
vuggy p o r o s i t y i f t h e p o r e s p a c e i s l a r g e r t h a n t h e s i z e of t h e s u p p o r t i n g
p a r t i c l e s o r l a r g e r than t h e cuttings.

Logging symbols f o r t h e f i v e p r e d o m i n a n t p o r o s i t y t y p e s
( i n t e r g r a n u l a r , i n t e r c r y s t a l , vuggy, m o l d i c and f r a c t u r e ) a r e shown on
C h a r t V I I I , Appendix I V . It i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i n some i n s t a n c e s more
p r e c i s e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of p o r e t y p e c a n b e made. In these situations, i f
a p p r o p r i a t e symbology i s n o t p r o v i d e d i n t h e l e g e n d s , d e s c r i p t i v e comments
s h o u l d b e made i n t h e r e m a r k s column o f t h e l o g .

5.3 A r c h i e ' s C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of P o r o s i t y i n C a r b o n a t e Rocks

T h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was p u b l i s h e d i n t h e AAPG B u l l e t i n i n
F e b r u a r y 1952 (V. 3 6 , No. 2 , pp. 278-298). The scheme e m p h a s i z e s t h e f e a t u r e s
of t h e p o r e s t r u c t u r e i n c a r b o n a t e r o c k s t h a t c o n t r o l f l u i d f l o w and f l u i d
d i s t r i b u t i o n without regard t o t h e rocks genetic o r diagenetic history.
C a r b o n a t e s a r e d e s c r i b e d a c c o r d i n g t o m a t r i x t e x t u r e , i n c l u d i n g s i z e and
f i t o f i n d i v i d u a l g r a i n s , c r y s t a l s o r p a r t i c l e s a n d s i z e and amount of
v i s i b l e pores. The A r c h i e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n shown i n F i g u r e 1 0 . 8 1 i l l u s t r a t e s
t h e a p p e a r a n c e , g r a i n s i z e and n o n - v i s i b l e , e m p i r i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d l a b o r a t o r y
measured p o r o s i t y f o r t h e m a t r i x o f e a c h o f t h r e e r o c k t e x t u r e s . Visible
p o r e s i z e s a r e a l s o shown.
A c o m p a r i s o n between l i t h i c d e s c r i p t i o n s and a n A r c h i e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
d e s c r i p t i o n a r e shown below.
 1) Genetic or descriptive classification
Sample 1 - limestone, oolitic grainstone, fine grained,
well sorted with interparticle porosity
Sample 2 - dolomite, finely crystalline, sucrosic, porous

2) Archie - I11 FBlo

(a) I11 = sucrosic or granular texture

(b) F = fine grain size

(c) B = visible pores less than 0.125

(d) 10 = 10% porosity in B pores

(e) B size pores with 10% porosity + A size matrix pores

with 7% = total 4 17%.

The Archie terminology defines both lithic rock types as having identical
potential as reservoir rocks although the stratigraphic implications as
to the origin of the rocks are entirely different.

Data emphasizing the petrophysical characteristics of carbonates

derived from Archie's classification can be included on sample logs in
conjunction with lithologic description, A more detailed discussion of
Archie's classification is included in Appendix I, Section 10.7.
 6.0 HYDROCARBONS

A l t h o u g h p e t r o p h y s i c a l a n a l y s e s may g i v e a c o n c l u s i v e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f commercial q u a n t i t i e s o f oi.1, i t i s t h e g e o l o g i s t ' s r e s p o n -
s i b i l i t y t o r e p o r t a n d l o g a l l s h o w s , a n d t o s e e t h a t g o o d shows a r e e v a l u a t e d .
P o s i t i v e i n d i c a t i o n s o f hydrocarbons i n c u t t i n g s can be a d e c i s i v e f a c t o r i n
the petrophysicist's evaluation of a well.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , no s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a can b e e s t a b l i s h e d a s p o s i t i v e
i n d i c a t i o n s o f w h e t h e r o r n o t a show r e p r e s e n t s a p o t e n t i a l l y p r o d u c t i v e i n t e r -
v a l . The c o l o r a n d i n t e n s i t y o f s t a i n , f l u o r e s c e n c e , c u t , c u t f l u o r e s c e n c e
and r e s i d u a l c u t f l u o r e s c e n c e w i l l vary w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c chemical, p h y s i c a l ,
and b i o l o g i c p r o p e r t i e s o f each hydrocarbon a c c u m u l a t i o n . The a g i n g o f t h e
shows ( h i g h l y v o l a t i l e f r a c t i o n s d i s s i p a t e q u i c k l y ) , a n d f l u s h i n g b y d r i l l i n g
f l u i d s o r i n t h e c o u r s e o f s a m p l e w a s h i n g , a l s o t e n d t o mask o r e l i m i n a t e e v i -
dence of hydrocarbons. T h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f o b v i o u s shows c a n n o t a l w a y s
b e t a k e n a s c o n c l u s i v e . I n many c a s e s , t h e o n l y s u g g e s t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f
h y d r o c a r b o n may b e a p o s i t i v e c u t f l u o r e s c e n c e . I n o t h e r c a s e s , o n l y o n e o r
two o f t h e o t h e r t e s t s may b e p o s i t i v e . H e n c e , when t h e p r e s e n c e o f h y d r o -
carbons i s suspected, i t is very important t h a t a l l aspects be considered:
t h e p o r o s i t y and t h i c k n e s s o f t h e i n t e r v a l , t h e p e t r o p h y s i c a l e v a l u a t i o n , and
t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e h y d r o c a r b o n t e s t s . L i s t e d b e l o w a r e some o f t h e m o s t common
methods o f t e s t i n g f o r h y d r o c a r b o n s i n s a m p l e s and c o r e s t h a t s h o u l d b e used
by t h e g e o l o g i s t d u r i n g r o u t i n e s a m p l e e x a m i n a t i o n .

6.1 R o u t i n e Hydrocarbon D e t e c t i o n Methods

6.11 Odor

Odor may r a n g e f r o m h e a v y , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f low g r a v i t y o i . 1 , t o

l i g h t a n d p e n e t r a t i n g , a s f o r c o n d e n s a t e . Some d r y g a s e s h a v e n o o d o r .
S t r e n g t h o f o d o r d e p e n d s on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g s i z e o f s a m p l e . D e s c r i b e
a s o i l o d o r o r c o n d e n s a t e o d o r . D e p e n d i n g on s t r e n g t h o f o d o r d e t e c t e d , r e p o r t
a s g o o d , f a i r , o r f a i n t , i n r e m a r k s c o l u m n . F a i n t o d o r s may b e d e t e c t e d more
e a s i l y on a f r e s h l y b r o k e n s u r f a c e o r a f t e r c o n f i n i n g t h e s a m p l e i n a b o t t l e
f o r 15-20 m i n u t e s .

6.12 S t a i n i n g and B l e e d i n g

The amount b y w h i c h c u t t i n g s a n d c o r e s w i l l b e f l u s h e d on t h e i r way

t o the surface is largely a function of their permeability. I n very permeable
r o c k s o n l y v e r y s m a l l amounts o f o i l a r e r e t a i n e d i n t h e c u t t i n g s . O f t e n b l e e d -
i n g o i l a n d g a s may b e o b s e r v e d i n c o r e s , a n d s o m e t i m e s i n d r i l l c u t t i n g s , f r o m
r e l a t i v e l y t i g h t formations.

The amount o f o i l s t a i n i n g o n d i t c h c u t t i n g s and c o r e s i s p r i m a r i l y

a f u n c t i o n of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e p o r o s i t y and t h e o i l d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n
t h e p o r e s . The c o l o r o f t h e s t a i n i s r e l a t e d t o o i l g r a v i t y ; heavy o i l s t a i n s
t e n d t o b e a d a r k brown, w h i l e l i g h t o i l s t a i n s t e n d t o b e c o l o r l e s s .

The c o l o r o f t h e s t a i n o r b l e e d i n g o i l s h o u l d b e r e p o r t e d . F e r r u g i -
n o u s o r o t h e r m i n e r a l s t a i n may b e r e c o g n i z e d by l a c k o f o d o r , f l u o r e s c e n c e ,
or cut.
 6.13 R e a c t i o n i n A c i d o f O i l - B e a r i n g Rock F r a g m e n t s

D i l u t e HC1 may b e u s e d t o d e t e c t o i l s h o w s i n c u t t i n g s , e v e n i n
s a m p l e s t h a t h a v e b e e n s t o r e d f o r many y e a r s . T h i s i s e f f e c t e d by i m m e r s i n g a
s m a l l f r a g m e n t o f t h e r o c k t o b e t e s t e d ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 1 2 t o 2 mm d i a m e t e r )
i n d i l u t e HC1. I f o i l i s present i n t h e rock, surface tension w i l l cause large
b u b b l e s t o f o r m , e i t h e r f r o m a i r i n t h e p o r e s p a c e s o r f r o m C 0 2 g e n e r a t e d by
t h e r e a c t i o n o f t h e a c i d w i t h c a r b o n a t e cement o r m a t r i x . I n the case of cal-
c a r e o u s r o c k , t h e r e a c t i o n forms l a s t i n g i r i d e s c e n t b u b b l e s l a r g e enough t o
r a i s e t h e rock fragment o f f t h e bottom o f t h e c o n t a i n e r i n which t h e a c i d i s
h e l d , ~ n ds o m e t i m e s e v e n l a r g e e n o u g h t o c a r r y t h e f r a g m e n t t o t h e s u r f a c e o f
t h e a c i d b e f o r e t h e b u b b l e s b r e a k a n d t h e f r a g m e n t s i n k s , o n l y t o b e b u o y e d up
a g a i n by new b u b b l e s . The r e s u l t i n g bobbing e f f e c t i s q u i t e d i a g n o s t i c . The
b u b b l e s which form on t h e s u r f a c e o f a c u t t i n g fragment o f s i m i l a r s i z e which
c o n t a i n s n o o i l d o n o t become l a r g e e n o u g h t o f l o a t t h e f r a g m e n t b e f o r e t h e y
b r e a k away, and t h e f r a g m e n t , t h e r e f o r e , r e m a i n s on t h e bottom. I n the case
o f o i l - b e a r i n g n o n c a l c a r e o u s s a n d s t o n e , l a r g e l a s t i n g b u b b l e s f o r m on t h e s u r -
f a c e b u t may n o t f l o a t t h e f r a g m e n t . T h e l a r g e b u b b l e s r e s u l t f r o m t h e s u r f a c e
t e n s i o n c a u s e d by t h e o i l i n t h e s a m p l e , w h i c h t e n d s t o f o r m a t o u g h e r a n d
more e l a s t i c b u b b l e w a l l .

It s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h i s t e s t i s v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e
s l i g h t e s t amount o f h y d r o c a r b o n s , e v e n s u c h a s found i n c a r b o n a c e o u s s h a l e ;
t h e r e f o r e , i t i s well t o discount t h e importance o f a p o s i t i v e t e s t unless t h e
bobbing e f f e c t i s c l e a r l y e v i d e n t o r l a s t i n g i r i d e s c e n t bubbles a r e observed.
The t e s t i s v e r y u s e f u l , however, a s a s i m p l e and r a p i d p r e l i m i n a r y c h e c k f o r
t h e presence of hydrocarbons. A positive oil-acid reaction a l e r t s t h e observer
t o i n t e r v a l s w o r t h y o f more e x h a u s t i v e t e s t i n g .

6.14 Fluorescence

E x a m i n a t i o n o f mud, d r i l l c u t t i n g s a n d c o r e s f o r h y d r o c a r b o n f l u o -
rescence under u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t o f t e n i n d i c a t e s o i l i n small amounts, o r o i l
o f l i g h t c o l o r w h i c h m i g h t n o t b e d e t e c t e d by o t h e r m e a n s . A l l samples should
b e s o examined. C o l o r o f f l u o r e s c e n c e o f c r u d e s r a n g e s f r o m brown t h r o u g h
g r e e n , g o l d , b l u e , y e l l o w , t o w h i t e ; i n m o s t i n s t a n c e s , t h h~e a v i e r o i l s h a v e
d a r k e r f l u o r e s c e n c e . D i s t r i b u t i o n may b e e v e n , s p o t t e d , o r m o t t l e d , a s f o r
stain. The i n t e n s i t y r a n g e i s b r i g h t , d u l l , p a l e , and f a i n t . Pinpoint fluo-
r e s c e n c e i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s a n d g r a i n s a n d may i n d i c a t e c o n d e n s a t e
o r g a s . M i n e r a l f l u o r e s c e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y f r o m s h e l l f r a g m e n t s , may b e m i s t a k e n
f o r o i l f l u o r e s c e n c e , a n d i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a d d i n g a f e w d r o p s o f a s o l v e n t .
Hydrocarbon f l u o r e s c e n c e w i l l appear t o flow and d i f f u s e i n t h e s o l v e n t a s t h e
o i l d i s s o l v e s , whereas mineral f l u o r e s c e n c e w i l l remain undisturbed.

6.15 Reagent Cut T e s t s

O i l - s t a i n e d s a m p l e s w h i c h a r e o l d may n o t f l u o r e s c e ; t h u s f a i l u r e
t o f l u o r e s c e should not be taken a s d e c i s i v e evidence of lack of hydrocarbons.
A l l samples suspected o f c o n t a i n i n g hydrocarbons should be t r e a t e d with a
reagent. T h e m o s t common r e a g e n t s u s e d by t h e g e o l o g i s t a r e c h l o r o t h e n e , p e t r o -
leum e t h e r , and a c e t o n e . T h e s e r e a g e n t s a r e a v a i l a b l e a t most d r u g s t o r e s and
give satisfactory results. The u s e o f e t h e r g i v e s a more d e l i c a t e t e s t f o r
s o l u b l e t~ydrocarbonsthan c h l o r o t h e n e o r a c e t o n e , however, t h e e t h e r being used
s l ~ o u l dbe t e s t e d c o n s t a n t l y , f o r t h e l e a s t p r e s e n c e o f any h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t
w i l l c o n t a m i n a t e t h e s o l v e n t and r e n d e r i t u s e l e s s . C h l o r o t h e n e i s recommended
f o r g e n e r a l u s e a l t h o u g h i t t o o may become c o n t a m i n a t e d a f t e r a l o n g p e r i o d o f
time. Acetone i s a good s o l v e n t f o r heavy h y d r o c a r b o n s b u t i s n o t recommended
f o r routine o i l detection. (CAUTION: Carbon t e t r a c h l o r i d e i s a c u m u l a t i v e
p o i s o n and s h o u l d - n o t b e u s e d f o r a n y t y p e of h y d r o c a r b o n d e t e c t i o n . )

To t e s t c u t t i n g s o r c o r e s , p l a c e a few c h i p s i n a w h i t e p o r c e l a i n
e v a p o r a t i n g d i s h o r s p o t p l a t e a n d c o v e r w i t h r e a g e n t . The s a m p l e s h o u l d b e d r i e d
t h o r o u g h l y a t low t e m p e r a t u r e , o t h e r w i s e w a t e r w i t h i n t h e s a m p l e may p r e v e n t
p e n e t r a t i o n by t h e r e a g e n t s , t h u s o b s t r u c t i n g d e c i s i v e r e s u l t s . The h y d r o c a r b o n
e x t r a c t e d by t h e r e a g e n t i s c a l l e d a "cut." - It i s o b s e r v e d under normal l i g h t
and s h o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s h a d e of t h e c o l o r a t i o n , which w i l l
r a n g e from d a r k brown t o n o v i s i b l e t i n t . A f a i n t " r e s i d u a l c u t " i s sometimes
d i s c e r n a b l e o n l y a s a n amber-colored r i n g l e f t on t h e d i s h a f t e r c o m p l e t e
e v a p o r a t i o n o f t h e r e a g e n t . A v e r y f a i n t c u t w i l l l e a v e a v e r y f a i n t r i n g , and
a n e g a t i v e c u t w i l l l e a v e no v i s i b l e c o l o r . The s h a d e of t h e c u t d e p e n d s upon
t h e g r a v i t y of t h e crude, t h e l i g h t e s t crudes giving t h e p a l e s t c u t s , t h e r e f o r e ,
t h e r e l a t i v e d a r k n e s s s h o u l d n o t b e t a k e n a s a n i n d i c a t i o n of t h e amount of
hydrocarbon p r e s e n t . A c o m p l e t e r a n g e of c u t c o l o r s v a r i e s from c o l o r l e s s ,
p a l e s t r a w , s t r a w , d a r k s t r a w , l i g h t amber, amber, v e r y d a r k brown t o d a r k
brown opaque. A c o l o r p h o t o g r a p h o f t h e s e c u t s i s i n "Show D e s c r i p t i o n s from
C o r e , S i d e w a l l a n d D i t c h Samples" by R. E. Wyman and J . R. C a s t a n o .

The most r e l i a b l e t e s t f o r h y d r o c a r b o n s i s t h e " c u t f l u o r e s c e n c e t '

o r "wet c u t " t e s t . I n t h i s t e s t t h e e f f e c t o f t h e r e a g e n t on t h e sample i s
o b s e r v e d u n d e r u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t , a l o n g w i t h a s a m p l e of t h e p u r e s o l v e n t a s
control. The s a m p l e s h o u l d b e t h o r o u g h l y d r i e d b e f o r e a p p l y i n g t h e r e a g e n t .
I f h y d r o c a r b o n s a r e p r e s e n t , f l u o r e s c e n t " s t r e a m e r s " w i l l b e e m i t t e d from t h e
s a m p l e a n d t h e t e s t i s e v a l u a t e d by t h e i n t e n s i t y and c o l o r of t h e s e s t r e a m e r s .
Some shows w i l l n o t g i v e a n o t i c e a b l e s t r e a m i n g e f f e c t b u t w i l l l e a v e a
f l u o r e s c e n t r i n g o r r e s i d u e i n t h e d i s h a f t e r t h e reagent has evaporated.
T h i s i s termed a " r e s i d u a l c u t . "

I t i s recommended t h a t t h e " c u t f l u o r e s c e n c e " t e s t b e made on - all

i n t e r v a l s i n which t h e r e i s e v e n t h e s l i g h t e s t s u s p i c i o n of t h e p r e s e n c e of
hydrocarbons. Samples t h a t may n o t g i v e a p o s i t i v e c u t o r w i l l n o t f l u o r e s c e
may g i v e p o s i t i v e " c u t f l u o r e s c e n c e . " T h i s i s commonly t r u e o f t h e h i g h
g r a v i t y h y d r o c a r b o n s which g i v e a b r i g h t y e l l o w " c u t f l u o r e s c e n c e . "
D i s t i l l a t e s show l i t t l e o r no f l u o r e s c e n c e o r c u t b u t commonly g i v e p o s i t i v e
It
c u t f l u o r e s c e n c e , " a l t h o u g h numerous e x t r a c t i o n s may be r e q u i r e d b e f o r e i t i s
apparent.

G e n e r a l l y low g r a v i t y o i l s w i l l n o t f l u o r e s c e b u t w i l l c u t
a v e r y d a r k brown a n d t h e i r " c u t f l u o r e s c e n c e " may r a n g e from m i l k y w h i t e t o
d a r k orange. An a l t e r n a t e method i n v o l v e s p i c k i n g o u t a number of f r a g m e n t s
a n d d r o p p i n g them i n t o a c l e a r one-or two-ounce b o t t l e . Petroleum e t h e r ,
c h l o r o t h e n e , o r a c e t o n e i s poured i n u n t i l t h e b o t t l e i s about h a l f f u l l . It
i s t h e n s t o p p e r e d and s h a k e n . Any o i l p r e s e n t i n t h e s a m p l e i s t h u s e x t r a c t e d
and w i l l c o l o r t h e s o l v e n t . When t h e c o l o r of t h e c u t i s v e r y l i g h t , i t may
b e n e c e s s a r y t o h o l d t h e b o t t l e a g a i n s t a w h i t e background t o d e t e c t i t . I f
t h e r e i s o n l y a s l i g h t c u t , i t may come t o r e s t a s a c o l o r e d c a p o r m e n i s c u s
on t h e t o p s u r f a c e o f t h e s o l v e n t . CAUTION: P r o p e r v e n t i l a t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t
when u s i n g p e t r o l e u m e t h e r a s i t may h a v e a t o x i c e f f e c t i n a c o n f i n e d s p a c e .
I n a d d i t i o n , p e t r o l e u m e t h e r and a c e t o n e a r e v e r y inflammable and must b e k e p t
away from open f l a m e s .

