SOLUTIONS for FLUID MOVEMENT,

MEASUREMENT & CONTAINMENT

Finding
NET ZERO
System designers reach highest
efficiencies with HVAC pumps

Also Inside

Wellhead testing in harsh

environments
AODD pump material selection
Lift pump & level control
radar measurement
JANUARY 2017 • Vol. XXIII, No. 1
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Table of Contents | January 2017 • Vol. XXIII, No. 1

Cover Story
HVAC Systems
10 HVAC design leading the way to net zero
By Mark Handzel, Bell & Gossett
New selection criteria for pumps ensure highest
operational efficiencies.

huseyintuncer/iStock
Special Section
Flow & Level Measurement
10
14 Multiphase flowmeter advances
By Laura Schafer, Emerson Flow
Technological developments enable cost-effective, reliable
allocation measurement in oil and gas.

17 Level measurement in water

& wastewater lift stations
By Bill Sholette, Endress+Hauser 23
New trends in low-cost radar units solve
common problems. 17

20 Improving flow measurement accuracy

with flow conditioners
By Don Lundberg, The Vortab Company
How these instruments can solve cost and space issues

Best Practices & Applications Departments

23 Configure an air-operated double
diaphragm pump with confidence
4 From the Editor
By Michael Sandlin, Graco Inc. 6 News & Notes
Select the right materials to withstand varying fluid
characteristics.
8 Application Corner & Quiz Corner
13
13 Trade Shows & Events
26 By
Gas turbine control, operation & reliability
Amin Almasi
31 Advertiser Index
Advancements improve performance and efficiency. 32 FlowControlNetwork.com

Flow Control (ISSN #1081-7107) is published 12 times a year

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Contact the editor for details. Product/service information
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2 | January 2017 Flow Control

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From the Editor

EDITORIAL DIRECTOR
LORI DITORO | 205-408-3744
lditoro@grandviewmedia.com
EDITOR IN CHIEF
ROBYN TUCKER | 205-981-4698
rtucker@grandviewmedia.com
GROUP MANAGING EDITOR
AMY W. RICHARDSON | 205-408-5050
arichardson@grandviewmedia.com
GROUP ASSOCIATE EDITOR
AMANDA HOSEY | 205-408-3784
ahosey@grandviewmedia.com
GROUP SENIOR EDITOR, CONTENT MARKETING
MATT MIGLIORE | 484-255-9032
matt@grandviewmedia.com
The Flow Control team learned about KROHNE and its various technologies
at the Water Environment Federation’s Technical Exhibition & Conference COLUMNIST
(WEFTEC) in September 2016. DAVID W. SPITZER
ART DIRECTOR
RYAN CARLSON

H
appy New Year! As noted in our section with a discussion on wellhead PRODUCTION DIRECTOR
last issue of 2016, the fluid han- measurements in harsh environments. JAIME DE ARMAN | jdearman@grandviewmedia.com

Endress+Hauser continues this section GROUP PUBLISHER

dling industry enters the New Year MICHAEL C. CHRISTIAN | 908-507-5472
with expectation. Oil price volatility began on page 17 with an explanation of how mikec@grandviewmedia.com
to level out in 2016, a factor that could radar level measurement can assist NATIONAL ACCOUNTS MANAGER
JIM SEMPLE | 908-963-3008
contribute to a stronger industry in 2017. customers who experience problems jsemple@grandviewmedia.com
Persistence Market Research predicts with lift pump and level control. Finally, DISTRICT MANAGER
JAY HAAS | 205-572-1058
the global pumps market will grow the Vortab Company presents an article jay@grandviewmedia.com
through 2024. Many flowmeter type on using flow conditioners to improve S.E. ACCOUNT MANAGER
revenues are also tied to the oil and flow measurement (page 20). LISA WILLIMAN | 205-332-5915
lwilliman@grandviewmedia.com
gas industry, and time will tell if the Learn how to select the right materi- ACCOUNT EXECUTIVE
diminishing oil price instability will con- als for air-operated diaphragm pumps ADDISON PERKINS | 205-861-5303
aperkins@grandviewmedia.com
tribute to an upturn in the broader fluid in Graco’s article on page 23. Next on
MARKETING DIRECTOR
handling industry. page 26 Amin Almasi examines hot gas ANNEE COOK
The Air-Conditioning, Heating and flows and the operation and reliability of MARKETING MANAGER
NICK PHILLIPS
Refrigeration (AHR) Expo will showcase gas turbines.
DIGITAL BUSINESS DIRECTOR
the latest innovations in the heating, Finally, our annual Innovation Awards STUART ANDERSON
ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) program is open for nominations this DIGITAL OPERATIONS MANAGER
MARY BETH ROMANO
in Las Vegas, Nevada, Jan. 30–Feb. 1. month. Go to FlowControlNetwork.com/
AUDIENCE MARKETING MANAGER
We look forward to discovering the top InnovationAwards to nominate a product ANNA HICKS
HVAC technologies at this show so we or solution that has made a difference SUBSCRIPTION & REPRINT REQUEST
flowcontrol@omeda.com
can share them with our readers (See a in your work and is sure to advance the
CORPORATE TEAM
preview on page 13). industry further. PRESIDENT
In keeping with AHR Expo’s focus, VICKI DENMARK
CHIEF REVENUE OFFICER
Bell & Gossett provides this issue’s Sincerely, CHRIS DOLAN
cover story on part load efficiency value CHIEF MARKETING OFFICER
to reduce HVAC system costs (page MARY BETH SHADDIX
AUDIENCE DEVELOPMENT
10). System designers can use this cri- & ANALYTICS DIRECTOR
terion to maximize energy savings while Robyn Tucker HEATHER THOMPSON
FINANCIAL DIRECTOR
reaping environmental benefits. rtucker@grandviewmedia.com RANDY LYLE
On page 14, Emerson Flow begins @FlowControl_Mag PRODUCTION DIRECTOR
ANDY ESTILL
our flow and level measurement special PRODUCT DIRECTOR
JENNIFER RICHARDS

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Jeff Jennings: Equilibar LLC Tom O’Banion: Emerson Process Management, Micro Motion
MitchJeff
Johnson: JMSEquilibar
Jennings: LLC | Mitch Johnson:David
Southeast JMS Southeast Gobind
W. Spitzer,|PE: Khiani:
Spitzer Fluor Canada
and Boyes LLC Ltd.
Gobind Khiani:JimFluor
Lauria: Mazzei
Canada, Injector Company |George
Ltd. John Merrill, PE: EagleBurgmann
Weihrauch: Baldor Electric Industries
Company
Steve Milford:
Jim Lauria: Endress+Hauser
Mazzei Injector Company U.S. | Tom O’Banion: Emerson Process
Andrew Yeghnazar: BlacohManagement,
Fluid Control Micro Motion WINNER
DavidPE:
John Merrill, Spitzer, PE: Spitzer
W.EagleBurgmann and Boyes LLC
Industries | George
Jesse Yoder:Weihrauch: Baldor Electric Company
Flow Research
Andrew Yeghnazar:
Steve Milford: Endress+Hauser U.S.Blacoh Fluid Control | Jesse Yoder, Ph.D.: Flow Research

4 | January 2017 Flow Control

 FREE
Product Information
Request free information on the products/services
found in the pages of Flow Control.