6.16 Wettability

F a i l u r e o f samples t o w e t , o r t h e i r t e n d e n c y t o f l o a t on w a t e r when
immersed, i s o f t e n a n i n d i c a t i o n of t h e p r e s e n c e of o i l . Under t h e m i c r o s c o p e ,
a l i g h t - c o l o r e d s t a i n which c a n n o t b e d e f i n i t e l y i d e n t i f i e d a s a n o i l s t a i n
may b e t e s t e d by l e t t i n g one o r two d r o p s of w a t e r f a l l on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e
s t a i n e d rock fragment. I n t h e p r e s e n c e of o i l , t h e w a t e r w i l l n o t s o a k i n t o
t h e c u t t i n g o r f l o w o f f i t s s u r f a c e , b u t w i l l s t a n d on i t o r r o l l o f f i t a s
s p h e r i c a l beads. Dry s p o t s may a p p e a r on t h e sample when t h e w a t e r i s poured
o f f . T h i s , however, i s n o t u s e f u l i n powdered ( a i r d r i l l e d ) samples which,
b e c a u s e o f p a r t i c l e s i z e and s u r f a c e t e n s i o n e f f e c t s , w i l l n o t wet.

6.2 O t h e r Hydrocarbon D e t e c t i o n Methods

6.21 Acetone-Water Test

I f t h e p r e s e n c e of o i l o r c o n d e n s a t e i s s u s p e c t e d , and p r o v i d e d no
c a r b o n a c e o u s o r l i g n i t i c m a t t e r i s p r e s e n t i n t h e r o c k sample, t h e a c e t o n e - w a t e r
t e s t may b e t r i e d . The r o c k i s powdered and p l a c e d i n a t e s t t u b e and a c e t o n e
i s added. A f t e r s h a k i n g i t v i g o r o u s l y i t i s f i l t e r e d i n t o a n o t h e r t e s t t u b e
and a n e x c e s s of w a t e r i s added. When h y d r o c a r b o n s a r e p r e s e n t , t h e y form a
m i l k y w h i t e d i s p e r s i o n , inasmuch a s t h e y a r e i n s o l u b l e i n w a t e r , whereas
a c e t o n e and w a t e r a r e c o m p l e t e l y m i s c i b l e .

6.22 Hot-Water T e s t

P l a c e 500 c c of f r e s h , unwashed c u t t i n g s i n a t i n o r b e a k e r which

h a s a c a p a c i t y of 1 , 0 0 0 c c . Pour i n h o t w a t e r w i t h a t e m p e r a t u r e of a t l e a s t
1 7 0 ' ~ ( 7 7 ' ~ ) u n t i l i t c o v e r s t h e sample t o a d e p t h of 1 cm. Observe t h e o i l
f i l m t h u s formed u n d e r u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t and r e c o r d t h e amount of o i l r e l e a s e d
using t h e scale i l l u s t r a t e d .

D E T E R M I N A T I O N OF O I L SHOWS BY T H E HOT WATER M E T H O D

extremely weak very weak weak foir strong

 6.23 Iridescence

I r i d e n c e n c e may b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o i l o f a n y c o l o r o r g r a v i t y , b u t
i t i s more l i k e l y t o b e o b s e r v a b l e and s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e l i g h t e r , more n e a r l y
c o l o r l e s s , o i l s w h e r e o i l s t a i n i n g may b e a b s e n t . I r i d e s c e n c e may b e o b s e r v e d
i n t h e w e t sample t r a y . I r i d e s c e n c e w i t h o u t o i l c o l o r a t i o n o r s t a i n i n g may
i n d i c a t e t h e p r e s e n c e of l i g h t o i l o r condensate.

6.24 Pyrolysis Test

When w e l l s a m p l e s o f k e r o g e n - r i c h r o c k a r e p y r o l y z e d i n a t h i c k
w a l l e d t e s t t u b e p l a c e d o v e r a p r o p a n e t o r c h , o i l y m a t e r i a l may b e g e n e r a t e d
and c o n d e n s e d as a brown r e s i d u e a r o u n d t h e w a l l s o f t h e t u b e . This simple
t e c h n i q u e may b e u s e d t o i d e n t i f y s o u r c e r o c k s c a p a b l e of g e n e r a t i n g l i q u i d
oil. However, t h e p y r o l y s i s t e c h n i q u e c a n n o t d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n o i l s o u r c e
r o c k s and t h o s e s e d i m e n t s r i c h i n humic matter ( c a r b o n a c e o u s s h a l e s and c o a l s )
which a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be d o m i n a t e l y s o u r c e s f o r g a s . This t e s t is a l s o not
responsive t o p o s t mature source rocks. The a r t i f i c i a l t e s t - t u b e g e n e r a t i n g
process i s believed t o be similar t o t h a t associated with n a t u r a l t i m e -
t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n t p r o c e s s e s accompanying r o c k b u r i a l i n d e p o s i t i o n a l
basins.

H y d r o c a r b o n s i n o r g a n i c r i c h s e d i m e n t s may b e d e t e r m i n e d s e m i -
q u a n t i t a t i v e l y w i t h a Turner fluorometer. One hundred m i l l i g r a m s o f r o c k i s
pyrolyzed a s above and t h e r e s u l t i n g condensation i s d i l u t e d w i t h 3 m i l l i l i t e r s
o f c h l o r o t h e n e . The f l u o r e s c e n c e o f t h e s o l u t i o n t h u s produced i s r e c o r d e d i n
fluorometer units. F o r a more c o m p r e h e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n of p y r o l y s i s and
p y r o l y s i s t e c h n i q u e s r e f e r t o R. L. Heacock and A. Hood ( 1 9 7 0 ) .

6.3 S o l i d H y d r o c a r b o n s and Dead O i l

T h e r e h a s b e e n much c o n f u s i o n , i n c o n s i s t e n c y and m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g
a b o u t t h e u s a g e and m e a n i n g s o f t h e s e two t e r m s . They a r e n o t synonymous.

S o l i d hydrocarbon r e f e r s t o hydrocarbons t h a t are i n a s o l i d s t a t e

a t s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s , u s u a l l y b r i t t l e , and o f t e n s h i n y and g l o s s y i n a p p e a r a n c e .
There a r e a wide v a r i e t y of s u b s t a n c e s c a l l e d s o l i d hydrocarbons w i t h v a r i a b l e
c h e m i c a l and p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . The m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t of t h e s e v a r i a t i o n s
i s t h a t of m a t u r i t y . Some s o l i d h y d r o c a r b o n s , l i k e g i l s o n i t e , a r e immature o r
b a r e l y mature o i l s , while o t h e r s l i k e a n t h r a x o l i t e r e p r e s e n t t h e carbonaceous
r e s i d u e l e f t a f t e r h y d r o c a r b o n s h a v e b e e n o v e r h e a t e d and t h e r m a l l y c r a c k e d .
A n t h r a x o l i t e i s c o n s i d e r e d a t h e r m a l l y dead o i l . G i l s o n i t e , on t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
i s c e r t a i n l y not a dead o i l . It i s a s u b s t a n c e f r o m which h i g h - q u a l i t y
g a s o l i n e , i n d u s t r i a l f u e l o i l s and a n e n d l e s s l i s t o f o t h e r p r o d u c t s a r e
produced.

The t e r m "dead o i l 1 ' h a s b e e n u s e d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y i n t h e i n d u s t r y

t o d e s c r i b e o i l s t h a t a r e e i t h e r ( 1 ) s o l i d , ( 2 ) n o n p r o d u c i b l e o r ( 3 ) immobile.
A l l o f t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s a r e d e c e p t i v e and m i s l e a d i n g . Some s o l i d h y d r o c a r b o n s
a r e n o t d e a d o i l . Many s o c a l l e d " n o n - p r o d u c i b l e o i l s " a r e now p r o d u c t i v e
b e c a u s e o f improved r e c o v e r y t e c h n o l o g y , and t h e r e a r e numerous e x a m p l e s of
I1
immobile o i l " a t s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a r e f l u i d and m o b i l e a t d e p t h .
O t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t h a v e b e e n u s e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h them a r e e x t r e m e l y v a r i a b l e
and h a v e l a c k e d g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t by i n d u s t r y . F o r example, w h e t h e r o r n o t
p o s i t i v e i n d i c a t i o n s of f l u o r e s c e n c e , r e s i d u a l c u t , and/or c u t f l u o r e s c e n c e
a r e c o n s i d e r e d r e q u i r e m e n t s , o r whether t h e p h y s i c a l s t a t e of t h e o i l i s s o l i d
or tarry.

I n view o f t h e a b o v e i t i s recommended t h a t u s a g e o f t h e t e r m
"dead o i l " b e a p p l i e d o n l y t o t h e r m a l l y dead s o l i d h y d r o c a r b o n s t h a t w i l l
n o t f l u o r e s c e , o r g i v e a c u t o r c u t f l u o r e s c e n c e . Whenever t h e t e r m i s u s e d ,
q u a l i f y i n g d a t a should be l i s t e d .

6.4 Generalizations

No " r u l e s o f thumb" c a n b e u s e d t o r e l a t e t h e e v i d e n c e s of t h e
presence of hydrocarbons t o p o t e n t i a l p r o d u c t i o n . However, t h e r e a r e some
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s t h a t a r e worth noting.

1 ) Lack o f v i s i b l e s t a i n i s n o t c o n c l u s i v e p r o o f o f t h e a b s e n c e
of h y d r o c a r b o n s . (Gas, d i s t i l l a t e s and h i g h g r a v i t y o i l s o r d i n a r i l y w i l l
h a v e no v i s i b l e s t a i n ) .

2 ) Lack o f f l u o r e s c e n c e i s n o t c o n c l u s i v e p r o o f o f t h e a b s e n c e of
hydrocarbons.

3 ) -- Bona f i d e h y d r o c a r b o n shows w i l l u s u a l l y g i v e a p o s i t i v e c u t
f l u o r e s c e n c e (wet c u t ) . High g r a v i t y h y d r o c a r b o n s w i l l o f t e n g i v e a p o s i t i v e
c u t fluorescence and/or a r e s i d u a l c u t , but w i l l give negative r e s u l t s with
a l l o t h e r h y d r o c a r b o n d e t e c t i o n methods. ( M i n e r a l s which f l u o r e s c e w i l l n o t
yield a cut).

4 ) The o i l a c i d r e a c t i o n t e s t w i l l g i v e p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s when o i l
i s p r e s e n t , b u t i t i s v e r y s e n s i t i v e and may g i v e p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s i n t h e
p r e s e n c e of i n s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f h y d r o c a r b o n s .
 7 .0 PROBLEMS I N INTERPRETING DRILL CUTTINGS

7.1 C o n t a m i n a t i o n f r o m P r e v i o u s l y P e n e t r a t e d Beds

7.11 Cavings

- C a v i n g s may o f t e n b e r e c o g n i z e d a s m a t e r i a l i d e n t i c a l t o w h a t h a s
a l r e a d y b e e n s e e n f r o m much h i g h e r i n t h e h o l e . T h i s s p a l l i n g o f p r e v i o u s l y
p e n e t r a t e d r o c k s i n t o t h e a s c e n d i n g mud s t r e a m i s p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o n o u n c e d a f t e r
t r i p s o f t h e d r i l l stem f o r b i t changes, d r i l l stem t e s t s , c o r i n g o p e r a t i o n s o r
other r i g activities. I t i s s u p p r e s s e d b y g o o d mud c o n t r o l , b u t m o s t s a m p l e s
w i l l contain caved m a t e r i a l . S o f t s h a l e s , t h i n l y bedded b r i t t l e s h a l e s , and
b e n t o n i t e s c a v e r e a d i l y a n d may b e f o u n d i n s a m p l e s r e p r e s e n t i n g d e p t h s h u n d r e d s
o f f e e t below t h e normal s t r a t i g r a p h i c p o s i t i o n o f t h o s e r o c k s .

Owing t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e h a r d n e s s o f r o c k s , t h e t y p e a n d c o n d i -
t i o n o f t h e b i t , and t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e d r i l l e r , one c a n n o t s e t any h a r d and
f a s t r u l e f o r t h e s i z e o f t r u e c u t t i n g s . Caved f r a g m e n t s t e n d t o b e l a r g e r
t h a n f r a g m e n t s o f r o c k f r o m t h e b o t t o m , a n d t h e y a r e t y p i c a l l y r o u n d e d by a b r a -
s i o n . Flaky s h a p e , f r e s h n e s s o f a p p e a r a n c e , s h a r p edges and s i g n s o f g r i n d i n g
b y t h e b i t may b e u s e d a s c r i t e r i a f o r t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f f r e s h c u t t i n g s .
Casing p o i n t s s h o u l d b e c a r e f u l l y n o t e d inasmuch a s t h e y i n d i c a t e t o t h e geolo-
g i s t examining t h e samples what p a r t s o f t h e h o l e were open a t v a r i o u s s t a g e s
o f t h e b o r i n g and t h u s were a p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e o f c a v i n g s . Casing does n o t
e n t i r e l y eliminate uphole cavings. Some c a v e d m a t e r i a l i s commonly c e m e n t e d
a r o u n d t h e b o t t o m o f t h e c a s i n g a n d i s l i k e l y t o show u p a g a i n i n t h e mud s t r e a m
while d r i l l i n g deeper.

7.12 Recirculation

R e c i r c u l a t i o n c h i e f l y r e f e r s t o s a n d g r a i n s and m i c r o f o s s i l s from
p r e v i o u s l y d r i l l e d r o c k s w h i c h r e - e n t e r t h e h o l e w i t h t h e mud s t r e a m a n d c o n -
taminate t h e r i s i n g sample.

7.2 Other Contaminants

7.21 Lost Circulation Material

A l a r g e v a r i e t y o f s u b s t a n c e may b e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e h o l e t o
combat l o s t c i r c u l a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s . These i n c l u d e s u c h o b v i o u s l y f o r e i g n
materials a s feathers, leather, burlap sacking, o r cotton seed h u l l s , a s well
a s c e l l o p h a n e (which might b e mistaken f o r s e l e n i t e o r muscovite), p e r l i t e ,
and c o a r s e mica f l a k e s which might b e e r r o n e o u s l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s f o r m a t i o n
c u t t i n g s . Most o f t h e s e e x t r a n e o u s m a t e r i a l s w i l l f l o a t t o t h e t o p o f t h e
s a m p l e t r a y when i t i s i m m e r s e d i n w a t e r , a n d s o c a n b e s e p a r a t e d a n d d i s c a r d e d
a t o n c e . O t h e r s may n e e d m o r e c a r e f u l o b s e r v a t i o n . G e n e r a l l y , t h e s u d d e n
a p p e a r a n c e o f a f l o o d o f f r e s h - l o o k i n g m a t e r i a l , w h i c h o c c u p i e s ttlc. g r e a t e r
p a r t o f a s a m p l e , i s e n o u g h t o p u t t h e s a m p l e - l o g g e r on h i s g u a r d . As a c h e c k ,
h e c a n c o n s u l t t h e w e l l r e c o r d f o r l o s t c i r c u l a t i o n t r o u b l e s , and t h e k i n d s o f
materials introduced i n t o the hole.

7.22 Cement

Cement f r a g m e n t s i n c u t t i n g s a r e e a s i l y m i s t a k e n f o r s a n d y , s i l t y ,
o r c h a l k y c a r b o n a t e . However, most c e m e n t s a r e o f a n u n u s u a l t e x t u r e o r c o l o r ,
f r e q u e n t l y h a v e a g l a z e d s u r f a c e , t e n d t o t u r n y e l l o w o r brown when i m m e r s e d
i n d i l u t e HC1, a n d a r e u s u a l l y f u l l o f f i n e b l a c k s p e c k s . T h e l a t t e r a r e some-
t i m e s m a g n e t i c , i n which c a s e t h e f r a g m e n t s o f cement c a n b e removed from t h e
c u t t i n g s w i t h t h e a i d of a small magnet. I f t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f cement i s
q u e s t i o n a b l e , t h e w e l l r e c o r d s h o u l d b e e x a m i n e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e r e c a s i n g was
s e t o r cement p o u r e d .

7.23 D r i l l i n g Mud

I n examining unwashed o r p o o r l y washed c u t t i n g s , i t i s o f t e n impor-

t a n t t o b e a b l e t o r e c o g n i z e t h e d r i l l i n g muds w h i c h w e r e u s e d . An i n e x p e r i e n c e d
s a m p l e - e x a m i n e r may c o n f u s e d r i l l i n g mud w i t h s o f t c l a y , b e n t o n i t e , o r s o m e t i m e s
gypsum o r a c a r b o n a t e . Thorough w a s h i n g a n d r i n s i n g i n a pan o f w a t e r w i l l
g e n e r a l l y r e m o v e m o s t mud c o n t a m i n a t i o n . I f necessary, l i t h i c fragments can be
b r o k e n open t o s e e i f t h e i n t e r i o r ( f r e s h ) d i f f e r s from t h e s u r f a c e ( c o a t e d ) .

O i l - b a s e a n d o i l - e m u l s i o n muds c o a t t h e c u t t i n g s w i t h o i l , a n d c a r e
m u s t b e t a k e n t o d i s t i n g u i s h s u c h o c c u r r e n c e s f r o m f o r m a t i o n o i l . They a r e
generally recognized because they coat a l l c u t t i n g s r e g a r d l e s s of l i t h o l o g y ,
r a t h e r than being confined t o one rock t y p e . Such c o n t a m i n a t i o n c a n sometimes
b e r e m o v e d by w a s h i n g t h e s a m p l e s w i t h a d e t e r g e n t o r w i t h d i l u t e HC1. L i g n o -
s u l f a t e muds may p r e s e n t p r o b l e m s i n s a m p l e s u s e d i n p a l y n o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s .

7.24 O i l C o n t a m i n a t i o n , P i p e Dope, e t c .

F o r e i g n s u b s t a n c e s , s u c h a s p i p e d o p e , g r e a s e , e t c . , from t h e r i g
o p e r a t i o n s s o m e t i m e s e n t e r t h e mud s t r e a m . O i l may b e u s e d t o f r e e s t u c k d r i l l
p i p e a n d , i n some c a s e s , a t a n k t r u c k f o r m e r l y u s e d t o h a u l f u e l o i l i s u s e d
t o haul water f o r r i g use. I n a l l t h e s e c a s e s , t h e b o r e h o l e c a n become con-
t a m i n a t e d w i t h o i l w h i c h c a n c o a t t h e d r i l l c u t t i n g s . When f o r e i g n o i l c o n -
t a m i n a t i o n i s s u s p e c t e d , c u t t i n g s s h o u l d b e broken and t h e i r f r e s h s u r f a c e
examined. N a t u r a l l y - o c c u r r i n g o i l w i l l tend t o s t a i n t h e c h i p s throughout;
c o n t a m i n a t i o n w i l l r e m a i n on o r n e a r t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e c h i p .

7.25 P i p e S c a l e and B i t Shavings

S c a l e s h a v i n g s o f m e t a l may a l s o c o n t a m i n a t e t h e s a m p l e s , b u t t h e y
c a n b e r e a d i l y removed w i t h a s m a l l m a g n e t . They a r e u s u a l l y r u s t y a n d r a r e l y
present a logging problem.

7.26 Miscellaneous Contaminants

O t h e r l i t h i c m a t e r i a l s w h i c h may b e p r e s e n t i n c u t t i n g s a m p l e s a n d
obscure t h e i r r e a l n a t u r e , o r might b e logged a s being i n p l a c e , i n c l u d e rock
fragments used a s aggregate i n c a s i n g s h o e s .

7.3 Miscellaneous I n t e r p r e t a t i o n Problems

7.31 Rock D u s t

I f s a m p l e s a r e n o t washed s u f f i c i e n t l y , a f i n e d u s t composed o f
p o w d e r e d r o c k o r d r i e d d r i l l i n g mud may c o v e r t h e c h i p s w i t h a t i g h t l y a d h e r i n g
c o a t . I n such c a s e s , c a r e should b e taken t h a t a f r e s h s u r f a c e of t h e rock i s
d e s c r i b e d . W e t t i n g t h e s a m p l e s w i l l t e n d t o remove t h i s c o a t i n g , b u t i f t h e
c h i p s a r e s a t u r a t e d w i t h o i l , t h e p o w d e r may s t i l l a d h e r e t o t h e s u r f a c e e v e n
a f t e r immersion i n w a t e r , u n l e s s a w e t t i n g a g e n t o r o r d i n a r y household d e t e r g e n t
is used. T h e s e comments are p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i c a b l e t o l i m e s t o n e and d o l o m i t e
w h e r e t h e p o w d e r e d r o c k f i l m t e n d s . t o b e i n t h e f o r m o f c r y s t a l s w h i c h may
mask t h e t r u e t e x t u r e o f t h e r o c k . I n t h i s case, t h e b e s t p r o c e d u r e i s t o
b r e a k a few c h i p s and o b t a i n f r e s h s u r f a c e s f o r d e s c r i p t i o n .