FCM.HOTIMS.COM
News & Notes
Industry updates
Horizontally drilled oil wells
among highest-producing
Oil wells drilled horizontally through hy-
drocarbon-bearing formations are often
among the most prolific oil wells in the
U.S., according to the U.S. Energy In-
formation Administration (EIA). Although
modern horizontal drilling achieved
commercial success in the 1980s, drill-
ing techniques have improved, and in
recent years, horizontal drilling has be-
come more common.
In 2015, nearly 77 percent of the
most productive U.S. oil wells, or those
producing more than 400 barrels of oil
equivalent (BOE) per day, were horizon-
tally drilled wells. For about 85,000 mod-
erate rate wells producing in 2015, de-
fined as more than 15 BOE per day and
up to 400 BOE per day, 42 percent were
drilled horizontally.
EIA forecasts 2017 Brent
crude oil price
The EIA’s Short-Term Energy Outlook
(STEO) released Nov. 8, 2016, forecasts
that North Sea Brent crude oil prices will
average $43 per barrel (b) in 2016 and
$51/b in 2017. The EIA expects West
Texas Intermediate (WTI) prices will aver-
age $43/b in 2016 and $50/b in 2017.
The values of futures and options con-
tracts indicate significant uncertainty in
the price outlook, with NYMEX contract
values for February 2017 delivery traded
during the five-day period ending Nov.
3, 2016, suggesting that a range from
$35/b to $66/b encompasses the mar-
ket expectation of WTI prices in February
2017 with 95 percent confidence. The
95 percent confidence interval for market
expectations widens over time, with lower
and upper limits of $27/b and $96/b for
prices in December 2017.
Send news and events for consider-
ation in this section to Group Associ-
ate Editor Amanda Hosey at ahosey@
grandviewmedia.com.
6 | January 2017
Environmental gas sensors a
$3B market by 2027
Chemical gas sensors will play a key role
in pollutant monitoring over the next de-
cade and IDTechEx predicts that the en-
vironmental sensor market will be worth
more than $3 billion annually by 2027,
according to Dr. David Pugh, technology
analyst for IDTechEx.
The chemical sensor industry is at a
tipping point, with advancements in mi-
crofabrication technology, gas sensors
can now easily be integrated into many
consumer devices. The IDTechEx report,
Environmental Gas Sensors 2017– 2027,
details future opportunities and challeng-
es of introducing chemical gas sensors to
new markets and highlights key trends and
pioneering work in the gas sensor field.
World Biogas Association
launches
The World Biogas Association (WBA)
launched at the United Nations Conven-
tion on Climate Change (UNFCCC) COP
22. Following the adoption by the UN of
a shared vision for transforming lives by
2030 through the Sustainable Develop-
ment Goals and the first-ever universal,
legally binding global climate agreement
between the 195 national governments at
the UNFCCC COP21 at Paris in December
2015, the founders have established the
World Biogas Association to demonstrate
the contribution the biogas and anaerobic
digestion (AD) industries make to these
goals and targets, and to facilitate the
adoption of these technologies globally.
Company news
Hydraulic Institute unveils
new logo for 100th
anniversary
The Hydraulic Institute (HI) celebrates
its centennial in 2017 and announces a
new logo as part of a larger initiative to
position HI for the next 100 years of ser-
vice to the pump industry. The new logo
is a key element of HI’s overall brand
refresh and redesign process. The logo
includes a hidden “H” that reflects the
nature of pumps: always there, work-
ing behind the scenes; and arrows that
represent a pump’s purpose — flow and
movement. This movement reflects the
evolution over the past 99 years from
when pump manufacturers first came
together to discuss common issues and
develop technical standards.
OMEGA relocates HQ,
appoints president
OMEGA Engineering Inc. moved its world
headquarters to a new high-tech facility
in Norwalk, Connecticut. It was previously
headquartered in Stamford, Connecticut,
for five years. The move coincides with
the recent appointment of Joe Vorih as
president. Vorih’s priority is to transform
OMEGA into a web-based global partner
for complete process measurement and
control solutions, including innovative
wireless and Industrial Internet of Things-
ready offerings.
Mouvex celebrates 110
years of eccentric disc
pump reliability
Mouvex, part of PSG, a Dover company,
is celebrating its 110-year anniversary.
Headquartered in Auxerre, France, Mou-
vex was founded in 1906 by engineer An-
dré Petit when he identified the challenges
that gear and lobe pump users were facing
in optimizing their process. He invented
the eccentric disc pump as a result. Since
then, Mouvex has specialized in positive
displacement pumps and compressors for
the transfer of liquids and dry bulk prod-
ucts within the hygienic, chemical, energy,
military and transport industries. Mouvex
became part of PSG in 2008, and now
has operations on five continents with a
global network of distributors and original
equipment manufacturers.
Refinery to recycle water
with GE technology
Seeking to reduce the use of water in
the refining process and minimize its
environmental impact on the North Sas-
katchewan River, North West Redwater
(NWR) Partnership turned to GE Water
Flow Control
& Process Technologies for NWR’s new
Sturgeon refinery in Alberta, Canada.
Like many regions, Alberta has strin-
gent regulations regarding freshwater
withdrawal and effluent discharge. GE
Water & Process Technologies provided
a solution to meet NWR’s sustainability
and environmental goals as well as the
province’s policies.
experience. He started his career as a
hands-on scientist and gradually tran-
sitioned to the commercial side of the
business.
Siemens technology earns
top ranking
Siemens ranked as the top company on
Navigant Research’s new leaderboard for
demand response management systems
(DRMSs). According to Navigant Re-
search, to qualify for the Leaders catego-
ry a company must perform “exceedingly
well in both Strategy and Execution.”
The report found that Siemens’ solution
is scalable and its EnergyIP platform ap-
peals to utilities that are looking for com-
prehensive solutions. FC

Viega names VP of sales

& marketing
Viega LLC named Santanu “Sean” Deb-
nath its new vice president of sales
and marketing. He will oversee and
managing Viega’s sales, marketing, in-
side sales, customer services and cus-
tomer relations departments. Debnath
has more than 20 years of industry

Upcoming events
The International Air-Condition-
ing, Heating, Refrigerating
Exposition (AHR Expo)
Jan. 30–Feb. 1
Las Vegas, Nevada
ahrexpo.com

21st ARC Industry Forum

Feb. 6–9
Orlando, Florida
arcweb.com/events/arc-industry-
forum-orlando

2017 Horizontal Directional

Drilling Academy
Feb. 13–14
Tempe, Arizona
hddacademy.com

INTERPHEX
March 21–23
New York, New York
interphex.com

2017 MCAA Industry Forum

April 23–25
Atlanta, Georgia
measure.org

Offshore Technology Conference

May 1–4
Houston, Texas
otcnet.org

Free info: Enter 208 at fcm.hotims.com

www.flowcontrolnetwork.com January 2017 | 7

 Application Corner
By David W. Spitzer
Gas flow in large pipes
Consider the application and pipe diameter size to narrow
the field of flowmeter selection.
T
he number of different flowme-
ters that can be applied to
measure the flows of industrial
liquids and gases can be overwhelm-
ing. Consider that there are more than
a dozen potential flowmeter technolo-
gies (each of which has multiple varia-
tions and often many suppliers), so
as many as 1,000 distinct flowmeters
could be purchased in some applica-
tions. However, some services and
applications can preclude the use of
most technologies — leaving only a
few options.
Such is the case of the measurement
of process gases in large pipes in steel
mills and other heavy industrial process-
Quiz Corner
A. Pitot tube | B. Orifice plate
M
agnetic flowmeters (Answer
D) and flumes (Answer E)
only measure liquid flow so
they are not correct. Pitot tube flow-
meters (Answer A), orifice plate flow-
meters (Answer B) and thermal flow-
meters (Answer C) could be applied in
this service.
That said, the question is not clear
because not all HVAC systems are
created equal. Pitot tubes (Answer A)
and thermal flowmeters (Answer C)
8 | January 2017
es. These pipes often have diameters
of more than perhaps 60 inches, but
they can certainly be somewhat small-
er. Further, most piping configurations
have limited straight run that cannot be
altered. Just think about the cost and
real estate involved with providing many
diameters of 60-inch pipe to develop
a good velocity profile for your flowme-
ter. Components in coke oven gas and
blast furnace gas services can coat the
flowmeter and plug impulse lines. In ad-
dition, the “pipes” may be rectangular
and operate at low pressures (only a few
inches of water column) that can limit
the pressure drop across the flowmeter.
Quickly eliminated are most dif-
Which of the following flowmeters could reasonably be
applied to measure air flow in a heating, ventilation and
air conditioning (HVAC) system?
| C. Thermal | D. Magnetic | E. Flume
typically exhibit negligible pressure
drops and are often applied to air
pipes and ducts operating at low
pressure. In many such applica-
tions, insufficient pressure may be
available to operate orifice plates
(Answer B) that exhibit higher pres-
sure drops. Further, even if sufficient
pressure were available, the higher
pressure drop across the flowme-
ter can increase energy consumption
that can be saved when the air fan
ferential pressure, magnetic, Coriolis
mass, open channel, oscillatory, positive
displacement, turbine and variable area
flowmeters. Insertion flowmeters can
pose accuracy problems in many instal-
lations and thermal flowmeters can coat
in some applications. Remaining tech-
nologies include some differential pres-
sure, some insertion, target and ultra-
sonic flowmeters, most of which require
special design considerations and/or
maintenance to remain in service.
The application presented may seem
common — measure gas flow in a pipe
— but it can quickly evolve into a much
more complicated problem as additional
constraints are added. FC
incorporates a variable speed drive.
That said, orifice plate flowmeters are
available for these applications (typi-
cally in round pipes).
Additional complicating
factors
The HVAC industry is notoriously
known for being sensitive to cost. As
such, the initial cost of the flowmeters
may override the cited technical
evaluation. FC
Flow Control
 Most piping configurations have limited straight run that
cannot be altered. Just think about the cost and real estate
involved with providing many diameters of 60-inch pipe
to develop a good velocity profile for your flowmeter.

David W. Spitzer is a regular contributor

to Flow Control magazine and a principal THERMAL MASS FLOW METERS FOR
in Spitzer and Boyes LLC, which offers INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
engineering, seminars, strategic, mar-
keting consulting, distribution consulting
and expert witness services for manu-
facturing and automation companies.
Spitzer and Boyes is also the publisher
of the Industrial Automation INSIDER. He
has more than 40 years of experience
and has written more than 10 books and
350 articles about flow measurement,
instrumentation and process control.
Spitzer can be reached at 845-623-
1830 or via spitzerandboyes.com.
Click on the “Products” tab to find his
Consumer Guides to various flow and FOX Model FT1
level measurement technologies.
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www.flowcontrolnetwork.com January 2017 | 9

Cover Story: HVAC Systems

HVAC design
leading the way toward net zero
New selection criteria for pumps ensure highest
operational efficiencies.
By Mark Handzel, Bell & Gossett

A
s all segments of the building cutting-edge computational fluid operated as a system. In its visioning
industry move toward the 2030 dynamics technology to maintain sig- report, ASHRAE points to the impor-
goal of net zero energy buildings nificantly higher levels of efficiency over tance of the early stages of system
(NZEBs) — buildings that produce as a much wider range of operating condi- design: “Architects, engineers and man-
much renewable energy as they con- tions. Using high-efficiency pumps with ufacturing companies will need refined
sume on an annual basis — heating, properly applied variable speed controls tools for properly sizing and selecting
ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) will warrant significant energy savings HVAC equipment in net zero buildings.”
system design is at the forefront of for a given hydronics system. While many manufacturers offer
these efforts. online specification of pumps for
In a report by the American Society of New tools for the industry HVAC systems to help achieve goals
Heating, Refrigerating and Air- An HVAC system made up of the high- related to energy consumption, effi-
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), est-efficiency components will only ciency and system costs, designers
ASHRAE Vision 2020, Producing Net enjoy the efficiency gains of these com- typically do not apply load profiles
Zero Energy Buildings, the standards- ponents if it is designed, installed and to pumps as part of their selection
setting organization acknowledges,
“If NZEBs are to become reality …
designers will need the tools to design Using high-efficiency pumps with properly applied
and apply better integrated equipment,
manufacturers will need to produce variable speed controls will warrant significant
ultra-high-efficiency equipment and energy savings for a given hydronics system.
know how to best apply it to buildings.”
Since ASHRAE issued this report in
2008, progress has been made on
many fronts toward improving efficiency
and reducing energy consumption, most
notably the issuance in 2015 of the
U.S. Department of Energy regulation
that set minimum efficiency standards
for clean water pumps. When the Energy
Conservation Standards for Pumps
takes effect in 2020, only pumps that
meet the pump efficiency index rating
will be allowed in commerce in the U.S.
(The rule does not affect pumps already
installed, though operators can improve
system efficiency by replacing older
pumps with newer models.) Figure 1. Typical closed-loop HVAC system. Constant head differential must be maintained at all times.
Modern pump designs incorporate All graphics courtesy of Bell & Gossett