7.32 Powdering ( b i t s p i n and p e r c u s s i o n c h a l k i f i c a t i o n )

Powdering i s t h e p u l v e r i z a t i o n o f t h e c u t t i n g s by r e g r i n d i n g ( f a i l u r e
o f t h e mud t o r e m o v e c u t t i n g s f r o m t h e b i t ) , o r by c r u s h i n g b e t w e e n t h e d r i l l
p i p e and t h e w a l l o f t h e b o r e h o l r . I t c a n r e s u l t i n t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f c u t -
t i n g s f r o m some i n t e r v a l s , a n d t h e e r r o n e o u s l o g g i n g o f c h a l k y l i m e s t o n e w h e r e
none e x i s t s .

7.33 Fusing

S h a l e s d r i l l e d by a d i a m o n d b i t may b e b u r n e d a n d f u s e d , r e s u l t i n g
i n t h e formation of dark gray o r black hard fragments t h a t resemble igneous
rock.

7.34 Air-Gas D r i l l i n g Samples

C u t t i n g s f r o m w e l l s d r i l l r d w i t h a i r o r g a s i n s t e a d o f mud a r r u s u a l l y
made up o f s m a l l c h i p s a n d p o w d e r , w h i c h m a k e s s a m p l e e x a m i n a t i o n d i f f i c u l t .
O f t e n a s i m p l e s c r e e n i n g o f t h e c u t t i n g s t o e l i m i n a t e t h e powder w i l l f a c i l i t a t e
t h e s a m p l e s t u d y . When t h e c u t t i n g s a r e r n t i r e l y o f p o w d e r , l i t t l r c a n b e d o n e
b e y o n d d e s c r i b i n g b a s i c r o c k t y p e s a n d c o l o r s . When t h e c u t t i n g s a r e c a r b o n a t e s ,
t h e b a s i c r o c k t y p e w i l l b e d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e b e c a u s e d o l o m i t e powder
r f f e r v e s c e s a s r r a d i l y a s l i m e s t o n e powder.

Where w e l l - i n d u r a t e d s h a l e s e c t i o n s a r e a i r d r i l l e d , t h e s a m p l e s
c a n b e c l e a n e d c o n v e n i e n t l y by w a s h i n g t h e m w i - t h c a r e o n a 6 0 - 1 0 0 mesh s c r e e n .
This c l e a n i n g procedure should b e r e q u i r e d , where f e a s i b l e , a s t h e d u s t c o a t i n g
on p a r t i c l e s w i l l mask t h e t r u e c o l o r , t e x t u r e a n d e v e n t h e b a s i c l i t h o l o g y o f
t h e d r i l l e d s e c t i o n . When " m i s t " d r i l l i n g i s d o n e , p a r t i c l e s c a n b e c o m e p l a s -
t e r e d w i t h f i n e mud w h i c h i s r e m o v a b l e o n l y by a w a s h i n g p r o c e s s ; s i m p l e s c r e e n -
i n g does n o t s u f f i c e .

7.35 Sample Lag C o r r e c t i o n E r r o r

Lag t i m e i s t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r c u t t i n g s t o t r a v e l from t h e b o t t o m
o f t h e h o l e t o t h e p l a c e a t which t h e y a r e c o l l e c t e d . I f new h o l e i s d r i l ~ l e d
during t h i s time i n t e r v a l , t h e depth assigned t o t h e samples w i l l be g r e a t e r
than t h e depth from which t h e c u t t i n g s o r i g i n a t e d .

D e s p i t e t h e many m e t h o d s a v a i l a b l e f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f l a g t i m e
a n d f o r t h e c o r r e c t l a b e l l i n g o f d e p t h s shown o n t h e s a m p l e s a c k s , t h e a c t u a l
j o b i s o f t e n d o n e i n c o r r e c t l y , o r n o t a t a l l , by t h e p e r s o n c a t c h i n g t h e s a m p l e s ,
wllo i s u s u a l l y a r o u g h n e c k a t t h e w e l l s i t e . Subsequent sample s t u d i e s a r e t h u s
a f f e c t e d by s i g n i f i c a n t d i s c r e p a n c i e s between i n d i c a t e d sample d e p t h and t r u e
s a m p l e d e p t h . As a r e s u l t o f t h e s e d i s c r e p a n c i e s ( 1 ) l i t t l o l o g i e s a r e p l o t t e d
a t i n c o r r e c t d e p t h s , ( 2 ) i n t e r p o l a t i o n o f t r u e d e p t h s becomes t i m e consuming
and r e q u i r e s u n n e c e s s a r y l o g m a n i p u l a t i o n , and ( 3 ) u n c e r t a i n t i e s a s t o t h e c h a r -
a c t e r o f t h e f o r m a t i o n p e n e t r a t e d may b e i n t r o d u c e d .

I f e r r o n e o u s l a g c o r r e c t i o n i s s u s p e c t e d o r known, t h e g e o l o g i s t
pxamining'the samples sllould endeavor t o p l o t t h e l i t h o l o g i c information obtained
frorn t i l e s a m p l e s t u d y a t t r u e d e p t h . T h i s c a n b e s t b e d o n e w i t h t h e aici o f a
penetration r a t e ( d r i l l i n g time) log o r mechanical l o g . I f t h e d i s c r e p a n c y from
t r u e sample d e p t h i s n o t d e t e r m i n a b l e , o r i s q u e s t i o n a b l e , t h e samples must b e
p l o t t e d a s l a b e l l e d , w i t h an a p p r o p r i a t e n o t e i n t h e r e m a r k s column. Lag c o r -
r e c t i o n i s b e s t c o n t r o l l e d a t tile w e l l s i t e .

7.36 Spread

S p r e a d i s t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f l a r g e from s m a l l c u t t i n g s by r e l a t i v e
s l i p p a g e ( a l s o c a l l e d e l u t r i a t i o n o r d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l i n g ) i n t h e mud s t r e a m ,
s o t h a t t h e ~ u ~ t i n go fs a r o c k d r i l l i n g up i n t o f i n e c h i p s may o v e r t a k e t h e
c u t t i n g s o f a r o c k d r i l l i n g up i n t o c o a r s e c h i p s d u r i n g t h e i r j o u r n e y u p t h e
borehole. T h i s r e s u l t s i n t h e wrong s e q u e n c e o f r o c k t y p e s o r v e r y mixed
samples being recovered.

7.37 " B o i l e r - h o u s i n g " o r "Dog- h o u s i n g " o f Samples

Unfortunately, because of inclement weather, lack of i n t e r e s t o r

s u p e r v i s i o n , breakdowns, o r f a s t d r i l l i n g , t h e sample c a t c h e r ( g e n e r a l l y an
a s s i g n e d r o u g h n e c k ) w i l l o c c a s i o n a l l y s a c k up a n u m b e r o f s a m p l e s o n l y o n c e
during h i s tour. However, h e t h e n l a b e l s t h e s a m p l e s a s i f t h e y were p r o p e r l y
caught a t specific i n t e r v a l s . T h i s c o l l e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e i s known a s " b o i l e r -
housing" o r "dog-housing." Any g e o l o g i s t c a n r e a d i l y s e e t h e e r r o r s i n h e r e n t
in this practice.

8.0 GEOLOGICAL NOTES

8.1 Unconformities

N o t a t i o n on a s a m p l e l o g of a n y d a t a which s u g g e s t t h e p r e s e n c e of
a n unconformity i s i m p o r t a n t , even though t h e e v i d e n c e i s i n c o n c l u s i v e .
S u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e may b e f o u n d i n n e a r b y w e l l s . I n c u t t i n g s , the following
c r i t e r i a may i n d i c a t e t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n u n c o n f o r m i t y :

1 ) C o n c e n t r a t i o n s of m i n e r a l s - e.g., phosphate, p y r i t e , glauconite,

o r manganese n o d u l e s .

2 ) Abrupt changes i n m i n e r a l assemblages, f a u n a , l i t h o l o g i c c h a r a c t e r ,

o r cementing m a t e r i a l .

3) I r o n o x i d e s t a i n s o r manganese c o a t i n g s .
 4 ) C o r r o s i o n s u r f a c e s , a s d e v e l o p e d on c o n g l o m e r a t e s (e.g., blackened
limestone pebbles).

5) D e s e r t v a r n i s h , a s p o l i s h e d s u r f a c e s on p e b b l e s .

6 ) Basal conglomerate - g e n e r a l l y more h e t e r o g e n e o u s and weathered

than o t h e r conglomerates.

7 ) Bone and t o o t h c o n g l o m e r a t e - accumulated a s a " l a g zone" o v e r l y i n g

a n unconformity.

3) S i l i c e o u s s h e l l s w i t h b e e k i t e r i n g s - small, b l u i s h gray t o white

d o u g h n u t - l i k e r i n g s o c c u r r i n g on s i l i c e o u s s h e l l s below some u n c o n f o r m i t i e s .

9 ) Weathered c h e r t - a d e f i n i t e i n d i c a t i o n of a n u n c o n f o r m i t y , p r o v i d i n g
t h e c h e r t i s r e s i d u a l and n o t reworked.

1 0 ) A s p h a l t i c r e s i d u e s c a n b e p r e s e n t a t u n c o n f o r m i t i e s a t which o i l
seeped o u t t o t h e s u r f a c e . I n t h e c a s e of c h e r t s , t h e o i l o r a s p h a l t i c
r e s i d u e may b e i n t h e r e s i d u a l c h e r t and n o t i n t h e o v e r l y i n g reworked
material.

1 1 ) Porous z o n e s i n l i m e s t o n e , caused by s o l u t i o n by ground w a t e r , may

b e e v i d e n c e of u n c o n f o r m i t i e s , b u t p o r o u s z o n e s c a n d e v e l o p f o r c o n s i d e r a b l e
d i s t a n c e s below t h e s u r f a c e . The p o r o s i t y may n o t b e i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e
u n c o n f o r m i t y , b u t t h e e r o s i o n a l i n t e r v a l i s t h e c a u s e of i t . Limestones t h a t
u n d e r l i e u n c o n f o r m i t i e s s h o u l d b e more d e e p l y l e a c h e d t h a n s i m i l a r l i m e s t o n e s
which do n o t u n d e r l i e u n c o n f o r m i t i e s . O t h e r p o r o u s z o n e s may o c c u r a t
u n c o n f o r m i t i e s i n v a r i o u s t y p e s of l i t h o l o g y b e c a u s e of t h e o c c u r r e n c e t h e r e
of c o a r s e r m a t e r i a l and t h e e f f e c t s of w e a t h e r i n g . An u n c o n f o r m i t y s o
e s t a b l i s h e d may b e t r a c e d from w e l l t o w e l l by r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e p o r o u s
zones.

1 2 ) C a l i c h e , and v a d o s e p i s o l i t e s , may form i n c a r b o n a t e r o c k s exposed

t o s u r f a c e weathering.

The p r e s e n c e o f two o r more a s s o c i a t e d c r i t e r i a g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e s

t h e chances t h a t a n unconformity i s p r e s e n t .

8.2 Environments

Environments of d e p o s i t i o n may b e i n t e r p r e t e d from ( 1 ) geometry and

d i s t r i b u t i o n of d e p o s i t i o n a l u n i t s , ( 2 ) s e d i m e n t a r y s t r u c t u r e s and l i t h o l o g i c
a s s o c i a t i o n s , ( 3 ) f o s s i l assemblages. I n f o r m a t i o n from d r i l l c u t t i n g s ,
e x c e p t i n g f o s s i l a s s e m b l a g e s , i s o f t e n i n s u f f i c i e n t t o a l l o w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
environments. When a number of c o n t r o l w e l l s a r e a v a i l a b l e i n a r e g i o n and
s e d i m e n t a r y u n i t s can b e t r a c e d , i t i s o f t e n p o s s i b l e t o i n t e r p r e t a t l e a s t
g e n e r a l i z e d e n v i r o n m e n t s on geometry and d i s t r i b u t i o n of u n i t s , l i t h o l o g i c
a s s o c i a t i o n s , and i n some c a s e s , e l e c t r i c l o g s h a p e s . Sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s
and f o s s i l s o b s e r v e d i n s l a b b e d c o r e s a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l p h y s i c a l b a s i s f o r
i d e n t i f y i n g s p e c i f i c s e d i m e n t a r y e n v i r o n m e n t s , and d e t e r m i n i n g sediment g e n e s i s
 Environments a r e c l a s s i f i e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o s e a l e v e l : c o n t i n e n t a l ,
c o a s t a l , m a r i n e ; and on t h e b a s i s of p h y s i o g r a p h y : s h e l f , s l o p e , b a s i n .
C l a s t i c s e d i m e n t s a r e c o n t r o l l e d by t h e s o u r c e of t r a n s p o r t e d m a t e r i a l s and
t h e c u r r e n t s which d i s p e r s e them; t h e r e f o r e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d i s t i n g u i s h
between c o a s t a l and c o n t i n e n t a l e n v i r o n m e n t s i n o r d e r t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e sand
b o d i e s which were formed by d i f f e r e n t p r o c e s s e s and s o have v e r y d i f f e r e n t s h a p e s
and c h a r a c t e r s . The p h y s i o g r a p h i c d i s t i n c t i o n between s h e l f and b a s i n i s
i m p o r t a n t t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s a n d s t o n e s which may have been d e p o s i t e d i n
submarine f a n s and canyons. Carbonate sediments a r e g e n e r a l l y b e s t understood
i n t e r m s of p h y s i o g r a p h y . T a b u l a r u n i t s may b e e x p e c t e d t o b e p r e s e n t on t h e
s h e l f , and l e n t i c u l a r u n i t s , s u c h a s mounds o r r e e f s , form a t t h e l o c i of
major c h a n g e s i n s l o p e ; e.g., t h e s h e l f margin. The c o n s t i t u e n t s of c a r b o n a t e
s e d i m e n t s a r e u s u a l l y g e n e r a t e d l o c a l l y and n o t d e r i v e d from e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s
a s a r e t h o s e o f s i l i c i c l a s t i c s , s o t h e y may b e found t o change c h a r a c t e r
a b r u p t l y i n r e s p o n s e t o i n h e r i t e d o r c o n s t r u c t e d t o p o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s anywhere
i n s h a l l o w m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s . The d i s t i n c t i o n between c o n t i n e n t a l , c o a s t a l ,
and m a r i n e i s of l e s s e r i m p o r t a n c e ; most g e n e t i c u n i t s i n c a r b o n a t e s a r e m a r i n e ,
a l t h o u g h t h e landward l i m i t s of c a r b o n a t e d e p o s i t s may b e w i t h i n t h e c o a s t a l
realm. C a r b o n a t e s formed u n d e r s u b a e r i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n a c o n t i n e n t a l e n v i r o n -
ment may n o t b e v o l u m e t r i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t b u t t h e y demand p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n
a s i n d i c a t o r s of p e r i o d s of e x p o s u r e and t h u s of t h e i n t e n s i v e d i a g e n e s i s which
may o c c u r u n d e r s u c h c o n d i t i o n s .

D e s c r i p t i o n and l o g g i n g of d r i l l c u t t i n g s and c o r e s i s a n e s s e n t i a l
s t e p i n p r o v i d i n g d a t a which w i l l c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e
environment of d e p o s i t i o n and g e n e s i s of a s e d i m e n t a r y u n i t . To make t h i s
p o s s i b l e , a d e q u a t e symbols must b e employed.

8.21 Environment C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and C o l o r Legend

A g e n e r a l i z e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of d e p o s i t i o n a l environments of b o t h
s i l i c i c l a s t i c and c a r b o n a t e s e d i m e n t a t i o n , and a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o l o r
l e g e n d t o b e used f o r d e s i g n a t i n g i n t e r p r e t e d e n v i r o n m e n t s on t h e s t a n d a r d
l i t h o l o g i c l o g , i s shown i n Appendix I V Y S e c t i o n 1 3 . 4 . Major d e p o s i t i o n a l u n i t s
c a n b e logged by s u p e r i m p o s i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l e t t e r d e s i g n a t i o n s o v e r t h e
c o l o r u n i t , a s i n d i c a t e d on t h e c h a r t .

E n v i r o n m e n t a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n from c u t t i n g s i s e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t
and more o f t e n t h a n n o t i s i m p o s s i b l e . However, i n c e r t a i n e x p l o r a t i o n a r e a s
even g r o s s d e s i g n a t i o n s o f b a s i n , s h e l f o r c o n t i n e n t a l i s u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n .
More s p e c i f i c e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s c a n b e v e r y h e l p f u l i n e s t a b l i s h i n g
l o c a l f a c i e s v a r i a t i o n s and s e d i m e n t o l o g i c s e q u e n c e s and s h o u l d b e r e c o r d e d on
t h e sample l o g a l o n g w i t h q u a l i f y i n g d a t a .
 9.0 REFERENCES

I. General

Banks, J.E., 1950, Particle-Type Well Logging: AAPG Bull., v. 34, p. 1729-1736.

Bruce, G.H., et al, 1962, You Can Recover Large Cuttings When Air Drilling --
Details of the Humble Sample Catcher: Oil and Gas Jour., May 14, V. 60,
no. 20, p. 112.

Clark, S.K., J.I. Daniels, and J.Y. Richards, 1928, Logging Rotary Wells from
Drill Cuttings: AAPG Bull., v. 12, p. 59-76.

Conselman, F.B., 1960, Lost Art of Sample Examination -- A Frozen Asset: AAPG
Bull., v. 44, p. 1832-1833.

Ginsburg, R.N., 1956, Environmental Relationships of Grain Size and Constituent

Particles in Some South Florida Carbonate Sediments: AAPG Bull., v. 40,
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Goldman, M.I., 1949, Sampling and Examination of Well Cuttings: AAPG Bull.,
v. 33, p. 2039.

Hills, J.M., 1949, Sampling and Examination of Well Cuttings: AAPG Bull.,
v. 33, p. 73-91.

Illing, L.V., 1954, Bahama Calcareous Sands: AAPG Bull., v. 38, p. 1-35.

Krumbein, W.C., and L.L. Sloss, 1951, Stratigraphy and Sedimentation: W.H.
Freeman and Co., San Francisco.

LeRoy, L.W., D.O. LeRoy, and J.W. Raese (eds.), 1977, Subsurface Geology in
Petroleum, Mining, and Construction: Colorado School of Mines (4th ed.).

Low, J.W., 1951, Examination of Well Cuttings: Quart. Colorado Sch. Mines,
v. 46, no. 4, p. 1-48.

Maher, J.C., 1959, The Composite Interpretive Method of Logging Drill Cuttings:
Oklahoma Geol. Survey Guidebook VIII, p. 1-48.

McNeal, R.P., 1959, Lithologic Analysis of Sedimentary Rocks: AAPG Bull.,

v. 43, no. 4, p. 854-879.

Muir, J.L., 1951, Methods in the Examination and Logging of Well Cuttings, -in
Second Symposium on Subsurface Geological Techniques (C.A. Moore, ed.):
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Pettijohn, F.J., 1975, Sedimentary Rocks: New York, Harper and Row (3rd ed.).

Roederer, E.P., and H.T. Brundage, 1961, How to Catch Better Rotary Cuttings:
World Oil, v. 152, no. 5, p. 65-67.
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of Shell International Petroleum Maatschappij B.V., The Hague: unpublished
but available in most major university libraries.

Trask, P.D., 1931, Compaction of Sediments: AAPG Bull., v. 15, p. 271-276.

Whiteside, R.M., 1932, Geologic Interpretation from Rotary Well Cuttings:

AAPG Bull., v. 16, p. 653-674.

11. Rock Types and Classifications

---

Dapples, E.C., W.C. Krumbein, and L.L. Sloss, 1953, Petrographic and Lithologic
Attributes of Sandstones: Jour. Geology, v. 61, p. 291-317.

Dunham, R.J., 1963, Classification of Carbonate Rocks According to Depositional

Texture, in W.E. Ham, ed., Classification of Carbonate Rocks: Tulsa,
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1, 312 p.