10 | January 2017 Flow Control

processes, resulting in systems that A, B, C and D are the pump efficiency flow 45 percent of the year and 25
are not fully optimized for efficiency. values at 100 percent, 75 percent, 50 percent flow 12 percent of the year.
General industry practice has been to percent and 25 percent of the flow rate The subscript “v” denotes variable
make pump selections based on a and at the corresponding head value on speed operation with the control, or
system’s design load or the maximum the control curve. Based on the equa- fixed head, calculated within a system’s
capacity, even though centrifugal pumps tion, during any given year the pump will critical circuit. Selection software that
installed in HVAC systems operate at operate at 100 percent flow (duty point) includes the PLEV calculation defaults
part-load conditions a majority of the only 1 percent of the year, 75 percent to 30 percent of pump’s total design
time. Flow requirements fluctuate con- flow 42 percent of the year, 50 percent head (TDH) to represent the minimum
stantly throughout the year based on
the heating or cooling load of a building
at any given time. However, with the
traditional pump selection approach,
pumps were selected at 100 percent
load conditions, even though the sys-
tem generally only operates at that level
for 1 percent of its yearly operation.
Actual efficiency depends on the con-
figuration of the pump versus load and
flow conditions.
By applying a new specification for-
mula that accounts for variations in
load profile, HVAC designers now have
the tools to select pumps based on
real-world system demands to ensure
the most efficient system performance.
Part Load Efficiency Value (PLEV) is a
calculation that accounts for the entire
variation profile and flow requirements
based on the actual heating or cooling load
in a commercial building’s HVAC system,
not just the best efficiency point (BEP).
PLEV is derived from the successful
Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV) perfor-
mance calculation developed by the Air-
Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute
(AHRI) in AHRI 550/590-1998. The
proven formula describes the equip-
ment efficiency while operating at vari-
ous capacities of a chiller system and
is crucial in supporting energy use and
operating costs throughout the lifetime
of the system. Because of its wide
acceptance by chiller manufactures as
a baseline comparison between manu-
facturers, similar correlations can be
adopted for centrifugal pumps used in
heating and cooling systems.

Real-world assessment
The PLEV equation is as follows:
1
PLEVv =
PLEVv = 1% + 42% + 45% + 12%
A B C D
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www.flowcontrolnetwork.com January 2017 | 11


With a new specification formula that accounts for
variations in load profile, HVAC designers have the tools
to select pumps based on real-world system demands to
ensure the most efficient system performance.
Figure 2. Typical closed-loop HVAC system. Constant head of 17 feet total dynamic head
Figure 3. Example of a higher PLEV pump selection to the right of BEP at full load
control head within a system. ASHRAE
90.1-2013 guideline requires that the
total head loss in a system be calcu-
lated, making it natural to calculate
the critical zone’s fixed head, too. This
is the number that should be used
because it represents a more accurate
calculation, which will be reflected in
the cost analysis.
Most heating and cooling systems are
closed-loop and require a constant
head differential at all times. The con-
stant head differential is necessary
for system control and to ensure that
the necessary differential head across
any controlled subcircuit is maintained
during operation.
12 | January 2017
PLEV can be used to accurately com-
pare pumps from different manufacturers
to identify overall operational efficiency.
The 30 percent of TDH, or calculated
minimum control head within the equip-
ment schedule along with specifications,
will ensure a fair, apples-to-apples com-
parison among manufacturers.
PLEV provides system designers more
latitude in selecting pumps slightly to
the right of the BEP, if a detailed system
head loss is calculated. Pump selec-
tions to the right of the BEP may have
a higher PLEV than other selections
because the PLEV load profile is heavily
weighted at part-load conditions, mainly
75 percent and 50 percent operation.
These load profile points alone make
up 87 percent of the operating hours.
Designers must be aware that even
though most of the building’s opera-
tion is 87 percent part load, pumps still
need to operate at the 100 percent full-
load condition.
ASHRAE guidelines prefer pump
selections between 85 and 105 per-
cent of BEP as well as selecting pumps
to the left of BEP. If system head loss
has been estimated and a selection
is made to the right of BEP, the pump
could run outside the acceptable range
of operation. In a worst-case scenario,
the pump may run off the end of the
pump curve. As noted above, pump
selections to the right of BEP should
only be made if a detailed head loss
calculation has been completed.
PLEV selection criteria itself does not
provide energy savings in an HVAC sys-
tem. Rather, it is a tool to help design-
ers select pumps that operate at the
highest efficiencies across a building’s
operating conditions.
When combining highly efficient
pumps with the PLEV selection crite-
ria, system designers can maximize
operational performance while realizing
energy, cost savings and environmental
benefits. Ambitious goals for net zero
energy buildings along with more strin-
gent pump efficiency standards spur
system designers to seek smarter ways
to specify pumps. The PLEV selection
criteria and selection software offer
tools to meet and exceed efficiency
requirements. FC
Mark Handzel is vice president, prod-
uct regulatory affairs, and director,
HVAC commercial buildings, at Bell
& Gossett, a Xylem brand. He is a
member of the Appliance Standards
and Rulemaking Federal Advisory
Committee’s Commercial and Industrial
Pumps Working Group.
Flow Control

Latest trends in HVACR
W
ith approximately 80 percent
of exhibitors reporting
they will introduce new or
recently enhanced products, this year’s
International Air-Conditioning, Heating,
Refrigerating Exposition (AHR Expo) in
Las Vegas, Nevada, will exemplify the
industry-wide push for greater efficiency
and innovation.
Innovations to be unveiled at the show
echo major trends driven by the growing
construction market in North America
and the world. These themes include:
• Green Building as a standard of
design, reflected in new ultra-effi-
cient equipment, monitoring and
sensing tools, and building infor-
mation modeling methods that help
achieve notable energy savings and
ensure reliable, efficient, long-term
mechanical system operation
• A rapidly returning residential con-
struction market, answered via the
introduction of numerous heating,
cooling and ventilation products
specifically designed for residen-
tial applications and user-friendly
homeowner operation
• Strong focus on remodeling and
renovation, as seen across new
product and system solutions
designed specifically for installation
in smaller and/or logistically chal-
lenging existing spaces
• Increasing pre-fab/off-site con-
struction methods, reflected in
modular equipment with multiple
installation configurations and
more compact footprints
• Skilled labor shortages, as
addressed by several new tools
and other resources that stream-
line mechanical system installa-
tions and repairs
The response from manufacturers to
these and other market demands can be
seen across numerous innovations on
display at the 2017 AHR Expo.
www.flowcontrolnetwork.com
Building automation & control
As demand for data acquisition, and the
crucially related controls that collect
it, has remained strong as a means
for most efficiently employing build-
ing automation and information sys-
tem data, innovation has continued
to follow. Software and control system
developers have remained hard at work
over the past year to further elevate the
power of building automation, and this
sector will bring an array of technologies
to the market in 2017.
Many solutions have been engineered
around BACnet — a data communi-
cation protocol for building automa-
tion and control networks developed
under the auspices of the American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE).
BACnet provides a foundation of con-
sistency and quality that further stream-
lines the integration of building automa-
tion and control systems, and has also
become an internationally recognized
standard, including by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO).
Instruments & controls
Instrumentation and related controls
remain key to the success of in-field
mechanical systems personnel — from
ensuring reliable long-term equipment
operation, to monitoring and trouble-
shooting equipment functions. Whether
integrated within a larger product or
system, or used independently, HVACR
instruments and controls are now relied
on in greater and more crucial ways,
particularly as mechanical equipment
becomes more technically sophisticated.
A selection of new instruments and
controls to be exhibited includes:
A compact-footprint gas ignition
control for next-generation gas-
fired appliances
128-channel input gas detector
with flexible analog/digital/wireless
Trade Shows & Events
transmitter combinations, data log-
ging, touchscreen display, alarm,
four SPDT relays, an extensive
password-protected menu and
enhanced logic control
The industry’s first data logger to
record and transmit CO2 data
wirelessly to mobile devices via
Bluetooth technology, setting a new
standard for CO2 monitoring by
allowing easier access to hard-to-
reach critical monitoring spaces
A calorimetric flow sensor to mea-
sure and monitor flow velocities of
aqueous media, operating without
any moving parts and featuring a
color-changing LED display (to indi-
cate thresholds), analog or switch-
ing output, nominal pressure up to
25 bar, and simple startup with a
micro USB interface and optional
setup program
Visit ahrexpo.com to register and for
more information on this year’s exhibi-
tors’ technologies, educational sessions
and networking events. FC
EXIBITION DATES & HOURS
Monday, Jan. 30, 10 a.m.–6 p.m.
Tuesday, Jan. 31, 10 a.m.–6 p.m.
Wednesday, Feb. 1, 10 a.m.–4 p.m.
ahrexpo.com
January 2017 | 13
Special Section: Flow & Level Measurement
Multiphase flowmeter advances
Technological developments enable cost-effective,
reliable allocation measurement in oil and gas.
By Laura Schafer, Emerson Flow
L
ow oil prices are driving increased
need for alternative methods of
well pad construction. The unique
challenges of private mineral rights own-
ership in the U.S. has always neces-
sitated additional cost and personnel to
track and compensate landowners, but
the rise of unconventional wells — with
long horizontals crossing multiple min-
eral rights boundaries and a single well
held by multiple owners — has driven up
the cost of measurement per well. While
days were bright at $100 per barrel, well
pads bloomed into existence with a sep-
arator dedicated to each well, resulting
in well pads with five, 10 or more sepa-
rators, each with its own instruments,
transmitters and cabling. However, as
prices are expected to remain low in
the coming years, operators are driven
to find more efficient and cost-effective
ways to develop well pads. Those who
reinvent production operations will be
positioned as the most profitable and
healthy operators as the current over-
supply inevitably runs back toward a
demand-side crunch. Through well pad
automation, new technology implemen-
tation and production optimization strat-
egies, innovative producers substantially
reduce their bottom-line costs on capital
and operating expenditures.
On the new technology front, U.S.
producers are turning to multiphase
flowmeters for the answer to reducing
the cost per well pad. The introduc-
tion of the multiphase meter substan-
tially reduces the upfront well pad and
facilities capital expenses while enabling
14 | January 2017
production optimization workflows that
separators are sluggish to support. Only
a few years ago in the U.S., multiphase
meters were either far too expensive for
onshore consideration or inconsistent
in operation and data reliability. But as
producers evolve to adapt to the lower
prices, multiphase flowmeter manufac-
turers have answered the call for an
onshore-priced multiphase meter that
delivers reliable, repeatable results.
Why measure
Producers generally need multiphase
flow measurement for one or more of
the following reasons:
• Allocation — Measurement made
to apportion produced fluid of a
commingled flow back to royalty
owners for payment and to indi-
vidual wells for production insight.
• Fiscal/custody transfer — Custody
transfer refers to a meter that is a
point of a commercial transaction
between owners, while fiscal meter-
ing involves the same need but with
the added governmental regula-
tions for accuracy, traceability and
taxation requirements. These trans-
actions usually reference require-
ments set by industry bodies.
• Reservoir and production optimiza-
tion — Certainty in the quantities
that each well produces is critical
to reservoir and production under-
standing. Producers use these
data in combination with simula- Multiphase meters provide critical information
tion to anticipate changes in total on a well’s production capabilities.
well and field output. They make All graphics courtesy of Emerson Flow
Flow Control
 adjustments to maintain produc-
tion at an optimum while con-
sidering facility or environmental
constraints.
• Flow assurance — Monitoring and
controlling the risk for deposits
such as scale, wax and hydrate
formation in addition to corrosion
and erosion monitoring can be a
vital function of multiphase mea-
surement. Although scale and wax
identification is not the aim of a
multiphase meter, detecting small
changes in water production is,
which can provide invaluable infor-
mation to an operator who can
take action to prevent and reduce
the potential for hydrate and scale
formation. Figure 1. Traditional test
separator and manifold
For U.S. onshore oil and gas, multi- arrangement
phase meters have recently come under
consideration for allocation and optimi-
zation thanks to technology advances.

Why multiphase measurement Because of

Traditional methods of measuring oil,
gas and water from a well require
separation since flowmeters such as
positive displacement, turbine, Venturi
and Coriolis can tolerate the presence
of multiple phases but cannot mea-
sure the individual phases when com-
mingled. Substantial effort has been
invested in developing correlations and
models to enable indirect estimation of
the quantities of multiple phases, but
the assumptions tend to break down
over time as the flow and produc-
tion characteristics of the well change.
Recent advances in Coriolis transmitter
technology allow for direct quantifica-
tion of a single phase when the gas void
fraction is less than 15 percent or the
liquid void fraction is less than 5 per-
cent. However, these techniques require
a favorable flow regime to be effec-
tive. If the flow regime or gas-to-liquid
ratio changes over time, the technique
becomes less accurate. Additionally,
these techniques only provide measure-
ment of the dominant phase, liquid or
gas, not the complete data set of oil,
water and gas flow rates.
Because of the limitations of traditional
the limitations
of traditional
flowmeters,
separation has
typically been
required for
accurate mea-
surement of
oil and gas.
flowmeters, separation has typically
been required for accurate measure-
ment of oil, gas and water. Figure 1
illustrates a conventional test separa-
tion arrangement in which two separa-
tors and an extensive manifold, includ-
ing valves and piping, is required.
This arrangement requires a significant
number of valves, piping and duplicate
instrumentation on each separator.
Additionally, to change the well under
Figure 2.
Simplified well pad
with direct wellhead
measurement
test, actuators with attendant automa-
tion are required to avoid the need for
continuous manual intervention.
In contrast, Figure 2 shows a well pad
design that requires significantly less
piping, smaller footprint, and reduced
intervention and maintenance using
direct measurement with multiphase
meters. With multiphase meters, each
well can be tested individually and
continually without having to redirect

www.flowcontrolnetwork.com Januay 2017 | 15

 The latest offerings boast flexible, modular platforms
that allow producers to purchase only the multiphase
modules required to achieve desired accuracy and
performance range.
eliminates the need for additional
automation or manual intervention to
test a well. This allows commingling
of multiple well pads and consolida-
tion of separation facilities at a central
gathering facility.
A third variant on the well pad
arrangement would keep the manifold
from Figure 1 and simply replace the
test separator with a single multiphase
flowmeter. This is particularly beneficial
for operators who seek to reduce weight
and footprint for offshore installations
or in onshore cases in which land is at
a premium. The multiphase meter in
this arrangement provides the benefit of
reduced residence time. A test separa-
tor typically has a substantial associated
volume and requires an hour or more to
cycle out fluids from the previous well,
followed by several hours of production
to obtain an accurate snapshot of pro-
duction from the well under test. With
a multiphase flowmeter, that required
time to cycle to the next well is substan-
tially reduced, requiring minutes instead
of hours. This allows an operator to test
more wells, more frequently with less
uncertainty, improving the usability and
resolution of the data for reservoir and
production engineers.
Multiphase measurement
advances
While premier multiphase meter manu-
facturers earned their stripes in the off-
shore and subsea arenas, market condi-
tion changes are driving efficiency into
the manufacturing of multiphase meters,
delivering the expertise honed for the
challenges of offshore at a price point
suitable for the onshore unconventional
plays. The latest offerings boast flexible,
modular platforms that allow produc-
ers to purchase only the multiphase
modules required to achieve desired
accuracy and performance range. The
16 | January 2017
modularity, coupled with advances in the
underlying first principles models, allows
many producers to select and operate
a multiphase meter without the gamma
module, eliminating concerns surround-
ing transport and upkeep of radiation
sources. Additionally, verification rou-
tines in the software continuously check
conditions to ensure well characteristics
are within the calibrated range of the
meter and provide real-time updates
to remote operators when conditions
change, which provides additional confi-
dence in the measurement.
Example: Onshore multiphase
meter use
Safety. In a case from Kazakhstan,
an operator required highly accurate,
real-time measurement for reservoir
management in challenging high hydro-
gen sulfide (H2S) conditions, with H2S
levels reaching up to 18 percent. Using
multiphase meters, the operator mini-
mized personnel exposure to the envi-
ronment while meeting the well data
needs for the project.
Efficiency. In Central America, an
operator required well test data on a
more frequent basis than provided by
mobile test separators. A truck-mount-
ed multiphase meter test skid was
developed that increased the frequency
of well testing, eliminated the need to
flare and supported the operators with
quality data with which to optimize
production.
Cost-effectiveness. In a recent case
in the U.S., an operator in the Bakken
region shared that the use of a mul-
tiphase meter in lieu of a separator/
heater treater would save an aver-
age of 50 percent of the total capital
expense for the well pad. Once the
company develops comfort with the
technology, the workload per person
per well equipped with multiphase is
expected to be roughly half that of a
separator-equipped well. That improved
efficiency of personnel enables absorp-
tion of growth in the coming years with
existing staff.
Future of the well pad
As oil and gas producers evolve their
operations to deliver high-quality, reli-
able and real-time data cost-effectively,
multiphase meters prove to be an excit-
ing enabler of that vision. Delivering reli-
able data with lower capital costs for the
facility, the new generation of modular
meters has the flexibility to meet the
changing needs of the well over the life
of the reservoir. FC
Laura Schafer is the vice
president of oil and gas for
Emerson Flow. With more
than 15 years of experi-
ence in the oil and gas industry, Schafer
joined Emerson in 2012 with a focus
on extending flow measurement appli-
cations in oil and gas. Her experience
spans from drilling and completions
to production. She holds Bachelor of
Science and Master of Science degrees
in chemical engineering from the
Colorado School of Mines.
ONLINE
MORE
For more on flowmeter advances,
visit flowcontrolnetwork.com
Flow Control

Level measurement in water
& wastewater lift stations
New trends in low-cost radar units solve common problems.
By Bill Sholette, Endress+Hauser
L
ift stations pump water and
wastewater from lower to higher
elevations to compensate for top-
ographical changes. Most processing
facilities are fed by gravity flow of the
water and wastewater, so in locations
where a change in elevation prevents
gravity feed, lift stations pump the water
to a higher elevation to increase the
hydraulic head to provide reliable gravity
flow into the facility.
Water level in the lift station wet well or
reservoir needs to be monitored (see
Figure 1) to provide input to the pump,
which pumps water out when it reaches
a predetermined level. The level mea-
surement also turns off the pump at a
minimum level to prevent dry run damage.
Wet wells can be difficult environ-
ments for instrumentation because high
humidity and condensation are typical.
Heavy coatings and vapors are capable
of coating or corroding mechanical level
measurement devices, leaving them
inoperable. Technologies that do not
contact the material being measured
should be considered.
Historically, level measurement in lift
station wet wells has used several tech-
nologies, including floats, submersible
hydrostatic and noncontact ultrasonic
instruments. These technologies can
be effective when properly selected and
maintained. This article looks at each and
considers the positive and negative points.
Traditional technologies
For decades, float switches have been
used for wet well level measurement.
The advantages of float switches are
their low cost and simple operation.
Typically, two or more floats are used,
www.flowcontrolnetwork.com
Special Section: Flow & Level Measurement
with one acting as a high-level, pump-
on and another float acting as a low-
level, pump-off indicator. While floats
have advantages in cost and simplicity,
they can fall short in several ways.
Depending on the type of float, the
linkage or cable tether can foul or hang
up. Floats can sometimes leak and
cause buoyancy loss. In wastewater
applications, coatings on the float can
cause it to sink. When using floats for
wet well applications, regular mainte-
nance is extremely important.
Level switches are often used as high-
level backups for continuous level
transmitters to indicate if the well is
close to overflowing. Since the high-
Electrical cabinet with
power supplies, rail-mounted
instruments, control relays, etc.
Reducer
Promag 400 L
electromagnetic
low sensor
Liquiphant T(FTL20)
pump protection
level switch is only reached in “upset”
conditions, floats work fairly well as
high-level switches.
Submersible hydrostatic level trans-
mitters operate on the water’s head
pressure. A diaphragm in the transmitter
is subjected to the water column on one
side and referenced to atmosphere on
the other side. Increases and decreases
in level deform the diaphragm and cause
changes in a capacitance bridge circuit,
which is then converted to an output.
Submersible transmitters have sev-
eral advantages. They can be prese-
lected for the applicable range of level
measurement. For example, the trans-
mitter may be ranged from zero to 30
Figure 1. Typical lift station.
Water enters the wet well
from the right. A radar instru-
ment monitors the level.
When the level gets high, the
controller starts the pump to
lift liquid to a higher elevation
and empty the wet well.
All graphics courtesy of
Endress+Hauser
Micropilot FMR20
Level Transmitter
January 2017 | 17