Ham, W.E., 1963, Classification of Carbonate Rocks: Tulsa, AAPG Memoir 1, 312 p.

Kerr, S.D., and A. Thomson, 1963, Origin of Nodular and Bedded Anhydrite in
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Klein, G. de V., 1963, Analysis and Review of Sandstone Classifications in the

North American Geological Literature 1940-1960: Geol. Soc. America Bull.,
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Krynine. P.D., 1948, The Megascopic Study and Field Examination of Sedimentary
Rocks: Jour. Geology, v. 56, no. 2, p. 130-165.

Rowland, R.A., 1946, Grain Shape Fabrics of Clastic Quartz: Geol. Soc. America
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Wentworth, C.K., 1922, A Scale of Grade and Class Terms for Clastic Sediments:
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111. Porosity and Permeability

Archie, G.E., 1952, Classification of Carbonate Reservoir Rocks and Petrophysical

Considerations: AAPG Bull., v. 36, p. 278-298.

Beard, D.C., and P.K. Weyl, 1973, Influence of Texture on Porosity and Permeability
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Choquette, P.W., and L.C. Pray, 1970, Geologic Nomenclature and Classification
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Krumbein, W.C., and G.D. Monk, 1942, Permeability as a Function of the Size
Parameters of Unconsolidated Sand: Am. Inst. Mining and Met. Engineers
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Murray, R.C., 1960, Origin of Porosity in Carbonate Rocks: Jour. Sedimentary
Petrology, v. 30, p. 39-84.

IV. Hydrocarbon Detection

Dyck, W.J., 1944, A Rapid Laboratory and Field Method for the Determination
of Bitumin Content of Bituminous Rocks: Canada Dept. Mining and
Resources, Memoir Series 87.

Heacock, R.L., and A. Hood, 1970, Process for Measuring the Live Carbon
Content of Samples: U.S. Patent 3508877, April 28.

Hood, A. C.C.M. Gutjhar, and R.L. Heacock, 1975, Organic Metamorphism and
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Zierfuss, H., and D.J. Coumou, 1956, The Use of Qualitative Fluorescence
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V. Sedimentary Structures

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Hamblin, W.K., 1962, X-Ray Radiography in the Study of Structures in

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 VII. Techniques

A. Miscellaneous

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for Size Analysis: Jour. Geology, v. 61, p. 114-132.

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Determination of the Calcite-Dolomite Ratio in Carbonate Rocks: Iowa
Acad. Sciences Proc., v. 60, p. 433-437.

Wilson, M.D., and S.S. Sedeora, 1979, An Improved Thin Section Stain for
Potash Feldspar: Jour. Sedimentary Petrology, v. 49, p. 637-638.

Wyman, R.E., and J.R. Castano, 1974, Show Descriptions from Core, Sidewall
and Ditch Samples: SPWLA 15th Annual Well Logging Symposium, Proc.

B. Heavy Mineral Analysis

Holmes, A., 1930, Petrographic Methods and Calculations: D. Van Nostrand.

Krumbein, W.C., and F.J. Pettijohn, 1938, Manual of Sedimentary Petrography:

D. Appleton-Century.

Milner, H.B., 1952, Sedimentary Petrography: Thomas Murby Co. (3rd ed.).

C. Insoluble Residues

Gault, H.R., 1955, Studies of Carbonate Rocks, vol. 111, Acetic Acid for
Insoluble Residues: Pennsylvania Acad. Sciences, Proc., v. 29, p. 181-185.

Grohskopf, J.G., and E. McCracken, 1949, Insoluble Residues of Some Paleozoic

Formations of Missouri -- Their Preparation, Characteristics, and Application:
Missouri Geol. Survey and Water Res. Rept. Inv. No. 10.

Ireland, H.A., et al, 1947, Terminology for Insoluble Residues: AAPG Bull.,
v. 31, p. 1479-1490.
---- 1977, Insoluble Residues, in L.W. LeRoy et al, eds., Subsurface Geology in
Petroleum, Mining and construction: Colorado School Mines (4th ed. ) ,
p. 140-156.
 Appendix I:
Equipment, Special Techniques, and Procedures
 10.0 APPENDIX -
I

EQUIPMENT, SPECIAL TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES

10.1 --
Equipment and Supplies for Routine Sample Examination

The following is an alphabetical listing of the principal items

needed for sample examination in a well-equipped office. This list is not
intended to Include all items needed for specialized stratigraphic studies,
nor equipment needed for a sedimentation or core laboratory.

Acid, hydrochloric; 10% or 15% solution

Alizarin Red S dye
Beakers (50 ml)
Bottles, dropper or wash. Use for acid, chlorothene, mineral oil,
or glycerine
Brush (paint brush) for cleaning sample examination tray
Carborundum stone (paper or powder) or silicon carbide grit
Cement: Lakeside 70 plastic cement, or Canada balsam
Comparators for size, sorting, roundness, sphericity and
percentage (may all be photographs)
Chlorothene
Dictaphone or tape recorder
Fluoroscope or ultraviolet light
Glycerine
Hot plate (electric)
India ink (black, red, green)
Lamp for microscope, with frosted and blue filters
Log forms (standard)
Logs (drilling time and mechanical) for wells under study
Magnet (pocket size)
Manual (standard sample logging manual)
Mineral oil (Nujol)
Microscope, binocular, with polarizing attachment desirable
Pan (wash -pan), glass or plastic, for wetting samples
Pen (Rapidograph 00) for logging
Pencils (Eagle Verithin) in all standard colors
Plate (preferable glass)
Probes (dental probes work well)
 Ruler or triangle
Scoop for picking up samples
Shield, log pattern
Sieves (ASTM No. 5 and No. 6 0 or No. 100)
Slides (glass, 1" x 3" or 1" x 2")
Spot plates (glass and porcelain)
Streak plate
Towels, paper or cloth
Tissue, for cleaning lens
Trays -- sample trays (metal and/or plastic)
Tweezers or forceps
Watch glasses
Water (distilled)
Wetting agent (or household detergent) for wetting powdered
or contaminated samples

10.11 Comments on Some Essential Equipment and Supplies

Binocular microscope. The lens magnification should range from

approximately 9 to 50 diameters. Magnification should be great enough to
reveal the essential structure and texture of the sample. It should be low
enough to reduce eyestrain and to provide a sufficiently wide field of view
for estimating percentages of rock constituents. A magnification of approxi-
mately 9 to 12 diameters is best for routine sample examination, and 27 to
50 diameters for more detailed study. To reduce eyestrain, microscopes should
be kept clean, properly focused, and in good condition. Lenses should be
cleaned with lens paper; facial tissue, or a very soft, clean cloth may be
used if lens paper is not available. A polarizing attachment for thin section
study is a desirable accessory. Microscopes should be kept lightly lubricated.

~ i g h t . Natural or artificial light may be used; however, samples

are usually examined under artificial light produced by one of several types
of lamps. A Bausch & Lomb, Zeiss, or American Optical illuminator is recom-
mended, but any lamp with a blue bulb or blue filter plate may be used.
A lamp that produces a "rainbow" of colors should - not be used as it will
tend to mask or distort the true colors of the sample and will cause eyestrain.
Not only should sufficient light be applied to the sample itself, but the
work area around a microscope should be well illuminated to prevent excessive
eyestrain. A gooseneck desk lamp with a blue bulb produces an excellent
light, if a conventional microscope lamp is not available.

Sample trays and dishes. Several types of trays and dishes may
be used for examining the sample under the microscope. A small flat tray
made from wood, tin or other durable material may be used. Compartmented
trays with partitions dividing the trays into five compartments are particularly
useful. They are available commercially and are usually made of black plastic
varying in size from 8-114 inches by 4 inches to 8-318 inches by 2-718 inches.
Samples are poured into the trays for the examiner and the footage depth
of sample is recorded on the side, or an elevated partition of each tray.
This method enables the examiner to have cuttings from a complete well poured
into trays for study; in addition, it facilitates the picking of sample breaks,
inasmuch as gradations and variations in lithology are often readily visible
and may be recognized before the samples are subjected to detailed examination
under the microscope.

Fluoroscope (ultraviolet light). Geologists should have access

to an ultraviolet light box at all times while examining samples, both at
the well and in the office. All porous intervals should be thoroughly checked
for hydrocarbons with this device. (See Section 6.0 on Hydrocarbon Detection
Methods. )

Acid and solvents. Acid is used at all times in the running

of samples; a dilute hydrochloric acid of 60 percent water and 40 percent
acid (USP 37% HC1) is recommended.

Various chemical solvents can be used for testing for hydrocarbon

shows. It is recommneded that chlorothene be used for this purpose because
of its nontoxic qualities. Ether can be used also but is less desirable.

Pencils. Eagle "Chemi-Sealed" Verithin pencils are used to color

tratigraphic logs. Color pencil numbers are listed in the lithologic legends
f Appendix IV for each of the rock types and symbols represented by color.
These colors do not smudge easily and make excellent photo-reproduction.
Other types of colored pencils are available and can be used, but refrain
from using brands that smudge and smear.

Ink. It is recommended that India ink (or an equivalent permanent

-
ink) be used for recording all information on the lithologic log. Black
ink should be used for all notations with the following exceptions:

1) Use red India ink for information or symbols pertaining to hydro-

carbon shows and engineering data.

2) Use green India ink for all paleontologic data.

3) Use red pencil for tops.

Rapidograph pens #00 or crow quill pens should be used in recording

all data on the logs.

These materials are recommended because they enable the logger

to make neat precise logs which will not smear with use. Ball point pens,
on the other hand, make heavy inscriptions that smear, smudge, and become
illegible in a short time. Sample logs represent valuable and expensive
pieces of geologic information. The effort required to make them neat and
accurate is worthwhile.
10.2 T h i n S e c t i o n s from D r i l l C u t t i n g s

10.21 O p e r a t i o n a l Method

p r e p a r i n g t h i n s e c t i o n s o f c u t t i n g s on a n o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l
i s a r e l a t i v e l y simple process. They may be p r e p a r e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g manner:

Equipment

Hot p l a t e
Glass s l i d e s
L a k e s i d e /I70 t h e r m o p l a s t i c cement ( b r o k e n t o a p p r o x . 118" p i e c e s )
G l a s s g r i n d i n g p l a t e , 114" x 10" x 1 0 1 ' , carborundum s t o n e o r
#300 o r /I400 g r i t ( f i n e ) s i l i c o n c a r b i d e p a p e r
Carborundum l o o s e g r a i n a b r a s i v e (jI240, /I400, /I600 g r i t )
Tweezers
Water p a n

Procedure

1) Melt cement on g l a s s s l i d e on h o t p l a t e and d r o p i n t o i t

one o r more s e l e c t e d c u t t i n g s .

2) Remove s l i d e from h o t p l a t e and a l l o w cement t o h a r d e n

by c o o l i n g .

3) Wet g r i n d i n g s u r f a c e and hone a f l a t s u r f a c e o n t h e c h i p s .

Keep g r i n d i n g s u r f a c e t h o r o u g h l y wet by e i t h e r d i p p i n g
s l i d e i n w a t e r pan o r s p r i n k l i n g a d d i t i o n a l w a t e r on s u r f a c e .
E i t h e r g l a s s p l a t e and l o o s e a b r a s i v e m e t h o d , o r wet s t o n e
o r p a p e r may b e u s e d .

4) Dry s l i d e and p l a c e on h o t p l a t e .

5) Using t w e e z e r s o r p r o b e , t u r n o v e r t h e honed s u r f a c e o f c h i p
when cement m e l t s .

6) Remove from h o t p l a t e and p r e s s t h e c h i p (honed s u r f a c e

down) a g a i n s t s l i d e a s cement h a r d e n s .

7) Hone t h e c h i p down t o d e s i r e d t h i n n e s s on g l a s s p l a t e , wet

stone o r paper ( a s i n Step 3 ) .

NOTE OF CAUTION: Take c a r e i n S t e p 7 n o t t o g r i n d away t h e mounted

c h i p e n t i r e l y . I t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e any c r i t i c a l t h i n n e s s . A l l
t h a t i s n e c e s s a r y i s t o make t h e r o c k r e a s o n a b l y t r a n s p a r e n t . T h e r e f o r e ,
c h e c k f r e q u e n t l y by e x a m i n i n g u n d e r t h e m i c r o s c o p e . With a new s t o n e , and
e s p e c i a l l y w i t h s i l i c o n c a r b i d e p a p e r , t h e s m a l l c h i p s w i l l g r i n d down q u i c k l y .
 T h i s p r o c e s s i s s i m p l e i n p r a c t i c e , and r e a s o n a b l e p r o f i c i e n c y
c a n b e a c h i e v e d w i t h v e r y few a t t e m p t s . Using a carborundum s t o n e , t h e whole
p r o c e d u r e t a k e s l e s s t h a n t e n m i n u t e s ; when u s i n g s i l i c o n c a r b i d e p a p e r ,
even l e s s time i s r e q u i r e d . B e t t e r q u a l i t y s e c t i o n s r e s u l t from u s i n g a
g l a s s p l a t e w i t h a b r a s i v e s . Covering t h e f i n i s h e d s e c t i o n i s unnecessary;
s i m p l y wet t h e s u r f a c e w h i l e e x a m i n i n g .

10.22 M u l t i p l e Sample T h i n S e c t i o n s

The t e c h n i q u e d e s c r i b e d above i s a d e q u a t e f o r making t h i n s e c t i o n s

o f w e l l c u t t i n g s when t i m e of p r e p a r a t i o n i s a f a c t o r . Such s e c t i o n s c a n
b e made and examined m i n u t e s a f t e r t h e sample h a s been a c q u i r e d .

P r e p a r a t i o n of a l a r g e number o f much b e t t e r q u a l i t y t h i n s e c t i o n s
i s p o s s i b l e by u s e of t h e f o l l o w i n g method. T h i s method r e q u i r e s l a b o r a t o r y
equipment a s w e l l a s s e v e r a l d a y s c u r i n g t i m e f o r t h e r e s i n s and cements
used i n t h e p r o c e s s . F i f t e e n s e p a r a t e samples a r e c a s t i n a s i n g l e block
of p l a s t i c ; t h u s a 150 f o o t s e c t i o n of 1 0 f o o t i n t e r v a l s a m p l e s c a n b e examined
on one 2 by 3 i n c h s l i d e .

Dry d r i l l c u t t i n g s a r e p l a c e d i n t o e a c h of 15 c a v i t i e s of a
p o l y e t h y l e n e mold ( F i g u r e 1 0 . 2 3 ) . An o r i e n t a t i o n mark i n one c a v i t y i s molded
i n t o t h e c a s t i n g s o t h a t t h e l a t t e r c a n be o r i e n t e d a f t e r removal from t h e
m o l d . T h i s mark a p p e a r s i n t h e f i n i s h e d t h i n s e c t i o n . F i g u r e 10.24.

The mold i s f i l l e d w i t h p o l y e s t e r r e s i n w i t h t h e p r o p e r amount

of h a r d e n e r a d d e d . S e v e r a l b r a n d s of c l e a r c a s t i n g r e s i n s a r e a v a i l a b l e
a t hobby s h o p s . The m e a s u r i n g and m i x i n g o f r e s i n and h a r d e n e r s h o u l d s t r i c t l y
a d h e r e t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s d i r e c t i o n s . Too much h a r d e n e r w i l l r e s u l t i n
o v e r h e a t i n g o f t h e c a s t i n g and may m e l t t h e mold. Too l i t t l e h a r d e n e r w i l l
r e s u l t i n a s o f t c a s t i n g which c a n n o t b e sawed o r ground p r o p e r l y .

The c u t t i n g s s h o u l d be s t i r r e d t o remove a i r b u b b l e s from t h e

r e s i n and t o e n s u r e t h o r o u g h w e t t i n g o f e a c h c h i p . The r e s i n w i l l h a r d e n
i n t o a s o l i d c a s t i n g i n s e v e r a l h o u r s . The c a s t i n g i s t h e n ground f l a t on
a diamond o r c a s t i r o n l a p , t h e f i n a l f i n i s h b e i n g a p p l i e d w i t h 700 t o 1000
mesh g r i t .

Water on t h e c a s t i n g from t h e g r i n d i n g o p e r a t i o n i s d r i e d a t
room t e m p e r a t u r e . Heat w i l l c a u s e w a r p i n g . Depending on t h e k i n d s of c u t t i n g s ,
several hours t o overnight drying i s required.

The d r y c a s t i n g i s mounted on a f l a t 2 x 3 i n c h m i c r o s l i d e w i t h
epoxy r e s i n a t room t e m p e r a t u r e . One r e s i n s y s t e m found t o be a good a d h e s i v e
and h a v i n g a c u r e d i n d e x of r e f r a c t i o n of a b o u t 1 . 5 4 c o n s i s t s o f 3 p a r t s
Epon 815 ( S h e l l Chemical C o . ) and 1 p a r t Genamid 2000 (Henkel C o r p . ) . The
r e s i n i s a p p l i e d t o t h e ground s u r f a c e of t h e c a s t i n g and a 2 x 3 i n c h m i c r o s l i d e
lowered o n t o i t . G e n t l e p r e s s u r e i s u s e d t o f o r c e a i r b u b b l e s o u t from u n d e r
t h e g l a s s and t h e b l o c k i s p l a c e d g l a s s down on a l e v e l s u r f a c e . The r e s i n
w i l l h a r d e n i n a b o u t 24 h o u r s a f t e r which c o n v e n t i o n a l t h i n s e c t i o n i n g t e c h n i q u e s
can be used t o p r e p a r e t h e s l i d e s ( F i g u r e 1 0 . 2 4 ) .
10.24 TYPICAL THIN SECTION OF ONE CAVITY OF CASTING

i f -
10.3 Staining ~echniques

10.31 For Carbonate Rocks

Preparation of Alizarin Red S staining solution. The staining
solution is prepared by dissolving 1 gram of Alizarin Red S in 998 ml distilled
water and 2 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid
Procedure.

1) Immerse the chips to be stained momentarily in acid, then

briefly rinse in distilled water. (Dipping the chips, held
in tweezers, in a spot plate depression filled with acid
then one filled with distilled water is an effective way.)

2) Apply a drop or two of Alizarin Red S to the chip on a spot

plate or impervious surface (or place the chip in the stain)
for 45 seconds.

3) Remove chi^ and wash off excess staining

" solution with dis-
tilled water. Let stand until dry.

4) Examine chip under microscope. Calcite will stain red, dolo-

mite and other minerals will not be stained.
NOTE: Stain will come off if mineral oil (~ujol), clove
oil, or glycerine is applied to samples. It may
be removed from samples or thin sections by scrubbing
with warm water and a mild soap.

The concentration of HC1 in the staining solution

is extremely critical. Variations of a few tenths
of a percent will give different contrasts between
stained and unstained areas. It is recommended that
each time a new solution is mixed, it has exactly
the same HC1 concentration as the solution being
replaced. 0.2% HC1 gives a good contrast between
stained and unstained areas.

Preparation of samples for staining.

1) Samples must be clean and dry before stain is applied.

2) Stain boundaries are intensified by polishing the sample

with 1000 grit and on a felt lap with stannic oxide.

3) Samples containing a high density of pores less than 1/2 rnm

in diameter do not stain well because the solution soaks
in, coating the walls of the pore with stain, and pore
differentiation is difficult. This type of rock is best
stained if impregnated with plastic first. In this case
the matrix is stained and the pore space is void of stain.

4) If the sample does not take a good stain with the first
application, repeat the procedure for sample preparation
 10.32 For Feldspar
Hydrofluoric Acid, Sodium Cobaltinitrate and Rhodizonate
Solution Technique

NOTE: Staining feldspars involves etching with Hydrofluoric

acid (52%) vapor. HF acid fumes are extremely dangerous. Always work under
a hood and wear rubber gloves and safety glasses.

Procedure.

1) Polish slab with 400 grit.

2) Etch polished slab surface in closed vessel of HF vapor for

5 minutes at room temperature.

3) Rinse specimen very briefly in water

4) Quickly dip specimen twice in and out of 5% barium chloride

solution.

5) ~ i n s especimen in water.

6) Place specimen etched surface down for one minute in saturated

sodium cobaltinitrate solution. This solution is prepared
by adding powdered sodium cobaltinitrate to distilled water
in excess of that needed to reach saturation (40 gm/100 ml
at 20-25OC).

7) Remove excess cobaltinitrate in tap water.