feet of water. Since they are preranged,
calibration is not required. Submersible
transmitters also have no moving parts
to hang up or wear out.
Still, it is important to make sure the
diaphragm does not become clogged
with silt or other solids since clogging
will affect accuracy. Heavy buildup can
prevent the diaphragm from reacting to
water level changes. When using sub-
mersible transmitters in applications in
which silt or solids are present, choose
a transmitter able to tolerate these
applications. A transmitter designed for
water with solids will have a cover over
the diaphragm that allows for easy
cleaning, but it is important not to dam-
age the diaphragm when cleaning.
Ultrasonic instruments are commonly
used to measure wet well water level.
Ultrasonic instruments operate based
on the time of flight principle (ToF). An
acoustic pulse is sent to the surface of
the water being measured and is reflect-
ed back. The time it takes to reach the
water and return provides the distance
to the water, which is converted to a
level signal. One of the big advantages
of ultrasonic level devices is that they are
noncontact. That is, the transducer send-
ing the acoustic pulse does not come
in contact with the water, providing a
cleaner application for sewage wet wells.
However, ultrasonic instruments are
not immune to problems. Humid wet
well conditions can cause condensa-
tion to form on the transducer face,
which can attenuate the acoustic
energy and limit the range. In some
cases it can cause a near-field fault.
Confusing acoustic reflections caused by
18 | January 2017
structures in the wet well such as lad-
ders, pump columns, cables, etc., must
be taken into consideration and avoided
or mapped out if the ultrasonic device
used offers this feature.
Another concern is splashing on the
transducer, which can leave residue
capable of attenuating the acoustic
energy and can require cleaning. In sew-
age wet wells where methane can be
present, ultrasonic instruments experi-
ence another problem. The speed of
sound is faster in methane than it is in
air. This will cause errors in level mea-
surement, resulting in the level appear-
ing higher than it actually is.
Radar level measurement
A recent trend in level measurement for
lift station wet wells is radar technology.
Figure 2. When a new or replacement radar level instrument is installed, its sophisticated mapping
program detects all internal obstacles such as pipes and ladders. Like configuration, the mapping
function can be accomplished remotely via the Bluetooth interface.
Image 1. With Bluetooth, modern radar level
transmitters can be commissioned from a
tablet or a smartphone.
In the past, radar transmitters were
considered too expensive for use in wet
wells, but recent developments in elec-
tronics have allowed for new offerings in
the $1,000 or lower range. Radar trans-
mitters offer several advantages over
traditional wet well level technologies.
First, like the ultrasonic instrument,
radar is a noncontact technology that
uses the ToF measurement principle. An
electromagnetic pulse is directed to the
surface of the material being measured.
The energy is reflected by the dielectric
property of the water. Similar to ultra-
sonic, the time taken to reach the water
surface and the reflection to return are
measured, providing distance to the
water’s surface which is then used to
calculate the level.
Along with the advantages of noncon-
tact measurement, the transmission of
electromagnetic energy is not affected by
vapors or steam in the air space above
the water, which is a decided advantage
over ultrasonic level technology.
New radar antenna designs provide
wetted parts of all-Teflon with a concave
surface. These concave antennas are
designed to shed condensation buildup
on the antenna face, which prevents
Flow Control
attenuation of the electromagnetic sig-
nal. In sewage wet well applications,
the Teflon helps prevent coatings from
adhering to the antenna when water
splashes solids.
When selecting a radar unit for
mounting inside a wet well vault, the
transmitter may experience submersion
in extreme conditions. For this reason,
selecting an encapsulated transmitter
that meets IP68 (protected against
temporary immersion) is recommended.
Map it out
A major advance in new radar units is
the simplicity of commissioning and
mapping. The setup program can be
accessed via Bluetooth and executed
on a smartphone or tablet (see Image
1). This is a great advantage over older
units, which required commissioning
through a push-button human machine
interface (HMI) or opening the housing
and connecting a cable to a laptop with
a modem.
The radar transmitter may be located in
an installation that is difficult to access.
This is particularly true of water and sew-
age wet wells in which the radar may be
inside a concrete vault. Trying to reach
these units for access to the HMI or to
connect a cable to a modem may require
a confined space permit. With Bluetooth,
it is usually a simple matter of opening
the manway.
New radar technology offers sophisti-
cated mapping programs that allow the
transmitter to ignore internal obstruc-
tions such as ladders, pump columns,
cables and baffles. While these map-
ping programs are sophisticated, they
are much easier to implement than
previous mapping programs from even
a few years ago. If the wet well is empty
or the level is at its lowest point, simply
executing the mapping routine is all that
is required. The radar transmitter does
all the work (see Figure 2). In situations
where the tank is not empty, determine
where the level is and then map to a few
inches above the actual level.
Summary
Many ways exist to measure the water
level in lift station wet wells. Selecting
the technology able to provide the most
reliable level measurement with the least
maintenance should be the goal. While
traditional technologies can provide reli-
able measurement, new lower-cost radar
transmitters should be considered. The
advantages gained in performance and
reliability along with the ease of commis-
sioning are significant. FC
Bill Sholette is the Northeast
region level product manager
for Endress+Hauser.

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Special Section: Flow & Level Measurement

Improving flow measurement

accuracy with flow conditioners
How these instruments can solve cost and space issues
By Don Lundberg, The Vortab Company

W
hen looking for a way to • Boiler fuel gas and air optimization Start by considering which flow mea-
reduce plant operating costs, • Tank blanketing surements are most critical to efficiently
one of the potentially sim- • Analyzer flow assurance process throughput and the quality of
plest and often least expensive solu- • Stack gas monitoring (CEMS, the end product. Are you primarily mea-
tions is to measure liquid and gas flow QAL1, MCERTS) suring liquids, gases or steam? Which
more accurately. Plant upgrade projects • Flare gas measurement medium is the most expensive to gener-
that focus on the continuous improve- Poor measurement accuracy in these ate and move through the plant?
ment of flow measurement and control applications can be extremely expen- Once the most critical processes have
can trim overall production costs by sive. The next step is to audit the been identified and the costs prioritized,
eliminating waste and reducing mainte- efficiency of the flow instruments that look at the flowmeters and flow switches
nance costs through: are performing these critical measure- iin place. If the plant moves liquids,
• Higher product throughput and yield ments. Operators should ask a lot of gases and steam, several different flow
• Reduced use of consumables questions about their plants’ flowmeters sensing technologies may be installed.
• Lower energy costs and flow switches. Why is an inventory of the existing
• Simplified maintenance (avoiding
unplanned maintenance)
• Safe operations for employees
• Environmental compliance
It all goes back to a simple truism:
“You can’t control what you don’t mea-
sure.” To go one step further, add
“accurately measure” to the formula for
process control cost reduction.

Flow measurement analysis

The first step is to analyze the dif-
ferent media and flow instruments
already in place, with an eye toward
those affecting the costliest processes.
Prioritize the search by potential cost
impact (not necessarily fluid volume) to
achieve the most significant return on
investment.
While every process and plant are
somewhat different, some common
critical measurement applications are
necessary for efficient operations:
• Pump protection
• Plant gases distribution Figure 1. Flowmeter accuracy comparison with and without flow conditioner. Flowmeter installed
• Fluid additive/injection monitoring 6 diameters from single elbow in 4-inch (100 mm) diameter pipe
• Compressed air consumption All graphics courtesy of The Vortab Company