Potassium Feldspar is stained yellow.

8) Rinse slab in distilled water and cover etched surface with

rhodizonate reagent. Prepare reagent by dissolving 0.02 g
of rhodizonic acid potassium salt in 30 ml of distilled water.
The reagent is unstable.

9) Rinse in tap water to remove excess stain. Plagoclase Feldspar

is stained red.

10.4 Detailed Insoluble Residue Studies

The procedure used in making detailed insoluble-residue analysis

is described below.

preparation of samples. ater rial used in the study of detailed

insoluble residues may be obtained from well cuttings, cores, or outcrop
samples. When cores or outcrop samples are used, a small chip should be
taken at approximately one-foot intervals. It is usually desirable to group
these fragments into five- or ten-foot intervals. The fragments should then
be crushed and a cut made of the crushed material in order to obtain a more
nearly representative sample. However, since well cuttings are generally
the only source of material available, it is from them that most residues
are prepared.

In the preparation of insoluble residues, a measured sample

(approximately 10 grams by weight) is placed in a 200 ml beaker to which
dilute (12 to 15 percent) HC1 is added. The first application of acid should
be done slowly, to prevent foaming and overflow caused by rapid effervescence.
A few minutes after the initial application, additional acid may be added.
After several hours of digestion, the samples should be washed once or twice
to remove spent acid, then a second application of acid should be made.
If the sample has only a small percentage of carbonate, a single application
of acid will suffice for total digestion. Evidence of incomplete digestion
will be the presence in the samples of dolomite fragments with rough surfaces,
dolomite rhombs, or rounded limestone fragments. Finally, the sample should
be washed to remove all traces of acid and prevent scum and caking of the
residues.

Examination and description. The percentage of insoluble material

remaining after acidization is determined by visual measurement and plotted
on an insoluble-residue strip log. A typical plotted log is illustrated
in Figure 2 of Ireland (1977).

Residues are examined under a binocular microscope at magnifications

ranging from 9X to 50X. The observed material can be classed in one or more
of the following groups: (1) cherts, (2) clastics, including argillaceous
material, shale, silt, and sand, and (3) miscellaneous or accessories, which
include minerals and siliceous fossils or, more frequently, fossomolds.
The terminology used in describing these residues is based on morphology
rather than genesis, as described by Ireland (1977).

Cherts are generally the most important constituent and are

distinguished by their texture, color, and diaphaneity. The various textural
types, which are frequently gradational from one to another are plotted in
different colors. The cavities, oolites, and other structures of the cherts
also serve to characterize them as being derived from a particular zone or
formation. The clastic material, minerals, and fossils found in residues
vary in quantity and importance, but are generally subsidiary to the chert.

The extensive use of insoluble residues involves expensive and

time-consuming operations. Frequently it is more practical for the micro-
scopist to prepare on-the-spot residues during routine study of well cuttings.
However, caution should be observed, for seldom is a single constituent
diagnostic of a particular zone or formation. Instead, an association of
types of residues, or the relative abundance of a particular type and its
position in the section are more significant criteria.

The symbols used in the logging of insoluble residues on the

standard lithologic log are shown on Charts XI1 and XIII.

10.5 Versenate Analvsis

A method for calcite/dolomite determinations. The versenate analysis

is a relatively fast and inexpensive operational method to determine the exact
calcite/dolomite ratio of a carbonate rock. The method is a color-reaction
experiment which employs the use of a reagent and a crushed and sieved sample
40 to 90 samples may be processed in one day.

Pure dolomite samples are readily identifiable with 15% dilute

HC1 acid, but the quantitative interpretation of mixtures of calcite and dolomite
in well cuttings based on their reaction with acid is subjective and therefore
variable between individuals. The versenate method has shown merit when lime-
stone-dolomite stratigraphic traps are under investigation.

Due to variations in the chemicals employed in the reagent solution,

it is necessary to test known calcite/dolomite mixtures and plot a reaction
time vs calcite/dolomite ratio curve, since the pH of the buffer solution affects
the reaction time.

preparation of the reagent. A single reagent solution is prepared

by mixing the proper volumes of three solutions: a solution of sodium ethyl-
enediaminetetraacetate, a buffer solution, and an indicator solution. To
prepare the ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid solution, dissolve 4.0 g of disodium
dihydrogen e t h y l e n e d i a m i n e t e t r a a c e t a t e dihydrate, Na2 H2 Y. 2H20, in 750 ml
of distilled water. To prepare the buffer solution, mix 6.75 g of ammonium
chloride and 57.0 ml of concentrated ammonium hydroxide and dilute to 100 ml
with distilled water. The pH of this solution is just over 10. To prepare
the indicator solution, dissolve 1.0 g of eriochromeschwartz T (F241) in 100 ml
of methyl alcohol. To prepare the final reagent solution, mix 50 ml of the
sodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate solution, diluted with 50 ml of distilled
H20, 12.5 ml of the buffer solution and 0.25 ml of the indicator solution.
To prepare the Aerosol solution, a commercial agent, dissolve 0.1 g of Aerosol
in 100 ml of water.

Testing procedure.
1) Crush the sample and collect the portion that passes
through a 150 mesh sieve.
2) Place approximately 0.02 gm of the sample in a 10 ml beaker
and wet the sample with one drop of Aerosol solution.
3) Place the beaker under a mixer with a glass stirring rod
and start the mixing motor.

4) Add 3 ml of the reagent solution to the beaker and start a

stopwatch when the solution comes in contact with the sample.
5) When the solution turns from blue to pink (approximate color
of an Eagle Verithin #742-112 pencil), stop the watch and
record the time on the Versene Analysis data sheet in the
Reaction Time column.
6) The calcite/dolomite ratio is obtained from the accompanying
chart. Silica and argillaceous impurities of less than 30%
have no effect on the reaction time, but the presence of +15%
anhydrite decreases the reaction in both limestone and dolomite.
 10.51 % CALCITE/DOLOMITE VS. REACTION TIME CHART

CALCI DOLO TIME CALC/DOLO TIME CALC! DOLO TIME

RATIO (set) RATIO (set) RATIO (set)

100/0 29 57/43 54 32/68 104- 106

10.6 Acetate Peels

An a c e t a t e p e e l r e p l i c a of t h e s u r f a c e of most t y p e s o f r o c k i s
q u i c k l y and e a s i l y made. I t r e p r o d u c e s t h e m i c r o s c o p i c d e t a i l of t h e r o c k .
s t r u c t u r e and may s e r v e i n p l a c e of a t h i n s e c t i o n . I t h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e
o v e r t h e l a t t e r of b e i n g n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e . T h u s , when o n l y s m a l l s a m p l e s of
t h e r o c k a r e a v a i l a b l e , n o t a b l y i n t h e c a s e of s i d e w a l l c o r e s , a p e e l c a n
be p r e p a r e d t o p r e s e r v e t h e d e t a i l s of g r a i n s i z e and s t r u c t u r e b e f o r e t h e
core i s destroyed i n t h e course of p a l e o n t o l o g i c o r p e t r o p h y s i c a l examination.
 The f i r s t r e q u i r e m e n t f o r a s u c c e s s f u l p e e l i s t h e p r e p a r a t i o n
of a f l a t , polished rock s u r f a c e . I n i t i a l g r i n d i n g i s done o n a g l a s s p l a t e ,
u s i n g water-wet c o a r s e (#220) s i l i c o n c a r b i d e g r i t . F i n a l p o l i s h s h o u l d be
g i v e n w i t h f i n e w e t power ( # 8 0 0 ) s i l i c o n c a r b i d e .

I n t h e c a s e o f s i l i c i c l a s t i c r o c k s , no f u r t h e r p r e p a r a t i o n i s
n e c e s s a r y , s a v e f o r c a r e f u l l y w a s h i n g away t h e g r i t , a n d a l l o w i n g t h e r o c k
surface t o dry.

C a r b o n a t e r o c k s m u s t b e l i g h t l y e t c h e d b e f o r e a p e e l i s made.
A weak s o l u t i o n o f h y d r o c h l o r i c , a c e t i c , o r f o r m i c a c i d ( 5 % ) i s s u i t a b l e
f o r t h i s p u r p o s e , t h e l a t t e r two b e i n g p r e f e r a b l e . The r o c k s u r f a c e i s w e t
w i t h w a t e r , a n d a n y e x c e s s s h a k e n o f f . The s u r f a c e i s t h e n f l o o d e d w i t h a c i d ,
and h e l d h o r i z o n t a l w h i l e e f f e r v e s c e n c e o c c u r s . Depending on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n
o f t h e r o c k , 5 t o 15 seconds a r e u s u a l l y a s u f f i c i e n t time t o produce s u i t a b l e
r e l i e f o n t h e r o c k s u r f a c e . O v e r - e t c h i n g i s more a p t t o o c c u r t h a n u n d e r -
e t c h i n g . A f t e r e t c h i n g , t h e r o c k must be g e n t l y r i n s e d i n w a t e r and l e f t
t o dry f o r a s h o r t time.

To make a p e e l , t h e p o l i s h e d o r e t c h e d s u r f a c e i s h e l d i n a h o r i -
z o n t a l p o s i t i o n and w e t t e d w i t h a c e t o n e . A p i e c e o f d r a f t i n g a c e t a t e o f
s u i t a b l e t h i n n e s s ( . 0 0 3 o r .005 i n c h ) i s r o l l e d o n t o i t from one e d g e , c a r e
b e i n g t a k e n t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e r e i s n o l a t e r a l movement a s c o n t a c t w i t h t h e
r o c k i s made. When t h e p e e l h a s d r i e d c o m p l e t e l y ( w h i c h may b e s e v e r a l h o u r s ,
d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p o r o s i t y o f t h e r o c k ) i t c a n b e removed f r o m t h e r o c k .

When i t i s d e s i r e d t o make a p e e l o f a c o a r s e s a n d s t o n e , o r a
v e r y porous o n e , t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e r o c k i s smoothed a s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , and
wet w i t h a c e t o n e , t h e n a t h i n c o a t o f c e l l u l o s e - a c e t o n e s o l u t i o n i s p a i n t e d
on i t . T h i s i s l e f t t o d r y o v e r n i g h t , and a n o t h e r c o a t a p p l i e d t h e n e x t d a y ,
i f n e c e s s a r y . The r e s u l t i n g p e e l c a n b e removed f r o m t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e r o c k
a f t e r i t has d r i e d for several hours.

The c e l l u l o s e - a c e t a t e s o l u t i o n i s p r e p a r e d by m i x i n g c e l l u l o s e
a c e t a t e powder a n d a c e t o n e i n t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f 20 gms a c e t a t e t o 1 3 0 c c
a c e t o n e . T h i s p r o v i d e s a s t a b l e s t o c k s o l u t i o n . When p e e l s a r e t o b e made,
some o f t h e s t o c k s o l u t i o n i s d i l u t e d t o t w i c e i t s volume w i t h t e t r a c h l o r e -
t h a n e . The s o l u t i o n s o c o n s t i t u t e d w i l l o n l y k e e p f o r a b o u t two w e e k s .

F i n i s h e d p e e l s c a n b e m o u n t e d by p l a c i n g them b e t w e e n two g l a s s
s l i d e s a n d s e a l i n g t h e e d g e s w i t h t a p e , o r t h e y may b e s t o r e d i n e n v e l o p e s .

NOTE: Whenever a p e e l i s p u l l e d f r o m a c a r b o n a t e r o c k , i t s h o u l d
b e immersed i n H C 1 b e f o r e b e i n g s t u d i e d o r m o u n t e d , t o d i s -
s o l v e a n y s m a l l p a r t i c l e s w h i c h may h a v e b e e n p l u c k e d
from t h e r o c k .

10.7 C h o q u e t t e and P r a y ' s C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f P o r o s i t y i n S e d i m e n t a r y C a r b o n a t e s

A p r i n c i p a l element o f t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n is t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n
o f a g i v e n p o r e o r p o r e s y s t e m a s o n e o r more o f s e v e r a l b a s i c p o r o s i t y t y p e s .
Each t y p e i s s i m p l y a p h y s i c a l l y o r g e n e t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t i v e k i n d o f p o r e o r
p o r e s y s t e m t h a t c a n b e d e f i n e d by s u c h a t t r i b u t e s a s p o r e s i z e , p o r e s h a p e ,
genesis and position or association relative to either particular constituents
or overall fabric.

The authors recognize 15 basic types of porosity which are shown

in the summary chart of Fig. 10.71. Other Fore types can be recognized, but
these 15, in combination with the other elements of the classification, permit
detailed geologic characterization of almost all porosity in sedimentary
carbonates. Recognition of these basic types appears to be the most practical
way to cope with the extreme physical and genetic diversity of pore systems
in carbonates and still use current terms.

The basic types vary considerably in volumetric abundance and

commonness of occurrence. Seven of them are extremely common and volumetrically
important, probably forming the bulk of pore space in most sedimentary carbonates.
These types are interparticle, intraparticle, intercrystal, moldic, fenestral,
fracture, and vug porosity. The rest appear to be less abundant, although
some are common (e.g., shelter porosity), and their separate designation and
recognition can be useful for porosity characterization and facies interpretation.

The attributes that characterize the 15 basic porosity types,

such as size, shape, genesis, or position with respect to fabric elements
of the rock, merit further attention to clarify the nature of these types.
The single element in determining three porosity types - interparticle, intra-
particle, and intercrystal - is the position of the pore with respect to the
fabric elements; pore size, shape, and origin are involved either secondarily
or not at all. One basic type, cavern porosity, is determined solely on the
basis of size. Others such as moldic, boring, and shrinkage are determined
solely on the basis of origin. Still others such as vug, channel, and various
minor types are identified on the basis of several attributes.

The basic porosity types can be characterized usefully on the

basis of fabric selectivity (see Fig. 10.71) a property which stresses relations
between pore space and other constituents. The two fabric-selectivity criteria
of pore position and pore-boundary configuration help both in identifying
basic porosity types and in interpreting their times of origin. Interparticle,
intercrystal, moldic, and fenestral pores have both their positions and their
boundaries determined by the fabric elements, hence are fabric selective.
Most intraparticle porosity also is fabric selective and is so classed in
Fig. m.71,Some nonselective intraparticle porosity may be present, however,
such as a vug within a clast. by definition, vugs and channels are not fabric
selective. Fracture porosity is generally insensitive to the smaller scale
features of the rock, and hence is considered not fabric selective.

Other factors dealt with in this classification are interpretation

of the genesis of these pore types, the processes involved, the time of formation
and the directions of porosity modification. For a more comprehensive discussion
of porosity classification and nomenclature refer to Choquette and Pray's
(1970) paper from which this writeup has been excerpted and modified.
1 0 . 7 1 Classification Of Carbonate Porosity Types

I FABRIC SELECTIVE I N O T FABRIC SELECTIVE

INTERPARTIUE IP
FRACTURE FR
INTRAPARTICLE WP

INTERCRYSTAL IC CHANNEL* CH

FENESTRAL FE

CAVERN* CV
SHELTER W

GROWTH- * ~ o m r n -I,- m m m w e d or 10rp.r ewe8 01

FRAMEWORK 6F chnn.1 or rw nh~pa

[ FABRIC SELECTIVE OR NOT

I 1
(Choquette 8 Pray 1970)

10.81 Modified Archie Classification For Porosity In Carbonate Rocks

iZpproxin~ate Visible Porosi~y Approxlma L C
Xatrix (% of C u t t l n c S u x I a c c ) Total Porosltv
Class Crystal or Usual Pnroslty % S i z e of Pore-nm:. Percent
Grain S l z e Appearance Not V i s i b l e 0.02 0.125-2.0 >2.0
(Xicrons) (Luster) (12X- 18x1

1000
Resinous 2 e . g . 10 e . g . 15 t 12 11
C
500
11.
2 50
I F t0
125
COXPIIC
t VF
62
Crystalline XF
2C
sL 4
I, i Vitreous + 5 r.g.10 e.g.15 15 20

111
Sucrosic
Granular
XF
-"

20
II S1. 4 Chalky + 15 c . g . 1 0 c . g . 15 25 30
Chalky L1

+Where c u t t i n g s a r e b e t w e e n v l t r e o u s and c l ~ s l k y I n a p p e a r a n c e , d c s l g n a t e a s 1/11 o r 1111.

'Where p o r e s a r c g r e a t e r t h a n a b o u t 2 . 0 ru.1. a n d t h e r e f o r e o c c u r s t e d g e of c u t t i n g s ( e . g . , s u b - c a v e r ~ ~ o u ps o r e s ) ,
anoun: o f s u c h p o r o s i t y i s i n d i c a t e d by % of c u t t l n g s i n an i n t e r v a l s h o w i n g e v i d e n c e o f l a r g e p o r e s .

Sjnbols.
111 F - B L 0 = F i n e l y s u c r o s i c (therefore, matrix p o r o s i t y a b o u t ;'/.), v i s i b l e p o r o s i t y a b o u t 1 0 2 , t~7L.11 p o r o s i t y
a b o u t 17 ' .
(II/I)VT-rZ = C h a l k y t o v i t r e o u s , v u r y L ~ l r c t c x t u r c (therefore, r n a t r i x p o r o s l t y abouL S A ) , n o v i s i b l c j l o r u s ~ t y
t o t a l p o r o s i t y a b o u t 8;".

" t l o d i f i e d a f t e r A r c h i e ( 1 9 5 2 ) b y c h a n g i n g t o W e n t w o r t h s i z e s c a l e , l o w e r i n g u p p e r l i m i t o f C l a s s I1
t o 2 0 m i c r o n s , a n d c h a n g i n g m a t r i x p o r o s i t y o f C l a s s 111 f r o n 1 0 % t o 7 Z b a s e d o n new e m p i r i c a l d a t a .
10.8 A r c h i e ' s C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f P o r o s i t v i n C a r b o n a t e Roclcs

T h e A r c h i e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f two p a r t s : one r e f e r s t o
t h e t e x t t i r e o f t h e m a t r i x , i n c l u d i n g g r a i n s i z e ; and t h e o t h e r t o t h e
c h a r a c t e r p l u s frequency of the v i s i b l e pore s t r u c t u r e . AS the c l a s s i f i c a -
t i o n p r o v i d e s a means o f e s t i m a t i n g t h e g r o s s p e t r o p h y s i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f
a c a r b o n a t e roclc, i t s i n c l u s i o n a s a p a r t o f t h e d e s c r i p t i o n on a l l l i t h o l o g i c
l o g s i s recommended. ( S e e F i g . 10.81)

The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h e m a t r i x g i v e s l i t h o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n
on t h e m i n u t e p o r e s t r u c t u r e ( n o t v i s i b l e u n d e r 10X m a g n i f i c a t i o n ) b e t w e e n
the c r y s t a l s , o r carbonate grains. Below i s a t a b u l a t i o n o f t h e t h r e e m a t r i x
classifications.

A p p e a r a n c e U n d e r 10X
Class A p p e a r a n c e o f Hand S a m p l e Microscope
( ~ z o fe
Matrix)

I Crystalline, hard, dense, M a t r i x made up o f c r y s t a l s

Compact, s h a r p e d g e s and s m o o t h f a c e s t i g h t l y interlocking, allow-
Crystalline on b r e a k i n g . R e s i n o u s . i n g no v i s i b l e p o r e s p a c e
between t h e c r y s t a l s , o f t e n
p r o d u c i n g " f e a t h e r edge"
a p p e a r a n c e on b r e a k i n g .

II Dull, earthy or chalky Crystals, less effectively

Chalky, appearing, hard t o s o f t . interlocking than above,
Earthy C r y s t a l l i n e appearance absent joining a t different angles.
because t h e small c r y s t a l s o r E x t r e m e l y f i n e t e x t u r e may
carbonate p a r t i c l e s a r e l e s s s t i l l a p p e a r "chalky" under
t i g h t l y interloclced , thus t h i s p o ~ . r e r , b u t o t h e r s may
reflecting light in different s t a r t appearing crystalline.
d i r e c t ions. Grain s i z e f o r t h i s type i s
l e s s t h a n 0 . 0 2 nun.

I11 Sandy o r s u g a r y a p p e a r i n g . Crystals less effectively

Sucrosic o r i n t e r l o c k e d , f r a c t u r e gener-
Granular a l l y along individual c r y s t a l
f a c e s g i v i n g a rough o r sandy
appearance. G e n e r a l l y more
s p a c e between c r y s t a l s .
O o l i t i c , p i s o l i t i c and o t h e r
granular textures a l s o f a l l
i n this class.