20 | January 2017 Flow Control

flow sensing technologies important?
Many different types of flowmeter and
flow switch sensing technologies exist.
Some are better at liquids but do not
measure steam or gas, and others are
exclusively for gas. Is the best flow sens-
ing technology in place for the media
being measured?
Once the types of flowmeters and
flow switches in place are determined,
then ask that impolite question: How
old are they? Many flow instruments
are designed to operate for decades,
but that does not mean a newer tech-
nology will not perform more accurately
or consistently. Is it worth the expense
to replace older flow instruments with
newer technology devices?
Another question to ask: Are flow mea-
surement instruments installed every-
where they are needed to optimize plant
process control? To optimize a process,
sometimes multiple points of measure-
ment are helpful to compare or confirm
accurate flow rates or total flows.
Before making decisions about
upgrading flow instruments, operators
should think about implementing flow
conditioners to enhance existing flow
instruments. Improving the flow mea-
surement’s accuracy in the process
control loop does not always require a
new flowmeter or flow switch.
An alternative solution
One of the leading causes of inac-
curate flow measurement is asym-
metrical or distorted flow conditions
in the upstream and downstream pipe
runs from the flowmeter or flow switch.
Commonly known as swirl in the pipe
(see Figure 2), this condition in the
flow stream “confuses” many flow sen-
sors because their accuracy depends
on a steady-state uniform flow regime.
For example, several popular flowme-
ters — including differential pressure,
magnetic, ultrasonic and turbine — fea-
ture sensing technologies that can be
significantly affected by swirl and asym-
metrical flow conditions inside the pipe.
Depending on the technology, these
meter sensing technologies require a
minimum of six to 10 upstream and
www.flowcontrolnetwork.com
Flowmeter
Figure 2. Swirl in the pipe can “confuse” many flow sensors.
up to five downstream straight pipe
diameters for accurate measurement.
Unfortunately, most process industry
plants are rich with bulky equipment
and other real estate that make install-
ing the required pipe straight runs
required for accurate flow measure-
ment difficult. Often, plant upgrades
and retrofits require adding more flow-
meters in locations that are difficult to
accommodate without flow conditioning
devices because of their straight-run
pipe requirements.
Flow conditioners
Flow conditioners reduce straight pipe
diameter requirements and can cor-
rect the flow profile distortions caused
by upstream flow disturbances. These
unpredictable flow profile variations
are neutralized by a well-designed flow
conditioner, which creates a consistent
and predictable outlet flow profile to
the flowmeter, resulting in accurate and
repeatable flow measurements.
Flow conditioner designs include:
honeycomb vanes, perforated plates,
tabs, tube bundles and vanes. They all
have their advantages and disadvantag-
es, depending on many factors including
the viscosity of the process media, the
metering technology, pipe layout and
cost requirements.
The process requirements, especially
the viscosity of the process media, will
likely shorten the list of potential candi-
dates when selecting a flow conditioner.
For example, some technologies are
Flowmeter
prone to clogging in slurries and/or con-
taminant buildup in dirty gas processes.
Some flow conditioners (see Figure 3)
with a tab-type design offer extremely
low pressure drop, providing significant
energy cost savings when compared
with other flow conditioning technolo-
gies. They help maximize obtainable
plant product throughput.
Four different designs can accommo-
date many process requirements:
1. The insertion sleeve style is the
most cost-effective version. It can
be installed directly into existing
pipe or specially designed to meet
unique piping configurations.
2. The meter-run style tab flow condi-
tioner offers a complete, simple
pipe section replacement for new
and existing piping systems. It is
a seven-pipe diameter-long spool
piece comprised of three-pipe
diameters of flow conditioning
internals and a built-in downstream
settling chamber.
3. The short-run style tab-type flow
conditioner offers a simple flow con-
ditioning pipe section replacement
for new and existing piping systems.
It is a three-pipe diameter long flow
conditioning spool piece with just
the tab flow conditioning internals.
4. The elbow style tab-type conditioner
is a 90-degree-long radius elbow.
It offers a simple flow condition-
ing elbow replacement for new and
existing piping. It can isolate irregular
velocity profiles and swirl normally
January 2017 | 21
 1
Figure 3.
Flow conditioner designs
3

the newly identified piping requirements.

Placing a tab-type, elbow conditioner in
the elbow solved the space problem
with large cost reductions and freed up
real estate for other uses.

2 Conclusion
encountered in a single elbow, and it
can isolate irregular velocity profiles
entering the flow conditioner.
Success stories
At an oil and gas production field,
the team needed to add new waste
gas flowmeters to a flare gas unit to
meet environmental requirements. The
existing piping layout could not accom-
modate flowmeters. Adding a tab-type,
meter-run flow conditioner to the meter
assembly eliminated the required
straight run for accurate measurement.
4 When looking for ways to decrease pro-
At a cramped wastewater treatment
plant with a large expansion project,
new air flowmeters were required in the
aeration process for efficient and cost-
effective air pumping into the treatment
ponds. A tab-type, meter-run flow condi-
tioner saved valuable plant real estate,
reduced the piping costs and allowed
room for additional equipment.
An offshore oil pumping station
required a new pump to increase capac-
ity. It had capacity for the pump’s
required straight run and no way to
expand the platform to accommodate
cess costs, enhancing the flow instru-
mentation accuracy may be a solution.
This does not always mean purchas-
ing a new flowmeter or a new switch,
though that may be the best solution.
Can the same results be achieved by
adding a flow conditioner instead? If
a new flow instrument must be pur-
chased, can a flow conditioner reduce
the required installation space, piping
and total installed cost? FC
Don Lundberg is a senior technical staff
member at The Vortab Company. Visit
vortab.com for more information.

Congratulations! to the 2016 Innovation Award Winner

and Honorable Mentions
2016Innovation
AWARDS HONORABLE MENTIONS

WINNER Endress+Hauser
Micropilot FMR10/FMR20 radar level transmitter

Sierra Instruments
InnovaMass 240i/241i iSeries vortex flowmeter

Siemens Process Instrumentation

Vögtlin Instruments AG HydroRanger 200 ultrasonic controller
Red-y compact 2 series thermal mass flowmeter

2017 Nominations Are Open!

Nominate new or improved products you have used or manufactured since
Jan. 1, 2016, for a 2017 Flow Control Innovation Award.
Flow Control is now accepting nominations online at FlowControlNetwork.com/InnovationAwards

22 | January 2017 Flow Control

 Best Practices & Applications

Configure an air-operated double

diaphragm pump with confidence
Select the right materials to withstand varying fluid characteristics.
By Michael Sandlin, Graco Inc.

A
ir-operated double diaphragm
(AODD) pumps are widely
regarded as some of the most
versatile and cost-effective pumps
available for fluid transfer. Configurable
to pump nearly any pourable fluid from
caustic acids to abrasive slurries, this
configuration flexibility often creates
confusion and anxiety when selecting
an AODD. In each application, different
pump materials will be suited for vary-
ing factors such as pH levels, abrasives,
temperature and fluid density. This arti-
cle identifies and recommends popular
ball, seat and diaphragm materials
(internal pump components) and pump
fluid sections (pump bodies) to perform
in applications with varying fluid charac-
teristics. These are general guidelines
and points to consider when specifying
the correct configuration. Prior to pur-
chase or operation, it is important to
check the manufacturer’s specifications
and chemical compatibility guides.
polypropylene, polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF or Kynar®) and polytetrafluoro-
ethylene (PTFE) are commonly chosen
because of the materials’ chemical
inertness.
PTFE offers the highest chemical
compatibility and can generally be
safely used with the most acidic acids,
such as hydrochloric, to the most basic
chemicals, such as sodium hydroxide.
However, in many cases PTFE is unnec-
essary when PVDF or polypropylene
options are sufficient. To this point,
the most important step in the mate-
rial selection process is to reference
the manufacturer’s available chemical
compatibility guides for direction on
appropriate pump materials for the
chemical in question.
Recommendation: Check manufactur-
er’s chemical compatibility guide.
Reduce wear
As mentioned above, PTFE is popular
because of its high level of chemical
inertness and compatibility in high-tem-
perature applications, but it is often mis-
applied in abrasive applications, such
as chemical slurries. Generally, metal
pump bodies such as stainless steel,
aluminum and Hastelloy® are best
for abrasive fluids. In applications with
abrasives, Santoprene® and Geolast®
internal pump components will provide
longevity and resistance to destructive
abrasives. Applications with petroleum-
based fluids, such as waste oil, are
Example of stainless steel, polypropylene
and aluminum AODD pumps with
configurable wetted material
Image courtesy of Graco Inc.

Control corrosion
Specifying a pump to safely
handle chemicals with fluc-
tuating pH levels and varied
concentrations presents a
challenge when configur-
ing an AODD pump, which
requires the proper selec-
tion of internal pump com-
ponents and pump bodies to
ensure compatibility, avoid
pump corrosion and mini-
mize maintenance inter-
vals. In applications in
which pH levels change or when
concentrations of the chemical may
vary, plastic pump bodies such as