When e x a m i n i n g c a r b o n a t e r o c k s i t i s conunon t o f i n d r o c k t y p e s
t h a t a r e g r a d a t i o n a l between t h e t l l r e e A r c h i e t y p e s . For example, Archie
T y p e I i s o f t e n f o u n d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h T y p e 111. R o c k s i n t - h i s c a t e g o r y
c a n b e d e n o t e d a s 11111 w i t h t h e d o m i n a n t t y p e g i v e n a s t h e n u m e r a t o r . This
i n d i c a t e s a r o c k g r a d a t i o n a l b e t w e e n T y p e s I a n d 111, a n d / o r a c l o s e a s s o c i a -
t i o n o f t h e two t y p e s , b u t c l o s e r t o o r d o m i n a t e d by Type I .
 The c r y s t a l s o r g r a i n s cornposing t h e m a t r i x a r e f u r t l ~ e rd e s c r i b e d
w i t h i n t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o s i z e ; e . g. C , PI, F , VF, e t c .

The c h a r a c t e r o f t h e v i s i b l e p o r e s i z e i s c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g
t o s i z e a s l i s t e d below.

Class A : No v i s i b l e p o r o s i t y , a t X10 m a g n i f i c a t i o n , o r where p o r e s i z e

i s l e s s t h a n a b o u t 0 . 0 2 mm d i a m e t e r .

Class B : V i s i b l e p o r o s i t y , g r e a t e r t h a n 0 . 0 2 b u t l e s s t h a n 0 . 1 2 5 mm. Cannot

be s e e n w i t h o u t m a g n i f i c a t i o n .

Class C: V i s i b l e p o r o s i t y g r e a t e r t h a n 0 . 1 2 5 mm, b u t l e s s t h a n s i z e o f
c u t t i n g s ( 2 mm). Can be s e e n by naked e y e .

C l a s s D: V i s i b l e p o r o s i t y a s e v i d e n c e d by s e c o n d a r y c r y s t a l growth on f a c e s
o f c u t t i n g s o r " w e a t h e r e d - a p p e a r i n g " f a c e s showing e v i d e n c e o f
f r a c t u r i n g o r s o l u t i o n c h a n n e l s ; where p o r e s i z e i s g r e a t e r t h a n
t h e s i z e of t h e c u t t i n g s .

I n c o n j u n c t i o n with q u a l i f y i n g t h e pore s i z e s , t h e i r frequency

o r amount i s b e s t d e n o t e d by a f f i x i n g t o t h e p o r e s i z e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a f i g u r e
d e n o t i n g t h e p e r c e n t of s u r f a c e a r e a of t h e c u t t i n g o r c o r e t a k e n up by any
s p e c i f i c pore s i z e .

D e s c r i p t i o n o f c u t t i n g s . O f t e n more t h a n one A r c h i e m a t r i x t y p e
o f c a r b o n a t e i s p r e s e n t i n a sample o f c u t t i n g s b e i n g e x a m i n e d . I n s u c h c a s e s
i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e s t i m a t e and r e p o r t t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t o t a l sample
r e p r e s e n t e d by e a c h m a t r i x t y p e . I n a d d i t i o n , n o t a l l t h e c u t t i n g s o f a s p e c i f i c
r o c k t y p e w i l l be p o r o u s , s o t h a t a s e c o n d p e r c e n t a g e e s t i m a t e i n d i c a t i n g
t h e amount o f any r o c k t y p e t h a t i s p o r o u s i s r e q u i r e d . These p e r c e n t a g e
e s t i m a t e s a r e required i n order t o e s t i m a t e t h e average p o r o s i t y over the
sample i n t e r v a l . Once t h e v a r i o u s p a r a m e t e r s o f e a c h t y p e o f c a r b o n a t e p r e s e n t
i n a sample h a v e been d e t e r m i n e d , t h e d a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d a s f o l l o w s :

Depth Description

50170 D o l . I11 C Bg C3
501- L s . I F A

The n u m e r a t o r o f t h e p e r c e n t a g e u n i t i n d i c a t e s t h e p e r c e n t a g e
o f t h a t m a t r i x t y p e o f t h e t o t a l s a m p l e , w h i l e t h e d e n o m i n a t o r shows t h e
p e r c e n t a g e o f t h a t r o c k t y p e which i s p o r o u s .

10.9 Core H a n d l i n g P r o c e d u r e s
The p r i m a r y p u r p o s e of c o r i n g i s t o o b t a i n r o c k s a m p l e s of s u f f i c i e n t
s i z e f o r making r e s e r v o i r a n a l y s i s t e s t s t o d e t e r m i n e p o r o s i t y , p e r m e a b i l i t y
and r e s i d u a l o i l and w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n s . C o r e s p r o v i d e t h e most r e l i a b l e and
b e n e f i c i a l s o u r c e of a l l s u b s u r f a c e s t r a t i g r a p h i c information. They a r e used
t o e s t a b l i s h t h e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r of formation boundaries, f u r n i s h p a l e o n t o l o g i c
d a t a f o r a g e and f a c i e s c o r r e l a t i o n , d e t e r m i n e t h e s t r u c t u r a l a t t i t u d e of
s t r a t a , and p r o v i d e s e d i m e n t o l o g i c and p e t r o l o g i c d a t a from which d e p o s i t i o n a l
r-
and d i a g e n e t i c environment a n a l y s i s c a n b e made. It i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t c o r e s
be p r o p e r l y marked, boxed, l a b e l e d and s t o r e d . The procedure l i s t e d on t h e
f o l l o w i n g page i s recommended.

However, b e f o r e boxing t h e c o r e should be c a r e f u l l y sampled and

d e s c r i b e d . There s h o u l d b e p a r t i c u l a r emphasis on hydrocarbon e v a l u a t i o n and
d e s c r i p t i o n ( s e e S e c t i o n 6 on hydrocarbon d e t e c t i o n methods). Beware of
Contamination....It i s common t o f i n d g r e a s e a n d / o r p i p e dope on c o r e s , t h e
r e s u l t of e x c e s s "doping" used by s e r v i c e crews i n making up c o r e b a r r e l s and
collars.

Cores should always b e examined f o r sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s and

should b e d e s c r i b e d and logged u s i n g symbols shown i n Appendix I V : C h a r t s
X V I , X V I I , and XVIII.

1. P r e p a r e a d e q u a t e number o f boxes. Have r a g s .

2 . S e t up j o i n t s of d r i l l p i p e , e t c . , a s r e q u i r e d t o l a y o u t c o r e .
3 . S u p e r v i s e c o r e lay-out t o i n s u r e c o r r e c t o r i e n t a t i o n and o r d e r .
4. Wipe c o r e c l e a n , w i t h c l e a n d r y r a g s . Do Not Wash.
---
5. F i t c o r e . Space r u b b l e between ends of c o r e . Put rubble i n
sample s a c k and r e c o r d d e p t h s .

Fit Core Cora Rubble Cora

Mark core fit if other than "good".

-1 2'. - I

Good F i t Poor F i t No F i t

No marks necessary One chevron each Two chevrons on each

side of break side of break

6. S t r a p c o r e .The unrecovered i n t e r v a l i s understood t o be a t t h e

bottom u n l e s s known o t h e r w i s e .
7 . S c r i b e c o r e w i t h r e f e r e n c e l i n e s and d e p t h s , u s i n g f e l t marker pens
and s t r a i g h t edge. Black l i n e always t o t h e r i g h t ; r e d l i n e
always t o t h e l e f t ( t h i s o r i e n t s c o r e f o r t o p and bottom).
Marking t h e t o p of t h e c o r e w i t h a T and t h e bottom w i t h a B
is also helpful.

Bottom

No F i t Good Fit Poor Fit

8 . D e s c r i b e c o r e and shows.
9. Box c o r e and mark boxes.
 Appendix II:
Standard Abbreviations for Lithologic Descriptions
 11.0 S T A ~ ~ A R ABBREVIATIONS
D FOR LITHOLOGIC DESCRIPTIONS

Note: A b b r e v i a t i o n s f o r nouns a l w a y s b e g i n w i t h a c a p i t a l l e t t e r .

WORD - ABBREVIATION WORD ABBREVIATION

about abt biotite Biot
above ab birdseye Bdeye
absent abs b l a c k (-ish) blk, blksh
abundant abd b l a d e (-ed) Bld, bld
acicular acic blocky blky
agglomerate Ag l m b l u e (-ish) bl, blsh
aggregate Agg bored (-ing) Bor, b o r
algae, a l g a l Alg, a l g bottom Btm
allochem All0 botryoid (-al) Bot, b o t
altered alt boulder Bld
alternating altg boundstone Bdst
ammonite Amm brachiopod Brach
amorphous am0 r brackish brak
amount Amt branching brhg
and & break Brk, b r k
angular ang b r e c c i a (-ted) Brec, b r e c
anhedral ahd bright brt
anhydrite (-ic) Anhy, anhy brittle brit
anthracite Anthr brown brn
aphanitic aph bryozoa B ~ Y
appears aP bubble Bub 1
approximate aPPrx buff bu
aragonite A rag b u r r o w (-ed) Bur, b u r
arenaceous aren
argillaceous arg calcarenite Clcar
arkose (-ic) Ark, a r k calcilutite Clclt
a s above a.a. calcirudite Clcrd
asphalt (ic) Asph, a s p h calcisiltite Clslt
assemblage Assem calcisphere Clcsp
associated assoc c a l c i t e (-ic) Calc, c a l c t c
at @ calcareous calc
authigenic authg caliche cche
average Av, a v carbonaceous carb
carbonized cb
band (-ed) Bnd, bnd c a v e r n (-ous) Cav, c a v
b a s a l t (-ic) Bas, b a s caving cvg
basement Bm cement (-ed, - i n g ) C m t , cmt
become ( - i n g ) bcm cephalopod Ceph
bed (-ed) Bd, bd chalcedony (-ic) Chal, c h a l
bedding Bd g c h a l k (-y) Chk, chky
bentonite (-ic) Bent, b e n t charophyte Char
bitumen (-inous) Bit, bit c h e r t (-y) Cht, c h t
bioclast i c bioc1 c h i t i n (-ous) Chit, c h i t
bioherm ( - a l ) Bioh, b i o h c h l o r i t e (-ic) Chlor, c h l o r
biomicrite Biomi chocolate choc
biosparite Biosp c i r c u l a t e (-ion) circ, Circ
biostrom (-al) Biost, biost c l a st i c clas
WORD ABBREVIATION WORD ABBREVIATION
c l a y (-ey) C1, c l detri t a l detr
claystone Clst devitrified devit
clean cln diabase Db
clear clr diagenesis (-etic) Diagn, diagn
cleavage Clvg diameter Dia
cluster Clus disseminated dissem
coal C distillate Dist
coarse crs ditto 'I o r do
c o a t e d (-ing) cotd,cotg,Cotg dolomite (-ic) Dol, do1
coated grains c o t d gn dominant (-ly) dom
cobble Cbl drilling drlg
c o l o r (-ed) Col, c o l d r i l l stem t e s t DST
common com drusy dru
compact cpct
compare cf earthy ea
concentric cncn east E
conchoidal conch echinoid Ech
c o n c r e t i o n (-ary) Conc, c o n c elevation Elev
conglomerate (-ic) Cgl, c g l elongate elong
conodont Cono embedded embd
considerable cons equant eqnt
consolidated consol equivalent Equiv
conspicuous conspic euhedral euhd
contact Ctc euxinic eux
c o n t a m i n a t i o n (-ed) Contam, contam evaporite (-itic) Evap, e v a p
content Cont excellent ex
contorted cntrt exposed exp
coquina (-oid) Coq, c o q i d e x t r a c l a s t (-ic) Exclas, exclas
coral, coralline Cor, c o r l n extremely extr
core c, C extrusive rock, extrusive Exv, exv
covered C ov
cream crm f a c e t (-ed) Fac, f a c
crenulated cren faint fnt
crinkled crnk fair fr
crinoid (-al) Crin, c r i n a l f a u l t (-ed) Flt, f l t
cross X fauna Fa u
cross-bedded x-bd feet Ft
cross-laminated x-lam feldspar (-athic) Fspr, f s p r
cross-stratified x-strat f e n e s t r a (-al) Fen, f e n
crumpled crpld ferruginous ferr
crystocrystalline crpxln fibrous fibr
c r y s t a l (-line) XI, xln f i n e (-ly) f , fnly
cube, c u b i c Cub, cub fissile fis
cuttings Ctgs flaggy fl g
flake, flaky Flk, f l k
d a r k (-er) dk, dkr flat f1
dead dd floating fltg
debris Deb flora Flo
d e c r e a s e (-ing) Decr, d e c r fluorescence (-ent) Fluor, fluor
dense dn s foliated fol
depauperate depau foot Ft
description Descr foraminifer,forarniniferal Foram, foram
WORD ABBREVIATION IJORD ABBREVIATION

format ion Fm igneous r o c k (igneous) Ig, i g

f o s s i l (-iferous) FOSS, f o s s impression Imp
f r a c t u r e (-d) Frac, f r a c inch In
fragment ( - a l ) Frag, £rag i n c l u s i o n (-ded) Incl, incl
frequent freq increasing i n cr
fresh frs ind i st i n c t indst
friable fri indurated ind
f r i n g e (-ing) Frg, f r g Inoceramus Inoc
frosted fros in part I.P.
frosted quartz grains F.Q.G. insoluble ins1
fucoid (-al) Fuc, f uc interbedded intbd
fusulinid Fus intercalated intercal
intercrystalline i nt x l n
gabbro Gab intergranular intgran
gastropod Gast intergrown i n tgn
gas G interlaminated intrlam
generally gen interparticle intpar
geope t a l gept intersticies (-itial) Intst, intst
g i l s o n i te Gil interval Intvl
g l a s s (-y) Glas, g l a s i n t r a c l a s t (-ic) Intclas, intclas
glauconite (-itic) Glauc, glauc intraparticle intrapar
Globigerina (-inal) Glob, g l o b i n t r u s i v e rock, i n t r u s i v e Intr, intr
g l o s s (-Y) Glos, g l o s invertebrate Invtb
g n e i s s (-ic) Gns, g n s iridescent i ri d
good gd ironstone Fe-s t
grading grad i r r e g u l a r (-ly) irr
g r a i n ( - s , -ed) Gr, gr isopachous is0
grainstone Grst
granite G rt jasper Jasp
g r a n i t e wash G.W. j o i n t (-ed, -ing) Jt, jt
granule (-ar) Gran, g r a n
grapestone grapst
kaolin (-itic) Kao , kao
graptolite G rap
gravel Grv
gray, grey (-ish) gry, grysh lacustrine lac
graywaclce Gwke lamina ( - t i o n s , -ated) Lam, l a m
greasy gsY large h e
green (-ish) gn, gnsh l a t e r i t e (-itic) Lat, l a t
g r i t (-ty) Gt, gt lavender 1a v
gypsum ( - i f e r o u s ) GYP, gyp layer L Y ~
leached lchd
hackly hkl lens, lenticular Len, l e n t
h a l i t e (-iferous) H a l , ha1 light It
hard hd lignite (-itic) Lig, l i g
heavy hvy limestone Ls
hematite (-ic) Hem, hem limonite ( i t i c ) Lim, l i m
Heterostegina -
Het 1imy I ~ Y
heterogeneous hetr lithic lit
high (-ly) hi lithographic lithgr
homogeneous hom lithology (-ic) Lith, l i t h
horizontal hor little Ltl
hydrocarbon Hydc littoral litt
WORD ABBREVIATION WORD ABBREVIATION
local loc novaculite Novac
long 1g no v i s i b l e p o r o s i t y n.v.p.
loose lse numerous num
lower 1
lustre Lstr occasional OCC
lutite Lut ochre och
oil 0
macrofossil Macrof o s o i l source rock OSR
magnetite, magnetic Mag, mag olive olv
manganese,manganiferous,Mn, mn ooid (-al) 0 0 , 00
marble lb1 o o l i c a s t (-ic) OOC, O O C
m a r l (-y) Mrl, mrl oolite (-itic) 001, 0 0 1
marlstone Mrlst oomold ( - i c ) Oomol, oomol
marine marn o n c o l i t e (-oidal) Onc, onc
maroon mar opaque 0P
massive mass orange (-ish) or, orsh
material Ifat Orbitolina Orbit
matrix Pltrx organic erg
maximum max orthoclase Orth
medium m o r med. orthoquartzite 0-Qtz
member Ilbr ostracod Ostr
meniscus men overgrowth ovgth
metamorphic r o c k , Ifeta oxidized 0X
metamorphic (-osed) m e t a , metaph oyster Oyst
mica ( - c e o u s ) Mic, mic
m i c r i t e (-ic) Micr, micr packs t o n e Pkst
microcrystalline microxln paper (-y) Pap, Pap
microfossil (-iferous) Microfos, microfos p a r t (-ly) Pt, Pt
micrograined micgr particle Par, par
micro-oolite Micro01 parting Ptg
micropore (-osity) Micropor, micropor p a r t s per million PPM
microspar Microspr p a t c h (-y) Pch, pch
microstylolite Microstyl pebble (-ly) Pbl, pbl
middle Ifid pelecypod Pelec
miliolid Milid p e l l e t (-al) Pel, pel
milky mky p e l l e t o i d (-al) Peld, peld
mineral (-ized) Min, min p e r m e a b i l i t y (-able) Perm, k , perm
minor mnr p e n d u l a r (-OUS) Pend, pend
moderate mod petroleum,petroliferous Pet, pet
mold ( - i c ) Mol, mol phlogopite Phlog
mollusc Moll phosphate ( - a t i c ) Phos, phos
mosaic mo s phyllite, phyllitic Phyl, phyl
mottled mott phreati c phr
mud (-dy) md , mdy pink Pk
mudstone Mdst pinkish pkish
muscovite Musc pin-point (porosity) P P
pisoid (-al) Piso, piso
nacreous nac pisolite, pisolitic Pisol, pis01
nodules (-ar) Nod, nod pitted pit
north N plagioclase Plag
n o sample n.s. plant Plt
no show n/s plastic plas
lJORD ABBREVIATIOEJ WORD ABBREVIATION

platy pity s a n d (-y) Sd, s d y

polish, polished Pol, pol sandstone Sst
pollen Poln s a t u r a t i o n (-ated) Sat, s a t
polygonal PO~Y scarce SCS
porcelaneous porcel scattered scat
p o r o s i t y , porous
possible (-ly)
Par, 4, Par s c h i s t (-ose) Sch, s c h
poss scolecodont Scol
predominant (-ly) pred secondary sec
preserved pres sediment (-ary) Sed, s e d
primary prim selenite Sel
probable (-ly) prob s h a l e (-ly) Sh, s h
production Prod shell Shl
prominent prom shelter porosity S h l t por
pseudo- Ps show Shw
pseudo o o l i t e ( - i c ) Psool, psool siderite (-itic) Sid, s i d
pumice-stone Pst sidewall core S.W.C.
purple Pu r p s i l i c a (-iceous) Sil, sil
pyrite (-itized, -itic) P Y ~ PYr
, silky slky
pyrobitumen Pybit s i l t (-y) Slt, slty
pyroclas t i c pyrcl siltstone Sltst
similar si m
q u a r t z (-ose) Qtz, qtz skeletal skel
q u a r t z i t e (-ic) Qtzt, qtzt slabby slb
s l a t e (-y) S1, s l
r a d i a l (-ating) Rad , r a d s l i c k e n s i d e (-d) Slick, slick
rad i a x i a l Radax s l i g h t (-ly) sli, s l i l y
range small sml
rng
rare r smooth sm
recemented recem s o £t sft
recovery (-ered) Rec, r e c solution, soluble Sol, s o l
recrystallized rexlzd somewhat smwt
red (-ish) rd, rdsh s o r t e d (-ing) srt, s r t g
r e e f (-oid) Rf, r f south S
remains Rem s p a r (-ry) Spr, s p r
r e p l a c e d (-ment) r e p , Rep1 sparse (-ly) SPS, S P S ~ Y
r e s i d u e (-ual) R e s , res speck (-led) Spk, s p k l d
resinous rsns sphalerite Sphal
rhomb ( - i c ) Rhb, r h b spherule (-itic) Spher, spher
ripple s p i c u l e (-ar) Spic, s p i c
RP 1
rock Rk splintery Splin
r o u n d (-ed) rnd , rndd sponge S P ~
rounded, f r o s t e d , p i t t e d r.f.p. spore SPO
rubble (-bly) Rbl, r b l s p o t t e d (-y) s p t d , SPtY
rudist Ru d s t a i n (-ed, - i n g ) Stn, s t n
stalactitic st a l
s t r a t a (-ified) Strat, strat
saccharoidal sacc s t r e a k (-ed) Strk, s t r k
s a l t (-y) Sa, s a s t r i a e (-ted) Stri, stri
s a l t and pepper S & P stringer strgr
s a l t water S. W. stromatolite (-itic) Stromlt, stromlt
same a s a b o v e a.a. stromatoporoid Strom
sample SP1 structure Str
WOW ABBREVIATION WORD ABBREVIATION

stylolite (-itic) Styl, sty1 visible vis

subangular sbang vitreous (-ified) vit
sublithic sblit volatile volat
subrounded sbrndd volcanic rock, volcanic Volt, v o l c
sucrosic SUC vug (-gy) vug , vug
sulphur, sulphurous Su, s u
s u p e r f i c i a l o o l i t e (-ic)Spfool, spfool wac k e s t o n e Wkst
surface Surf washed r e s i d u e W.R.
syntaxial SYn water Wtr
wavy W Y
t a b u l a r (-ate) tab waxy WXY
tan tn weak wk
terriginous ter weathered wthd
t e x t u r e (-d) Tex, t e x well W1, w l
thick thk west W
thin t hn white wh
thin-bedded t.b. with w/
thin section T.S. without w/o
throughout thru wood Wd
tight ti
top TP yellow ( i s h ) yel, yelsh
tough tgh
trace Tr zircon
translucent trnsl zone
transparent t rnsp
trilobite Tr il
t r i p o l i (-itic) Trip, t r i p
tube (-ular) Tub, t u b
t u f f (-aceous) Tf, t f
type (-ical) TYP, tYP

unconformity Unc on£

unconsolidated uncons
underc l a y Uc
underlying und 1y
uniform un i
upper u

vadose Vad, vad

variation (able) Var , v a r
variegated vgt
varicolored vari c
varved vrvd
v e i n ( - i n g , -ed) Vn, vn
veinlet Vnlet
vermillon verm
vertebrate vrtb
vertical vert
very v
v e r y poor sample V.P.S.
vesicular ves
violet vi
 Appendix Ill:
Miscellaneous Charts and Graphs
12.1 C H A R T FOR E S T I M A T I N G PERCENTAGE OF A G I V E N ROCK T Y P E I N A T R A Y
OF CUTTINGS
12.2 CHART FOR ESTIMATING PARTICLE PERCENTAGES