www.flowcontrolnetwork.com January 2017 | 23

 PTFE offers the highest chemical compatibility
and can generally be safely used with the most
acidic acids.
Ball Check Material
Santoprene
Geolast
TPE
Acetal
Standard Neoprene
Buna
FKM
PTFE
Stainless Steel
Weighted Neoprene
Table 1. Identify alternative materials to reduce the overall pump cost.
best paired with Geolast ball, seat and
diaphragm materials. Santoprene, one
of the most versatile elastomers, offers
good chemical compatibility and excel-
lent abrasive resistance. Although all of
these materials excel with abrasive flu-
ids, it is recommended to check chemi-
cal compatibility.
Recommendation: Stainless steel
pumps with Geolast or Santoprene
wetted materials.
Verify temperature
To expedite production and reduce
manufacturing costs, more and more
plant processes operate at extreme
temperatures. The increase in temper-
ature adds another level of complexity
to material selection. In demanding
temperature applications, plastic pump
bodies are not recommended because
of the effects of cold flow and creep
that can lead to leaking. As tem-
peratures exceed 180°F, choices of
compatible internal components dras-
tically decrease. At these elevated
temperatures, materials such as fluo-
roelastomer (FKM or Viton®), ethyl-
ene propylene diene monomer rubber
(EPDM), PTFE and PVDF are preferred.
EPDM and FKM have the highest heat
24 | January 2017
Specific Gravity
(Check Weight)
0.84
0.97
1.19
1.32
1.42
1.43
1.80
2.16
7.95
9.42
resistance, rated to 275°F and 320°F,
respectively. PTFE and PVDF materials
are the next best alternatives, rated to
212°F and 225°F, respectively.
In cold environments such as natural
gas fields in the Pacific Northwest, gly-
col transfer pumps are required to with-
stand frigid environments that can dip
well below zero degrees, thus requiring
aluminum, stainless steel, EPDM, FKM
and Santoprene. It is important to iden-
tify temperature limits of all components
in the pump. Just because the internal
pump components are rated to an
extremely low or high temperature does
not mean the pump body material is
rated to the same level, and vice versa.
Be sure to identify temperature ratings
of all components when configuring an
AODD pump, which can be found in
product manuals.
Recommendation: Aluminum or stain-
less steel pumps with FKM, EPDM,
PTFE or PVDF wetted materials in high-
temperature applications. Aluminum or
stainless steel pumps with EPDM, FKM
or Santoprene wetted materials in low-
temperature applications.
Check fluid density
The weight of a liquid, referred to as
fluid density, is commonly overlooked
when configuring a diaphragm pump.
Diaphragm pumps utilize ball checks
that rise and fall as pressure changes
occur within the fluid chambers of the
pump. Many different metal and elasto-
mer configurations are available for ball
checks. Each of these materials has a
different weight, or specific gravity. It is
important to understand how this weight
relates to the fluid.
For example, when transferring a low-
viscosity fluid, such as sodium hypo-
chlorite, the weight of the ball is not
of critical importance because the fluid
is not restrictive during the ball seating
process. In contrast, a 30 percent slurry
has a higher viscosity that requires a
heavier ball to “cut” through the restric-
tive slurry so the ball seats properly.
Denser fluids typically require heavier
ball checks to seat reliably. If the ball is
too light, it will hang up in the slurry and
will not seat, leading to poor pump per-
formance that includes priming issues
and cavitation.
Recommendation: Depending on the
chemical compatibility results, weight-
ed neoprene, stainless steel and PTFE
ball checks have the highest spe-
cific gravity, or weight, allowing the ball
checks to seat reliably through high-
viscosity fluids.
Minimize costs
Is PTFE really needed, or will Santoprene
work just as well with 25 percent sulfu-
ric acid? This is another reason why it is
important to reference chemical com-
patibility guides. More often than not,
multiple material configurations can be
considered once the chemical compat-
ibility, fluid abrasives, temperature and
fluid density are measured. This is the
time to think about price. Polyproylene,
Geolast, EPDM, TPE and aluminum are
ideal for configuring a cost-effective
pump. As variables such as abrasives or
temperature become more challenging,
ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene
(UHMWPE), neoprene or nitrile may be
required to reliably handle the fluid,
increasing the cost of the pump.
Flow Control
 Specialty materials intended to han-
dle the most extreme fluid characteris-
tics include PTFE, PVDF, FKM, Hastelloy
and stainless steel. These materials add
the most cost to the configured pump.
Many users believe that during a repair,
the same materials must be reordered
to ensure the pump has the appropriate
materials. Instead, consult a chemical
compatibility guide to see if other mate-
rials are adequately suited for the same
fluid that can reduce the cost of the
pump. It is surprising how many AODD
pumps are misconfigured from the start.
Recommendation: Polypropylene, Geolast,
EPDM, TPE and aluminum are considered
cost-effective material options. Midrange
materials include UHMWPE, neoprene and
nitrile. PTFE, PVDF, FKM and stainless steel
are specialty materials at higher price points.
Conclusion
Fluid characteristics such as pH levels,
abrasiveness, temperature and fluid
density must be considered when con-
figuring an AODD pump. The available
choices may seem overwhelming, but
the tips above should reduce confu-
sion and anxiety when configuring a
pump. Always check chemical compat-
ibility guides found on manufacturers’
websites to ensure pump materials
are suitable for the fluid being trans-
ferred. In addition, use the tool in Table
1 to identify alternative materials to
reduce the overall cost of the pump.
Manufacturers’ websites often feature
online pump selector tools to assist
in configuring a pump. Print catalogs
have thousands of part numbers to
comb through, but new online tools
can assist in configuring a pump in a
matter of seconds. FC
Author’s note: All product names,
logos, trademarks and brands in this
article are property of their respective
owners and are used for identification
purposes only. Use of these names,
logos, trademarks and brands does not
imply endorsement.
Michael Sandlin currently
serves as a global product
marketing manager in the
Process Pump Division at
Graco Inc. Graco manufactures pre-
mium pumps and spray equipment for
fluid handling in the construction, man-
ufacturing, processing and maintenance
industries. Sandlin may be reached
at msandlin@graco.com or 612-379-
3701. For more information, visit graco.
com/process. Visit graco.com/materials
guide for more assistance with pump
materials.

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With more than 50 years of combined experience in process manufacturing, fluid handling and water
treatment, our accomplished editors create compelling articles focused on improving efficiency and quality.

Nearly 200,000 purchase-decision influencers rely on the power of the network and its three brands.

A dedicated Network Buyer’s Guide provides detailed product information for all process industries.

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www.flowcontrolnetwork.com January 2017 | 25

Best Practices & Applications
Gas turbine control,
operation & reliability
Advancements improve performance and efficiency.
By Amin Almasi
G
as turbine technology has
steadily advanced since its
inception, and it continues to
evolve. Development is actively pro-
ducing smaller gas turbines and more
powerful and efficient machines. Aiding
in these advances are computer-based
design, specifically computational fluid
dynamics and finite element analysis,
and the development of new mate-
rials such as blade materials with
superior high-temperature strength (for
instance, single-crystal super-alloys
that exhibit extraordinary strength) or
thermal barrier coatings that protect
the structural material from ever higher
temperatures. These advances allow
for higher compression ratios and tur-
bine inlet temperatures, more efficient
combustion and better cooling of gas
turbine components.
The efficiencies of gas turbines have
practically doubled by incorporating
intercooling, regeneration (or recupera-
tion) and reheating. These improve-
ments, of course, come at the expense
of increased initial and operation costs.
The costs can be justified by a reduction
in fuel costs, which offsets the increase
in initial purchase and other costs. The
general desire in the industry to mini-
mize overall costs and the tremendous
increase in the simple-cycle efficiency
to above 45 percent left little desire to
opt for further modifications.
On the emissions side, the challenge
is to increase turbine inlet tempera-
tures while reducing peak flame tem-
perature to achieve lower nitrogen oxide
(NOx) emissions and meet the latest
regulations. Recently a few gas turbine
manufacturers achieved turbine inlet
26 | January 2017
The efficiences of gas turbines have practically doubled
by incorporating intercooling, regeneration (or recuper-
ation) and reheating. These improvements come at the
expense of increased initial and operation costs.
temperatures of above 1,600°C with
gross thermal efficiency exceeding 60
percent using heat recovery systems.
Turbine section
The turbine section converts the gas-
eous energy of the air and burned
fuel mixture out of the combustor into
mechanical energy to operate the air
compressor and driven equipment. The
turbine converts gaseous energy into
mechanical energy by expanding the
hot, high-pressure gases to lower tem-
peratures and pressures. Each stage of
the turbine consists of a row of station-
ary vanes followed by a row of rotating
blades. This is the reverse of an axial
compressor’s order. In an axial com-
pressor, the rotor blades add energy to
the air then convert it to static pressure
by the stator vanes.
In a turbine, the stator vanes increase
gas velocity, and then the rotor blades
extract energy. The vanes and blades are
airfoils that provide a smooth flow of gas.
As the hot air stream enters the turbine
section from the combustion section, it is
accelerated through the first-stage stator
vanes. The stator vanes (also called noz-
zles) form convergent ducts that convert
the gaseous heat and pressure energy
into higher velocity gas flow. In addition
to accelerating the gas, the vanes “turn”
the flow to direct it into the rotor blades
at the optimal angle.
The materials used in the turbine sec-
tion limit the maximum temperature at
which a gas turbine can operate. The
first metal that the hot combustion
gases strike is the turbine inlet. The
temperature of the gas stream is care-
fully monitored to ensure that overtem-
perature does not occur.
As the mass of the high velocity gas
flows across the turbine blades, the gas-
eous energy is converted to mechanical
energy. Gas velocity, temperature and
pressure are sacrificed to rotate the
turbine to generate shaft power. The
turbine efficiency is determined by how
well it extracts mechanical energy from
the hot, high-velocity gases. Using prop-
erly positioned airfoils allows for smooth
flow and expansion of the gases through
the blades and vanes of the turbine.
All the hot air should flow across the
airfoils to achieve maximum efficiency.
To ensure this, internal seals are used
at the base of the vanes to minimize
gas flow around the vanes instead of
through the intended gas path. In addi-
tion, the initial stages or sometimes all
stages of the turbine blades usually have
tip shrouds to minimize gas flow around
the blade tips. After the gas has passed
through the turbine, it is discharged
through the exhaust. Though most of the
gaseous energy is converted to mechani-
cal energy by the turbine, some amount
of energy remains in the exhaust gas.
Flow Control
Unsteady flows in
gas turbines
In the turbine stage environment, the
flow is periodically unsteady because of
the relative motion of the blade rows.
Since modern gas turbine design philos-
ophy places emphasis on higher blade
loading and smaller turbine length, the
effects of these unsteady interactions
are even more important.
The unsteady flow effects in a gas
turbine are sources of aerodynamic
noise and mechanical vibration. The
unsteadiness nearly always brings
a decrease in efficiency such as an
increase of losses. Unsteady flows could
have different effects — such as wake
effects, wake-boundary layer interac-
tions, clocking effects and hot streaks.
Unsteady flows have significant effects
in high-load, part-load or off-design con-
ditions. Usually the gas turbine perfor-
mance is not satisfactory during unrated
conditions. Unsteady flows significantly
affect gas turbine performance in these
unrated conditions, such as part-load or
off-design operations.
Turbine design and operation have
developed to a rather high level
with increasingly mature technolo-
gies. One main consideration in gas
turbine design, selection, operation
and reliability is flow unsteadiness dur-
ing actual operation.
Traditionally, gas turbine losses have
been defined as profile loss, endwall
loss and leakage loss. These catego-
ries continue to be used, although loss
mechanisms are seldom independent.
In low-pressure turbine blades, the pro-
file loss is generally the largest single
contributor to the total loss of efficiency
because of a relatively high aspect ratio
of blades. The magnitude of the profile
loss depends mainly on the develop-
ment of the blade boundary layers,
especially on the suction surfaces. The
flow in low-pressure turbines is inher-
ently unsteady because of the relative
motion of adjacent blade rows. Two
primary forms of periodic unsteadiness
exist: the wakes from the upstream
blade rows and the potential fields of
blade rows both upstream and
downstream. Potential
interactions are
weaker than
wake interactions in most low-pressure
turbine sections. However, small chang-
es in the static pressure field may alter
the behavior of the boundary layers that
are close to separation or have sepa-
rated on the rear of the suction surface
of a blade. Therefore, care should be
taken when dismissing the significance
of potential interactions entirely. The
wake interaction plays an important role
in the development of the blade bound-
ary layers and the blade profile loss.
The low aspect ratio blade has been
popular in recent decades because of the
increasing blade loading in medium- and
high-pressure levels. The loss of the flow
field in the endwall regions is inversely
proportional to the aspect ratio of the

Figure 1. An example of a gas turbine

Graphic courtesy of Siemens

In a turbine, the stator vanes increase gas

velocity, and then the rotor blades extract
energy. The vanes and blades are airfoils
that provide a smooth flow of gas.