PARTICLES

PARTICLES
12.21 CHART FOR ESTIMATING PARTICLE PERCENTAGES

r 50%
PARTICLES

- 60%
PARTICLES
1 2 . 2 2 C H A R T FOR E S T I M A T I N G P A R T I C L E P E R C E N T A G E S

- 70%
PARTICLES

75%
PARTICLES - 80%
PARTICLES
(46% FOSSILS, 34% WHITE QUARTZ GRAINS)

90%
PARTICLES
12.3 CHART F O R E S T I M A T I N G P A R T I C L E PERCENTAGES

Chart I
12.31 C H A R T F O R E S T I M A T I N G P A R T I C L E P E R C E N T A G E S

Chart
CHART FOR E S T I M A T I N G P A R T I C L E PERCENTAGES

C h a r t I11
12.33 CHART FOR E S T I M A T I N G P A R T I C L E PERCENTAGES

Chart IV

12.4 Grain Size Comparator

--

The film-strip comparator for grain size, referred to in the

text as belonging under section 12.4, is attached to this binder in
a special envelope and may be located elsewhere at receipt.
 GRAIN S I Z E AND SORTING COMPARATORS (Photomicrographs of Thin Sections)
LOWER VERY FINE GRAIN SIZE UPPER VERY FlNE GRAIN SlZE
M E D I A N DIAMETER 0 . 074 mm. (*) M E D I A N DlAlYETER 0 1 0 5 m m . (9)

0 1 2
-'
MM MM
I 1

* E l l WELL SORTEQ So l.I - 1.2

I
MBEU?ELY W E L L SB4lTEO So 1.1 -2 0

LOWER F l N E GRAIN SlZE U P P E R F l N E GRAIN SlZE

M E D I A N DIAMETER 0 . 1 4 9 mm. (0) M E D I A N DIAMETER 0.210 m m . (@)
-0 0 1
MM MM
b

II

I POORLY SORTED So 2.0 - 2.7 V E R Y P O O R L Y SORTED So 2 . 7 - 5.7 1

(from Beard and Weyl)
12.51 GRAIN SIZE AND SORTING COMPARATORS (Photomicrographs of Thin Sections)
LOWER MEDIUM GRAIN SIZE UPPER MEDIUM GRAIN SIZE
0 . 297mm. (a)
MEDIAN DIAMETER MEDIAN DIAMETER 0 . 4 2 0 m m . (a)
0 1 1-0
MM MM

EXTlElELV WELL S@RIEB S o 1 0 - 11 VERY W E L L SBRTEB S o II - I 2 EXTlEMELY WELL SORTeD Sc IQ - I I

I
iI

rI n

LOWER COARSE GRAIN SIZE

MEDIAN DIAMETER 0 . 5 9 0 n m .
-0
MM.
(0)
i

UPPER COARSE GRAIN S l Z E

MEDIAN DIAMETER 0.640 ma.
0
MM
1
-\
.4 - 3 0

WELL SORTED 50 1 2 - 1 4
"Y
1' I
I1
POORLY SOITED S o 2 0 2 7 VERY P O O l L Y SORTED So 3 7 - 5 7
L
(from Beard and Weyl)
12.6 C o n v-
- e r s i o n Graph:

Use: To c o n v e r t r e a d i n g s o n t h e e y e p i e c e m i c r o m e t e r i n t o m e t r i c s c a l e r e a d i n g s .

Take a p i e c e o f m i l l i m e t e r p a p e r o r a m i l l i m e t e r s c a l e , p l a c e i t on
t h e m i c r o s c o p e s t a g e , and c o u n t t h e number o f s c a l e d i v i s i o n s t h a t f a l l w i t h i n
a c o n v e n i e n t number o f e y e p i e c e m i c r o m e t e r d i v i s i o n s . I f a t m a g n i f i c a t i o n x 4 0 ,
f o r e x a m p l e , 4 0 s u b d i v i s i o n s on t h e e y e p i e c e m i c r o m e t e r s u b t e n d o n e s c a l e d i v i -
s i o n , p l o t t h i s o n t h e A c o n v e r s i o n g r a p h a s f o l l o w s : Move a l o n g t h e X a x i s
4 0 d i v i s i o n s . T h e n p r o c e e d up t o t h e Y a x i s i n t e r c e p t w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s 1 m i l l i -
m e t e r , and draw a l i n e from t h a t p o i n t t h r o u g h t h e o r i g i n .

B e c a u s e t h e B c o n v e r s i o n g r a p h i s 1 / 1 0 t h e A g r a p h , t h e n a t 4 microme-
t e r d i v ~ s i o n sy o u s h o u l d r e a d 0 . 1 s c a l e d i v i s i o n s . I n most c a s e s t h i s a p p r o a c h
w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e ( e . g . , 0 . 1 s c a l e d i v i s i o n s f e l l a t 4 . 2 micrometer
d i v i s i o n s a t x 4 0 , when a c t u a l l y m e a s u r e d ) .

To m e a s u r e a g r a i n , c o u n t t h e d i v i s i o n s i t s u b t e n d s o n t h e o c u l a r
m i c r o m e t e r a n d , u s i n g t h e g r a p h and a p p r o p r i a t e m a g n i f i c a t i o n l i n e , r e a d o f f
t h e s i z e i n m i l l i m e t e r s , m i c r o n s o r Wentworth c l a s s a s d e s i r e d .
12.61 Conversion Graph for Micrometer Eyepiece:
t?
12.7 Roundness and Spericity:

Roundness refers to the roughness of the surface; Sphericity refers

to the shape of the grain. These parameters can be expressed by words
or by numerical values as shown in the two charts below.

DEGREES O F ROUNDNESS

HlGH
SPHERICITY

LOW
SPHERICITY

VERY SUB- SUB- W E LL-

ANGULAR ANGULAR ANGULAR ROUNDED ROUNDED ROUNDED

(from Powers, 1953) 7

SPH ERICITY
0.3 LOW
0.5 & 0.7 MODERATE
0.9 HIGH

ROUNDNESS
0.1 ANGULAR
0.3 SUBANGULAR
0.5 SUBROUNDED
0.7 ROUNDED
0.9 WELL ROUNDED

0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9

ROUNDNESS
 Appendix IV:
Legends and Classifications
13.2 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F S l L l C l C L A S T l C R O C K S

QUARTZ
Chert, Quartzite frags,Vein Quartz

ARKOSIC SS. L l T H l C SS.

0
FELDSPAR ROCK FRAGMENTS
Acid Igneous rock frags. Basic Igneous, Sedimentary 8 Metamorphic

1 3 . 3 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F C A R B O N A T E R O C K S ACCORDING T O D E P O S I T I O N A L
TEXTURE
m o d ~ f ~ e adf t e r R J . D u n h a m 1960

Depos~tional Texture Recognizable Deposition01 Texture

- - -
Not Recognizable
I Original Components Not Bound Together During ~ e g t i o n Original components
were bound together
Contains mud during deposit ion, as
(part~clesof clay and fine silt size, G r a i n - supporte shown by intergrown ( Subdivide
less than 2 0 microns) skeletal matter according to
lamination confrary to clossif icatims
ravity, or sediment - deslgned to bear
Mud -supported '1
loored cov i t ies t hat
are roofed over by
on physical
texture or
organic or diagenesis. )
I 0 percent organic nra%b
?:td
:Ob
yl
grains grams mud are too large to be
interstices.

Crystalline
1 Mudstone 1 Wackestone I Packstone 1 Grainstone Boundstone Carbonate

+Modification of original Dunham classification by changing percent mud from 1 to 10%

 -+
13.4 CLASSIFICATION OF DEPOSlTlONA ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENT COLOR LE END
4-
I I I
GLACIAL
AEOLIAN (DUNE)
(GI
(A)
I SE (SURFACE CRUST)
(VJ

LACUSTRINE
"'I
(LJ
IADII ^"ANNEL (AC)

. -DOD BASIN (AFB)

t
I

ALLUVIAL FAN (AFJ

(DP DlSTRlB CI
DELTAIC PLAIN
I ! U T A R Y ~ ~ ~
MARSH.LAKE Nf%

I
FRINGE

PRODELTA
(F)
I
1
INNER
OUTER (OF)
(PDJl 1
1 (TF)I SUPRATIDAL
- -

.- .-- - -
-.-

DAL
(ST)
("4

COASTAL BARRIER ISLAND^

BEACH -
(TCC) TIDAL CHANNEL
DUNE (cBD'

WOREFAFE"~)
(TC)
1
I
TIDAL CHANNEL COMPLEX ~ v n

ESTUARINE L ~ A ORGANIC
, BUILDUP (LOB),
L

SHEET (S) (TB)

I
OFFSHORE BAR 1 (OSBJ

TRANSGRESSIVE BA~,BANKOR ISLAND (BB)

OR
(GS) OF GANlC BUILDUP (OBI
GRAVITY SLIDE - DEBRI$ FLOW

d
MA GIN DEBRIS
(MD1

I SUBMARINE FAN I
II
I S U ~ ~ A R I N FAN
TU~BIDITE
E
(SF)

(TUJ
I
PEYAGIC (PI

I BASIN PLAIN SE~MOUNT (SM)

Numbers Refer To Eagle Chemi realed Verithin Pencils

1 BA$IN PLAIN
(BPI
r' Chart I: Siliciclastic Rock Types

Siliciclastic rocks are best described on the basis of grain size and composition. Such things as cements and
accessories are incidental to the primary description, and should be treated as such.
Special rock types such as "granite wash" and "metamorphic wash" can be defined in terms of grain size and
composition, and therefore do not warrant special names.

GRAIN SIZE COMPOSITION (1)

SHALE
* (<0.02 mm)
(Use pencil or pencil blends approximating
color of shale or mudstone.) (Composed of clay minerals)

MUDSTONE
(<0.02 mm)

SILTSTONE
(0.02 - .062 mm) (Distinguishable only in thin sections)
VT 736
Quartz
SANDSTONE
(.062 - 2.0 mm) >95% quartz and chert.
VT 735%

I Sublithic
>5% sanc . -_ ragments. >25% sand size rock fragments.

Feldspathic 174 Arkosic

>5% sand size feldspar. >25% sand size feldspar.

FRAMEWORK MATRIX
CONGLOMERATE (3)
p 2 . 0 mm) 1- Sedimentary (4) I Sandstone

1- Metamorphic (4) 4 Siltstone

I I Igneous (4 & 5) 1 0 0 1 Shale (See *)

(1) See Chart V for logging of subordinate components and cementing agents.
(2) Term graywacke is abandoned because of its ambiguous definition.
Clay admixture (detrital matrix) is logged as matrix.
(3) See Structures, Chart XVIII for logging or breccia.
(4) Lithology of framework constituents should be represented by appropriate rock color symbol.
(5) Use appropriate overlay of igneous rock type from Chart IV.
f-
Chart 11: Carbonate Rock Types
The purer carbonate rocks are composed of varying admixtures of particles and matrix. Local production of
carbonate particles eliminates effective use of grain size and sorting as significant factors in the vast majority
of cases. Therefore, the organization and emphasis of rock types is based dominantly upon the relative abundance
of particles, and their packing (See Dunham, R.J., 1962)
Diagenetic processes may change size of component mineral crystals, and destroy component particles as
recognizable entities. Any recognizable particles in altered carbonate rocks should be recorded.

TEXTURES (1)
A. PRIMARY DEPOSITIONAL TEXTURES
LIMESTONE (2) DOLOM ITE (2)

2VT 740%
MUDSTON E - panicles <I 0% (3)

I WACKESTONE - particles 10-3096. mud supported (4)

-
WACKESTON E particles >30%, mud supported (4)

PACKSTONE - palcles in contact, with > I 0% mud matrix (4 & 5)

GRAINSTONE - particles in contact, with <lo% mud matrix14 & 5)

-
BOUNDSTONE components bound together during deposition.
Can be either particle or mud-supported

B. DlAGENETlCALLY ALTERED ROCKS, LITTLE OR NO DEPOSITIONALTEXTURES RECOGNIZABLE

I XXX 1 Interlocking crystals

-
I. I
a. -
Sucrosic crystals in point contact, with intercrystal pores

Ix b x I With recognizable particles (4)

C. MISCELLANEOUS
1 Chalky - soft and porous. Can occur in either primary
depositional or diagenetically altered rocks.

Caliche

(1) Average or range of grain or crystal size should be logged in crystal/particle size column.
(2) See Chart V for logging of subordinate components and cementing agents.
(3) Note particles (if any) in fossil-accessory column.
(4) If particles constitute >I 0% of rock use overlay of appropriate dominant particles. (See fossil
symbols Charts XII, XIII and XIV.) All fossil types should be logged in fossil column with indication
of abundance. Log only dominant fossil types in lithic column.
(5) Percentage of mud matrix for packstone and cement for grainstone should be indicated by relative
width of vertical column.
Chart Ill: Carbonate Particle Symbols(')

NON-SKELETAL PARTICLES (excluding nucleus)

1 Pellets (fecal particles) 1.1 Pelletoids

pellet-like structureless
particles with regular
outlines

I +I Micropelletoids (20-62p)

spherical to ellipsoidal spherical to ellipsoidal particles

Superficial oolites particles 6 2 p to 2 mm, 6 2 p to 2 mm with multiple
with single coating concentric coatings

pisolites multiple concentrically Vadose pisolites

coated particles > 2mm
SKELETAL or NON-SKELETAL
Oncolites, rhodoliths
Grapestone or aggregate grains or algal balls
crenulated concentric
algal or stromatoliti-
cally coated particles

SKELETAL PARTICLES (2)

1b d 1 Macrofossil fragments, undifferentiated 1 6I Microfossils, undifferentiated

Macrofossil fragments, undifferentiated

rounded or worn
ml Macrofossils undifferentiated - whole

QUESTIONABLE PARTICLES

m Particles of indeterminate origin :

:' Obscure particles (fuzzy or clotted)

LITHOCLASTS - fraaments of ~ r e v i o u s l vlithified carbonate rock 13)

IE D I Angular, undifferentiated Rounded, undifferentiated

locally derived penecontemp-

Talus (slope or fore reef detritus)

ml Breccia, solution, collapse (6 @ 1 Breccia, tectonic

(1) I f particles constitute > 10% of rock, use overlay of appropriate dominant particles.
(2) Use fossil symbol overlays shown on Charts XI I, XI I I, and XIV if skeletal particles are identifiable. Log
only dominant particle types in Iithic column. Note all particle symbols in fossil-accessory column.
(3) Carbonate conglomerate should be logged using same rules as shown for siliciclastic rocks,
Chart I. Flat pebble conglomerates are considered lithoclastic.
 Chart IV: Miscellaneous Sedimentary Rock Types, lgneous Rocks,
and Metamorphic Rocks

SEDIMENTARY ROCK TYPES

I ANHYDRITE (OR GYPSUM) 1 BENTONITE

VT 742% VT744 VT751
-
CHERT bedded (refer to "Accessories" COAL (Lignite indicated by
for detailed chert symbology.) brown in color column)
VT 737 VT 747
HALITE 1 POTASSlUM SALTS
v, ,,,,a

IGNEOUS ROCKS (1

1 1lgneous, undifferentiated
VT 750

-
VT 750
Extrusive, acid-intermediate, felsic
(rhyolite, dacite, tracite, etc.)
VT 743
F'yroclastic, undiff. (2)
(tuff or ash)

Intrusive, acid-intermediate, felsic

(granite, diorite, syenite, etc.) Vitric tuff
VT 750 VT 743
Extrusive, basic, mafic
(basalt, andesite, etc.)
1 crystal tuff
VT 743
Intrusive, basic, mafic
(gabbro, diabase, etc.)
1 Lithic tuff
vr 743

METAMORPHIC ROCKS (1)

1 Metamorphic. undifferentiated
1 Marble
VT 740
I I 1
-
Slate, phyllite, etc. Schist and Gneiss
VT 734% VT 750
Serpentinite Greenstone (altered basalt)
VT 738 VT 738

C (1) Mixtures of these rock types can be indicated by combining appropriate rock and color symbols.
(2) Welded pyroclastics can be indicated by underlining any of the various tuff symbols (Ex. welded
tuff, undifferentiated, is 11).
 Chart V: Subordinate Components and Cements
Subordinate ~omponents(l)
These materials are part of, or replace part of, the original sediment, Included here are minor primary constituents (less
than 50%) of a rock, such as clay in argillaceous sandstone or limestone, etc. Also included are partial replacements (such
as scattered dolomite rhombs in limestone),or relicts following wholesale replacement (calcareous fossils in dolomite, etc.)

COMMON SUBORDINATE COMPONENTS

m Anhydritic
VT 742 1/2
Argillaceous
(use appropriate color) m Calcareous
VT 740

m Dolomitic
VT 740 1/2

Siliceous ml Tuffaceous

,-,
(use as overlay on rock type)

LESS COMMON SUBORDINATE COMPONENTS (2)

Anhydrite nodules
(put G in center of oval Anhydrite - replacement Bentonite
for gypsum nodules) VT 742 1/2 VT7448751
VT 742 1/2
Chert fragments
Calcareous nodules Carbonaceous partings (detrital)
VT 740 or traces
VT 737

Chert nodules Dolomite rhombs Glauconite

VT 737 VT 740 1/2 VT 751
r [Ti =I]
,,

Interbeds (Use appropriate Phosphate nodules

Mica
lithology color) VT 745 1/2

Salt hoppers
VT 738 1/2
I 1- Shale streaksand partings(Use pencil approximating color of shale)

Any mineral precipitated in a preexisting void; a precipitate which serves directly to reduce porosity. Also could be
called "secondary pore filling". This includes not only minerals binding particles (as sandstone cement), but also fillings
of solution cavities, fossil molds, primary cavities, etc.