www.flowcontrolnetwork.com January 2017 | 27


The wake is the region of disturbed flow (usually
turbulent) downstream of a component moving rela-
tive to a fluid. The wake can be defined as a velocity
deficit in the body-relative frame of reference.
blade. For turbines with low aspect ratio,
losses at blade ends — including endwall
loss, the loss of secondary and tip leakage
flows — is a major source of lost effi-
ciency, contributing to at least 40 percent
of the total loss. Flow in high-pressure tur-
bines is also inherently unsteady, so the
unsteady effects at endwall or generally
at blade ends, such as the interactions of
the secondary flow vortex and tip leakage
vortex with the periodic wake or potential
field, is important to include in the design
and operation. Moreover, in a high-loaded
transonic turbine, the unsteady interac-
tions between the shock wave and the
secondary flow vortex and tip leakage vor-
tex are also significant to these losses. To
improve the performance of high-pressure
turbines, focusing on the unsteady loss
mechanisms in the blade-end regions
(such as endwall) is necessary.
Wake effects
The wake is the region of disturbed flow
(usually turbulent) downstream of a
component moving relative to a fluid.
The wake can be defined as a veloc-
ity deficit in the body-relative frame of
reference. The wake fluid tends to be
separated from the flow and not mixed.
If the instantaneous velocity field is less
than the undisturbed value, a wake
looks like a backward-facing jet, which
is called a negative jet. The negative
jet in axial turbines is one of the main
unsteady transport mechanisms. In an
axial compressor, the pressure side
presence hinders the wake transport,
and as a result, the stator wake fluid
accumulates on the rotor pressure side,
decreasing the load on a compres-
sor blade. Conversely in turbines, the
negative jet of the wake appears to
impinge on the rotor suction side, usu-
ally increasing the blade loads.
The convection of the upstream wake
segment within the blade row is
28 | January 2017
characterized by bowing, reorientation,
elongation and stretching. Wake fluid
bowing originates near the leading edge
plane where the midpassage velocities
are higher than the velocities near the
blade surfaces. The reorientation of the
wake segment occurs because of blade
circulation. The velocities near the suc-
tion surface are higher than those near
the pressure surface. Therefore, fluid
near the suction surface moves through
the passage more rapidly, resulting in
wake segment reorientation. The dif-
ference in convection velocities also
causes the wake segment to elon-
gate, which decreases the wake width.
Stretching occurs as the first part of
the wake reaches the leading edge.
The “wake avenue” is the progress of
wakes through downstream blade rows.
The wake segments from the rotor
are arranged along a fixed path toward
the downstream. Differences in the
number of rotor blades in the upstream
and downstream blade rows cause the
downstream flow field to depend on the
relative position of the upstream blade.
This phenomenon could be considered
as quasi-steady in the relative frame.
Wake-boundary layer
interaction
In turbines, the wakes from upstream
blade rows provide one source of
unsteadiness. Conditions under low
Reynolds numbers at low-pressure tur-
bines, the boundary-layer transition
and separation play important roles in
determining turbine performance. An
in-depth knowledge of blade boundary
layer is crucial for the effective man-
agement and control of boundary layer
transition or separation, especially the
open separation, which is a key part of
knowledge when designing low-pressure
turbines with a low Reynolds number.
Because of this, studying the wake-
boundary layer interactions is important.
Periodic-unsteady transition can be
caused by the impingement of upstream
periodic wakes. The periodic-unsteady
transition is the characteristic mode in
turbines. In low-pressure turbines with
a low Reynolds number, boundary layer
separation may occur as the blade load
increases. Rational use of the upstream
periodic wakes can effectively inhibit
the separation by inducing boundary-
layer transition before laminar separa-
tion occurs, therefore controlling loss
generation. When the wake passes, the
wake-induced turbulent spots form with-
in attached flows in front of the separa-
tion point. The turbulent spots continue
to grow and enter the separation zone
and, consequently, inhibit the forma-
tion of separation bubbles. The calmed
region trails behind the turbulent spots.
It is a laminar-like region, but it has a
full velocity profile. This is known as the
periodic wake-boundary layer interac-
tion process. The flow of the calmed
region is unreceptive to disturbances.
As a result, the region remains lami-
nar for much longer than the surround-
ing fluid and can resist transition and
Did you
know?
The global gas turbine
market was valued at $15.9
billion in 2014, and is ex-
pected to grow at a CAGR
of 3.9 percent from 2015
to 2020. Factors include
increased shale gas produc-
tion and power demand.
– MarketsandMarkets
marketsandmarkets.com
Flow Control
separation. The combination of the
calming effect and the more robust
velocity profile within the calmed region
make this aspect of the flow important.
After the wake interaction, the bound-
ary layer separation could occur in the
interval between the two wakes.
Hot streaks
Another significant unsteady phenom-
enon in turbines — particularly high-
pressure turbines — is the interaction
of hot streaks (also called “hot spots”),
which refer to the radial and circum-
ferential temperature gradients at the
gas turbine combustor exit. These pro-
nounced, temperature nonuniformities
in the combustor exit flow field are
caused by circumferentially discrete fuel
and dilution air injection within the
combustor. The hot streaks can cause
significant unsteadiness because of the
relative motion of the blade rows. They
interact with the different turbine parts
and can locally cause increased blade
heat transfer, leading to reduced blade
life and significant risks.
In practical gas turbines, combustor
hot streaks may have stagnation tem-
peratures that are twice those of the
free steam’s stagnation temperature.
The hot streaks can lead to high heat
loads and potentially catastrophic fail-
ure of the blades. Experimentally and
numerically, temperature gradients, in
absence of total pressure nonunifor-
mities, have been shown not to sig-
nificantly alter the flow (pressure field)
within the first-stage turbine stator, but
they have significant impact on the sec-
ondary flow and wall temperature of the
first-stage rotor.
An important concept is the clocking
effect of hot streaks. Adjusting the
positions of hot streaks with respect
to inlet guide vanes can help control
blade temperatures in gas turbines. The
impact to the blade is highest when
the hot streaks impinge on the leading
edge of the blade. On the contrary, the
impact decreases as hot streaks deviate
to have direct impingement to the lead-
ing edges. Although a thermal barrier
coating or cooling can reduce the local
www.flowcontrolnetwork.com
heat load to a certain degree, either will
increase the cost.
Rotor-stator interactions may also
generate significant nonuniformity of the
time-averaged relative total temperature
at the rotor inlet. If an optimal arrange-
ment of stators and blades exists, it may
minimize the influence of hot streaks on
the rotor blade’s life.
Another important concept is the hot
streak surface heating. The hot streak
moves at speeds significantly different
than the surrounding fluid.
Turbine leakage & shroud
In a break-even tip clearance, the
shrouded and unshrouded turbines have
the same efficiency, and if tip clear-
ance is less than break-even clearance,
the unshrouded turbine performs better
than the shrouded turbine. As a very
rough indication, this break-even tip
clearance could be about 0.5 percent
of the rotor blade’s span for some tur-
bines. Compared to the unshrouded tur-
bine, the shrouded turbine can reduce
the sensitivity of turbine performances
to changes in tip clearance. At the given
relative change in leakage flow, the
relative change in work is approximately
twice the relative change in efficiency.
Besides, the pitch-chord ratio has a dif-
ferent impact on the tip leakage mixing
processes in shrouded and unshrouded
turbines. Lower tip leakage losses can
be achieved effectively by turning the
leakage flows to reduce mixing losses
in shrouded turbines, and by blade tip
design or tip clearance treatment to
reduce the tip leakage flow in unshroud-
ed turbines.
The possibility for the control of
shroud leakage flow by modifications
to the exit shroud cavity is important
for gas turbines. Designers can reduce
the aerodynamic losses associated with
shroud leakage flow by controlling the
interaction between the leakage and the
main stream flow in the exit shroud cav-
ity. The control of shroud leakage flow
has been the focus in the gas turbine
design with the goal of reducing the
mixing losses associated with its reinjec-
tion into the main flow. Three different
techniques can be used to control the
shroud leakage flows: turning vanes,
honeycomb bands and chamfered
downstream edge of the cavity.
Turning vanes can be fixed onto the
casing above the shroud and between
the fins to turn the rotor shroud leakage
flow in the direction of the main blade
passage flow and reduce the circumfer-
ential mixing losses.
Honeycomb bands can be inserted
into the casing to weaken the flow in
a circumferential direction and then to
reduce the circumferential mixing loss-
es. This is effective since the honeycomb
acts to kill swirl velocity development for
the rotating labyrinth-honeycomb seal
because of the specific hexagon struc-
ture. This affects the over-tip leakage
flow and brings its velocity components
closer to the velocity components of
the main flow. This also reduces the cir-
cumferential mixing losses considerably
compared to the labyrinth seal.
The downstream edge of the cavity
can be chamfered to reduce the leak-
age jet radial velocity component and
the separation at the downstream
cavity edge and then to reduce the
stream-wise mixing losses. The cham-
fered downstream cavity edge has the
largest mixing loss reduction for all
three geometries tested. The cham-
fered downstream cavity edge likely
eliminates the separation at the down-
stream cavity edge and treats the leak-
age flow before it re-enters the main
flow, which reduces the stream-wise
mixing losses. FC
Amin Almasi is a senior
rotating machinery con-
sultant in Australia. He is
a chartered professional
engineer of Engineers Australia and
IMechE and holds bachelor’s and mas-
ter’s degrees in mechanical engineering
and RPEQ. He is an active member of
Engineers Australia, IMechE, ASME and
SPE and has authored more than 100
papers and articles dealing with rotat-
ing equipment, condition monitoring,
offshore, subsea and reliability.
January 2017 | 29
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Use the number listed with each product to learn more. Send products for
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Conval’s Clampseal Urea Service valves
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30 | January 2017
Modular drive
Control Techniques extended its high-
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FREE INFO: 101
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The Pure-Flo EnviZion hygienic diaphragm
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FREE INFO: 103
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This month on
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ONLINE EXCLUSIVE From our Twitter feed

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