UNDIFFERENTIATED CEMENT FABRICS

m An hydrite
VT 742 1/2 m Calcite
VT 740

m Dolomite
VT 740 1/2
SPECIFIC CARBONATE CEMENT FABRICS (3)
m Siderite - iron carbonate
VT 745 112

Blocky ml Fibrous r
T [ lsopachour ml Syntaxial or Overgrowth

(1) Cement and subordinate components are shown by a vertical band in the center of the lithologic
column. Cements are distinguished from subordinate components by horizontal lines (in black ink)
over the vertical color strip. The width of the strip denotes the relative abundance of the material
and should not exceed 50% of lithic column for any one component. Components are logged from
left to right in order of increasing hardness.
(2) If less than lo%, log in accessory column.
(3) Use in place of horizontal black lines over the appropriate vertical color strip for either calcite or
dolomite, or for other mineral cements if applicable. (Ex. quartz overgrowth cement)
Chart VI: Tops, Sample Quality, and Thin Sections
TOPS(')

Sam~leQualitv Data

The black portion should be

colored with pencils repre-
senting the lithology
believed to be present

Thin Sections

(1) Sample tops should be logged in red pencil. Formation name or abbreviation shown below line.
.
Chart VII: Engineering Data

:
a
'j ",
W
+ O w a
+ ", b
> a N 3
2 >
ma",
O a
(3 ",
Z O Y
0 a a
a
5 kw K
o a a
~ O W 6 0
-
V)
aUJ m
d
U
I
z z x o o E J
e
0 .o
,* ", O
w
w n w a a o J o E X T - E V2;;
> X g a
o w,
" a

1"
DST (number in circle designates test number)
lbOQO]irrSI1600'on+aoomI (1
t+m
ro0abiae1mm-~w4~w~~

Minor oil recovery by DST or other tests

Oil to surface on test

Minor gas show on test

Gas flow to surface on test

(Rate may be shown in MCF at base of arrows)
a00
+
I Recovery of fresh water

Recovery of salt water

Add to above if sulfur odor

g7509
I
Casing point

Plug back depth

Perforated interval
(Showdata,e.g.- w ~ Q z $ ~ + s ~

Completion zone - oil (use f? if gas)

Production data to be shown on heading of log)

(1) Plot in red ink in remarks column or on bottom of log.

 Chart VIII: Hydrocarbon Shows and Other Fluids, and Source Rocks
r Hydrocarbon Shows and Other Fluids(')

3 'j m
a W
F ~ W a
F m ? & Y m 3
2
W
n
o n -
W l -
o
<3 5 $ m
Y
a
o Y-
m
$w $ a
a
J
g mE2 m o d I
w P w m J
0
~ P P S - E ~ S Y g Y W
m
W
a

• Poor oil stain

•• Good to excellent oil stain
• Dead oil (hard and brittle)
A Tarry or gummy oil
o Oil reaction in acid

r Faint cut fluorescence

r" Strong cut fluorescence

.r Poor stain, faint cut fluorescence
0 Hydrocarbon odor
t Gas indications
x Salt water
X
H2S
Sulfurous salt water
+ Fresh water
+ Sulfurous fresh water
H2S
1

Source Rocks(*)
+

F' Analyzed, organic lean

Vr745lh Analyzed, organic rich

Vitrinite values should be recorded under the

R appropriate source rock symbol, as shown in example

Continuous sequence of analyzed samples. Use

appropriate source rock symbols

(1) A detailed description of significant shows should be written in the remarks column.This description
should specify(1) quantity(percentage of cuttings with show),(2) color, (3)fluorescence,(4) cut, and
(5) cut fluorescence.

.
(2) Qualifying data of source rock and maturity analysis should be recorded in the remarks column.
Chart IX: Visible Porosity(')

3 'j (I)
2 2 ",
m
W
a
> 'a- N
' - ( I )
z
w
a
a
a a z
o a 2-a 03
c
(3
i
- 3 grnw G
(I)
Z 0 Y
o w a 4 a a
0 o a
5
z
k u o a ~
t ' g-
0 6 fi o(I)
d Z
w
IJJ
n 2W ( Ix) 2 8 4 E X S ~ E ~i!> ~
O
a
W
a
W
a

Trace
I Poor (1-5%) Intergranular,
Interparticle
II Fair (5-10%) or
lntercrystal
I11 Good (10-1 5%)
HI1 Excellent (> 15%)
V Trace
1 Poor (1-5%)
11 Fair (5-10%) vugg~
(Undifferentiated)
111 Good (10-1 5%)
1111 Excellent (> 15%)

Id+ Visibly interconnected

+ Poor (1-5%)
+b
* Fair
Good
Excellent
(5-10%)
(10-1 5%)
(> 15%)
Moldic,
(Undifferentiated)

Moldic porosity of specific particles can be

shown by superimposing the specific particle
symbol over the vuggy porosity symbol.
For example:
Oomoldic (15%)
404
tt Pelmoldic (10%) Moldic,
(Specific)
t Fossomoldic,

-+
undifferentiated (5%)
Occasional
Fractures
tt Abundant
Lost circulation, possibly porous
LC
U? Free sand grains, possibly porous
Microporosity, not visiblyapparent in cuttings and/or core

(1) Description of quantity and quality of porous intervals should be recorded in remarks column.
Chart X: Core Data and Textural Chart
Core Data

2 y cn
2 Ig- w
cn
W
u
I - 0 > u N 0 3
z a u Q Z -
W I-
W Q > o a o
zz ea 2
0
c (3
0
u 2 -
(I
0
acn I
3
u cn
Y
(I,", 1 - cn u
u
5
z
w
a
w
0
o w
U O u U
2 1 0 0
w c n a o
0
I
k
1
0
1 2
0 .r!
0 E%'f,Ebz?
2 2
0
0
L
W
c n o d
o w
Q (I)
s
W
U

Core recovered

Core unrecovered

Core partial recovery, position known

Core recovery unknown

Apparent dip from core

Oriented core dip

180"
Sidewall core

Textural C h a r t ( ' )
SlLlClCLASTlC GRAIN SIZE CARBONATE
ROCKS MILLIMETERS MICRONS ROCKS
Boulder
(Bid) --
256 -- 256
Cobble
(Cbl) Extremely
64 -- 64 -- Coarse
Pebble (XC)
(Pbl)
4 -- 4 --
Granule
(Gran)
2 -- 2 -- 2000
Very Coarse Very Coarse
(vc) (vc)
1 -- 1 -- 1000
Coarse Coarse
(c) -- (c)
.5 -- 1/2 500
u Medium Medium
C
m (m) (m)
(I) .25 -- 1/4 -- 250
Fine Fine
(9 (9
,125 -- 1/8 -- 125
Very Fine Very Fine
('49 (v9

Silt
,062 -- 1/16 -- 62
--
a,
.-
-
.-
Extremely Fine
(xf)
,020 -- 1/50 -- 20 (I)

Micro-grained/crystalline
Mud
I (Lithographic/mat)
1) For practical reasons Wentworth's division of the Iutites into clay and silt atthe4p(11256 mm) boundary
has been replaced by the above subdivision into mud and silt at the 20p boundary.
Chart XI: Texture and Rock Colors
. Texture

:W
u J 0
"b> oa wN
F
W
a
b
z
w
2 m u "
o a "a- 53
0
t
a
O "
0
3
a "
Y
0 a 2 b a
a
a
d 8 o w 6I 0 T
o
, "
n I
5
z
w ;
a
Z
w
o
I
a
O
n o
a
O !z
4
6O E5B S - E ~ B"Y'E E Y W W
a

SORTING Plot symbols adjacent

to textural designation. to textural designation.

Extremely well

Subrounded

Rock Colors(1)

Show approximate color (wet) of major rock

ty Pe

Two dominant rock colors

Mottlings - log with approximate color

superimposed on dominant rock color
1
(1) Use the G.S.A. Rock Color Chart for accurate color designations.
.
 Chart XII: Fossils(1) (2)
L I

:'j cn
2 2 W W
a
F c> n ab N
z
w 2 >
a a 5
o a
2- 3
F
0
O
0 B 2 9
1 a
o
Ycn- $
w $ ,
a
a
5 k o o
z x
a a I
t
J
g
0-
w o n 2
w
Z
u
W
0 u c n 8 8 J o E ' ~ ~ ~ ,266 g
Eo>x g W
a

FOSSl LS
General Symbols
Macrofossil fragments, undifferentiated
Use appropriate fossil symbol
Macrofossil fragments, rounded within circle or square if
Macrofossils, whole fossil identifiable

Microfossils, undifferentiated Use as underline under

Fossils, encrusting appropriate fossil symbol.
Ex: 6. = encrusting
Specific Symbols foraminifera
Algae, undifferentiated
Algae, Red
4
4' VT 744
Algae, Green
Algal plates
4 VT 751
6=3
Algal balls, oncolites, rhodoliths m
Algal stromatolites
Brachiopods, undifferentiated T
Brachiopods, phosphatic v
Brachiopods, productid ++
Bryozoa, tube-like forms 'Y?
Bryozoa, fenestellid forms LW
Calcispheres @
Chara @
Conodonts and scolecodonts w
Corals, colonial @I3
Corals, Chaetetes =CH
Corals, Syringopora
BSY
Corals, solitary
Crinoids
Diatoms
Q
*
@
_1
Echinoderms a
(1) Relative abundance is indicated by dots over symbols
No dot = 0-10% To be used over fossil symbols
= 10-20% Ex. ' i ; = crinoids >30%
=20-30%
...
a*
= 30%
10
or, indicate % above fossil symbol. Ex:*
(2) Any of these symbols can be used as overlays in the lithic column,
.
if they represent a major rock constituent. G
 IV-29

Chart XIII: Fossils, continued

2 Y
l - 2 w
0
W
(I
>
0 '(
-I N 3
(Iaz
o a
0
-
W l -
> O
3
0 0 0
0 Y
1 2 0 0 LI

z w 2 1 0 0
I
k
0
0
O
W
o
O
d
W
9
W
w o w 0 a 0 1 L L U O LI

Fish remains m
Fish scales 63
Foraminifera, undifferentiated d
Foraminifera, pelagic &
Foraminifera, small benthonic a,
M iliolids OM
Tubular forams @T
Foraminifera, large benthonic 0
Orbitolina Oor
Dictyoconus QD
Coskinolina and Coskinolinoides @c
Fusulinids +
Graptolites t
Hydrozoa 64
Molluscs, undifferentiated C3
Cephalopods @
Belemnites v
Gastropods @
Pelecypods (clams) B
Chondrodonta
BCh
Gryphaea BG
lnoceramus
Oysters
EJ I
Rudists , undifferentiated
0Y
Caprinids
Caprotinids I7
Monopleurids
Requieniids
w
@
Radiolitids
Tentaculites
9
<
Ostracods 0
Plant remains
Silicified wood
4
D
Spicules
3C
 Chart XIV: Fossils, continued; and Accessories
r Fossils

:y
a cn
+ i2 ", W
a
' - na ~a L N (I) 3
=-W b
2 a Z
> o n
0 2) cn
o - 3 a Y
8 = 3 0 . w
a
0 W
$j $ a
2
5 k 0 0 a a I J
0 .o
2
,er m u d
k
6 X $ 5 8 8 4 0 EPSrEEPP g B W
(I)
W
a
Spines /
Spines, brachiopod /b
Spines, echinoid /e
Sponges n
Spores and/or pollen SP
Stromatoporoids, undifferentiated fa
Stromatoporoids, lamillar
Stromatoporoids, spherical
m
0
Stromatoporoids, hemispherical
Stromatoporoids, branching
m
Stromatoporoids, Amphipora, undifferentiated
Stromatoporoids, Amphipora, lamillar
Radiolarians Q
Trilobites rn
Worm tubes 49
Vertebrates u

Ash
Chlorite
Feldspar
Glauconite
Hematite
Limonite
Mica
Phosphate nodules
Pyrite
Quartz crystals
euhedral
singly terminated
Quartz grains
(floating)
Siderite grains
Sulfur
Volcanic glass

(1) Relative abundance is indicated by dots over symbols (see Chart XII)
(2) Any of these symbols can be used as overlays in the lithic column if they
represent a major rock constituent.
Chart XV: (Accessories) Chert (2) (3)

S!
+ 2 ",
cn
W
a
+ ?k!Y cn 3
W
2 a a
0 P

0 a
Ya
a 0 w a
$ 0 6 I
68
OESS,E~YY
ma
L a0
L
2 2 w
a
w
a

Mineralization Use symbol color of

Vug filling mineral present to
indicate nature of filling.
Vein or fracture filling Examples shown indicate
calcite fill. Use VT 743
CHERT
for hydrothermal mineral fill
Banded w/
Chalk textured V/C
(tripolitic)
Fossiliferous ~4 Use appropriate fossil
symbol
Granular Q
Milky VM
Mottled CE make ticks with appro-
priate color pencil
Oolitic VQ
use appropriate color
Opaque pencil for filling in
Pelletal Vo symbol
Porcelaneous V/
Sandy Th
Spicular Vk
Spotted make ticks with appro-
priate color pencil
Subporcelaneous B
Translucent use appropriate color
pencil for filling in or
Transparent V outlining symbols
Undifferentiated V VT737
Composite symbol vb/%
(e.g. fossiliferous,
oolitic, sandy)

(1) Undifferentiated chert symbol is placed in lithology column. Detailed symbology is shown in
accessory column.
(2) Chert symbols should be made with colored pencil approximating the color of the chert.
White chert symbol should be colored light blue (VT 741 112).
(3) Relative abundance is indicated by dots over symbols (see Chart XII).
.
Chart XVI: Structures (Stratification, Sedimentary, Diagenetic)

3 y cn
2 g W
cnI-N
W
n:
'z- c n >n:- cn 3
a m a 0 -
W I-
> O a
(3
0
2 cn
4
0
n: 5
- " ' a% ~ Y
n:
0 cn
I
k
2
0 .o-
,, cn
0
W

O
ri
w
S
O E x T - E o?>txt
W
A LL 4 a [I

SYNGENETIC STRUCTURES
A. Stratification
1. Parallel type
Thickness of Bedding
Metric System
-
millimeter bed 1 mm-10mm mm
-
centimeter bed 1 cm-10cm g
n-
-
decimeter bed 1 dm-lOdm dm
-
meter bed 1 m -1Om m
When greater precision is desired,
the modal thickness can be indicated,
e.g., beds with modal thickness 3 meters.
British System
thin lamina < 1/10 inch *t
lamina 1/10 - 1/2 inches lam
-
very thin bed 1/2 - 2 inches 0
-
thin bed 2 - 6 inches tn
-
medium bed 1/2-1 1/2 feet med
-
thick bed 1 1/2 - 5 feet -
very thick bed > 5 feet tk
-

2. Cross-bedding
in general L
with angle indicated /10
chevron
climbing
-t.
4
festoon 4
planar 4
3. Irregular bedding -
c2-yr

4.
5.
6.
Gradedbedding
N o apparent bedding
Nodular bedding
*- ....
-
Chart XVII: Structures and Markings (Stratification, Sedimentary, Diagenetic)

2Y
I-o",
0
W

I
z - 0
a
9L I a ;Z ~ V)
LI
3
w a > o a -
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6. Current - produced markings

1. Ripple marks
asymmetrical nrra
interference
symmetrical S ,
2. Pull-over flame structure L

3. Scour and fill %f

4. Flute cast -u+
5. Groove cast 4-
6. Striation e,

7. Parting lineation - -
C. Organism - produced markings
1. Burrowed
slightly burrowed -8"
moderately burrowed --em
well burrowed -8-"
2.
3.
Churned
Bored
+
+
4. Bored surface T
5. Organism tracks and tra~ls _I.
:::-.,-

6. Plant root tubes k

7. Vertebrate tracks f
D. Penecontemporaneous deformation structures
1.
2.
Mud cracks
Rain or hail prints
-
71-

3. Pull-apart IE

4. Slump structures and contorted bedding 2,

5. Convolute bedding n
6. Load cast -u
7. Tepee structure 8
8. Birdseye, fenestral fabric e
 ENVIRONMENT

0 FJ DEPTH & TOPS

q
-
C,
P ~ F --. Zo r u ? ~? p , m p o ~ cn
? m ENGR. DATA
cn 0- z
0 2
o SHOWS

POROSITY
CORES

- -. 0 0 n
0
D 0
ru 3 -3 m LITHOLOGY
cn
3
Q
-
4
2
cn
E0, 00=
0
z 9.
- CDn
ru
COLOR
2
7
3- micro
K
2 S
CD
xf
vf CRYSTAL1
5 f
PARTICLE
-E.
A

CD - m
crs
vcrs SIZE
xcrs

FOSSl LS

ACCESSORIES

SED. STRUCTURES

REMARKS
Chart XIX: Black and White Lithologic Symbols
To be used for Stratigraphic Columnar and Cross Sections
SlLlClCLASTlC ROCK TYPES

1Clay (See symbols for color desiqnations)

1 - I
Shale (See symbols for color
designations)
Siltstone

1 -','a:.:.: .. Quartz sand I :.:.:.:; 1 Quartz sandstone

Lithic sand /T. ,\

Lithic sandstone

Feldspathic sand I y.'.?I Feldspathic sandstone

I 1 Arkosic sand Arkosic sandstone

1 0 0 Gravel (undifferentiated)* Conglomerate (undifferentiated)'

*Use appropriate rock symbol for matrix component surrounding pebbles, cobbles or boulders

CARBONATE ROCK TYPES

Limestone Dolomitic Calcareous Dolomite

(undifferentiated) Limestone Dolomite (undifferentiated)
The texture and particle overlays shown below can be used with any of these basic patterns

TEXTURES
PRIMARY DEPOSITIONAL MISCELLANEOUS

Mudstone

Wackestone
DIAGENETICALLY ALTERED
Packstone Crystalline

Grainstone

Boundstone Crystalline wirecognizable

particles*
PARTICLES

Fossils (undifferentiated).

Pelletoids

*Consult Charts XII, XIII & XIV for appropriate fossil symbols, and Chart I l l for additional particle symbols.

MISCELLANEOUS ROCK TYPES

Anhydrite or Gypsum coal

1 Bentonite L Lignite

Chert (dark)

Chert (light)
I Type of chert should be
designated in margin by
appropriate symbols.
Halite

Potassium salt
Chart XX: Black and White Lithologic Symbols

IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

I '*,XxX Extrusive Metamorphic

1 +++++ 1 Intrusive

Specific rock types can be designated by using symbols on Chart IV and/or inserting first
two letters of rock name in center of lithic column.

SECONDARY COMPONENTS
MODIFYING COMPONENTS

Anhydritic Cherty Very sandy

I --- I Argillaceous 1 I I Dolomitic Sandy

Calcareous Micaceous I i 1 Slightly sandy

Carbonaceous Salt hoppers I// silty

CEMENTS

Anhydrite calcite chert If Dolomite Quartz

STREAKS AND LENSES

- Argillaceous F l calcareous a_jDolomitic KI Sandy INN Silty

INTERBEDS AND INTERCALATIONS

Use same symbols as for streaks and lenses enclosed within above symbols.

CONCRETIONS Ah1 D NODULES

anhy.
Anhydritic Calcareous Cherty or Siliceous

Ironstone or other Sideritic

ferruginous material
Chart XXI: Black and White Lithologic Symbols
MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS
COLORS
I N.S. I No sample

med gy Color description for

No information shales can be illustrated
dk gy - blk in column (%") along right
margin of log with these
It bn
symbols.
Can be used for dk bn
long continuous gn
b sections of uniform
lithology in place of red
drafted symbols. variegated

Symbols to be used for the following data are the same as those given in the Standard Color
Lithologic Legend, except as noted. These symbols are to b e logged on the right
-side of the
lithic column.
FOSSILS - Same as on Charts XII, Xlll & XIV except:

r d Red algae / g n Green algae

ACCESSORIES - same as Charts XIV & XV except:

Ash or Tuff + Chlorite 0 Quartz crystals a Siderite grains

MINERALIZATION CH ERTS

ftcal Type of vein, fracture or vug

Y7 Transparent

4 a l .
filling indicated by abbreviation of mineral vQ bl Use appropriate chert symbol followed
by abbreviation of color.
Q gY
TEXTURES - same as on Chart X & XI.

STRUCTURES - same as on Chart XVI, XVI I & XVlll

These symbols to be logged on left side of lithic column.

POROSITY - Same as on Chart IX.

01L SHOWS - Same as on Chart VIII except all symbols in black

o Poor oil stain o o Good to excellent oil stain .Jt Dead oil stain

ENGI IN EERI NG DATA - Same as on Chart VII except all symbols in black