“Second language Learning”

Language is humans’ first means of communication. It is usually regarded as the perfect way of
sending and receiving oral and written messages. Many researches have been undertaken particularly
on second language learning; Scholars have claimed that human beings are capable to learn a second
language after a specific age and at specific circumstances. These suggestions have highlighted many
questions: what is the optimal age of second language learning? And what is the right environment to
learn a second language?

To start with, human beings are said to be able to learn several languages. Second language
learning refers to the learning of a new language besides the native language. There are many second
language learning theories that aim to explain the way and where second language is learnt.

In other words, the environment in which people learn their second language was the subject
matter for many linguistics. These researchers have focused on two kinds milieus that are called: the
natural and the planned environments.

Children or adults spend much of their time either at home or outside, so, they are learning much
more language from the natural environment where parents and friends are regarded as the first
providers of language. Within such environment, children learn second language naturally, i.e. no
rules are taught, but presented in a natural way. In contrast to the planned environment, children do
acquire language through a restricted plan or program. That is to say, those children are taught
grammatical rules that are well planned. In such environment, usually there is a limited knowledge,
attention and discipline, this means, that children are exposed to a limited amount of information
contrarily to the natural environment where there is a kind of continuity in learning.

In addition, studies have shown that two main kinds of learning processes usually occur in the
planned environment, they are called “Inductive and Deductive Learning”. Both of these types of
learning offer certain advantages. The deductive learning is characterized by the introduction and the
clear explanation of the concepts; whereas, the inductive method is usually used to teach grammar for
old children; for example: When teaching a new grammar concept, the teacher will introduce the concept, explain the
rules related to its use, and finally the students will practice using the concept in a variety of different ways.

Yet, according to Bob Adamson, The deductive method is often criticized because it teaches
grammar in an isolated way and a little attention is paid to meaning. That is why; it is not efficient to
use the deductive method to teach young children; these latters are not yet able to understand the
language and, because their LAD system is not well developed till 07 years old, and thus, the abstract
grammatical rules are not well understood.
 Conversely, the inductive learning mainly based on “noticing”; Instead of explaining a given
concept and following this explanation with examples, children (basically under 07) are supplied with
many examples showing how the concept is used, for instance, the teacher would present the students
with a variety of examples for a given concept without giving any preamble about how the concept is
used, then it is up to the students to see how the concepts are used and to extract the grammar rule. In
case of making mistakes “correction” is evident; for young children, repetition plays a great role, the
child requires repeating what has been said correctly. But for old children, a combination between
“repetition and explanation” is needed; they are asked to get the explanation and at the same time to
repeat.

Furthermore, further researches were made on “the chief differences between the planned and
natural environment”. This means, learning quality in a natural environment is not the same as in the
planned environment in terms of the psychological demands of the classroom; within classroom, the
focus is more on the learning process rather than the students’ emotional feelings, in contrast to the
natural environment where the both the child’s natural environment and emotional side are taken into
account.

Another important feature can distinct between the two environment that is Pre-selected Data.
To put it simple, when learning in a natural environment, no data are selected; the learning process is
carried on naturally. Children are exposed to a wide range of language that is expected to understand
and learn without any material support. On the other hand, within a planned environment, learning
materials are usually pre-selected: a careful attention is on the learning process, and on the data that
support it.

As far as the “grammatical rules” are concerned, wide differences are noticed; within a
natural environment, children are exposed to grammatical rules indirectly are expected to understand
them, for example:

 Nobody do not like me

 Nobody likes me

The first sentence denotes that the child is not aware of the appropriate use of the “Negation”; then,
in the second statement, the mother tries to correct his child’s mistake by showing him the right form
and use of the negation. Contrarily to the planned environment that provide a restricted exposure of
the grammatical rules to children; they are shown the rule and then asked to practice it in order to
master it.
 In addition, the planned environment usually provides children with only theories. This means
that, the child learns many concepts that he is not able to practice them. Though these concepts are
related to the real life situation, or provide them with a clear instructions and pictures about the real
life, it is not sufficient. For these reasons, the natural environment allows the children to put into
practice what they have learnt. Besides, the natural environment provides children with multiple real
life examples.

In other words, the natural environment frequently provides children with real and visual aids
that are “parents”; although these aids are concert but still are limited. Whereas, in the planned
environment, visual aids vary; as or instance; data show …etc. These aids can help to enhance the
child’s learning. So, it is reasonable to believe that the planned environment represents the theoretical
side that goes hands in hand with the natural environment which is the practical side.

On the other side, other researchers have notice a great difference between children’s first and
second language acquisition and learning. They have put forward several aspects that have a great
impact on the child’s first and second language learning.

“The learning environment” was their starting point. That is to say, when a child is born in a
bilingual natural environment; he will logically have the ability to speak more than one language, he
would be able to learn that second language and practice it easily. This means that the environment
may help children in learning second language.

In addition, “motivation” plays a big role in second language learning. Children usually acquire
their first language as a natural process that shows their development. Then, they acquire the language
in order to be able to speak it fluently. As far as the second language is concerned, children usually get
motivated to learn it; the factors that motivate children can be either external or eternal. That is to
say, that child may learn a second language either because of the natural environment in which he
leaves do speak it, or because the external world requires so; in case of studying. Then, the ability to
learn the second language easily may create certain attitudes toward the language: the child may have
either a good or bad attitudes towards learning that language.

Another relevant factor that distinct to a large extent between the first and second language is
“the memory and motor skills”. To put it clear, empirical studies have shown that memory
represents a great importance in second or even first language learning and acquisition: if someone has
a memory illness (as Broca / Wernick aphasia), he would not be able to learn a second language or
even probably acquire the first language. Then, as motor development reflects a child’s ability to
control and direct voluntary muscle movement, in case of any memory sickness, motor skills will not
be able to function.
 Furthermore, many linguistics have deeply investigated on the optimal age for second language
learning. According to Greenfield, the optimal age for second language learning is after puberty. On
the other side, the optimal age depends on the intellectual capacities of the children as well their
memory and motor skills; in case the child has no infection, he will be ready then to learn a second
language, and vise versa.

Furthermore, after acquiring the first language and learning a second language, another kind of
language will usually occur. Linguistics have shed light on such language and called it as “an inter
language”. Larry Selinker (1972) introduced the term “interlanguage” to refer to the intermediate
states of a learner’s language as it moves from L1 to the target language L2. It is a kind of creative
process influenced by the L1 and includes input of the 2L. It is the third language born as a result to
the acquisition of the first language and the learning of the second language.

The idea of interlanguage means using a language system which is neither the L1, nor the L2. It is
a third language, with its own grammar, its own lexicon and so on. The rules used by the learner are to
be found in neither his own mother tongue, nor in the Target Language.  

Additionally, Silinker noticed that there are some differences between the interlangugae
development in second language learning and first language acquisition in terms of “language
transfer” that could be either positive or negative. Transfer can be simply defined as the influence
resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that
has been previously acquired. From this definition, it is considered that positive or negative impact
will arise.

In other words, when the unit of both languages is the same, linguistic interference (or
interlanguge) can result in correct language production called “positive transfer” an example is the use
of cognates that are are words that have a common etymological origin (doublet). For example, the
English words “shirt” and “skirt” are doublets.

However, language transfer s most often discussed as a source of errors known as  negative
transfer. It occurs when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not the same in both
languages. Within the theory of contrastive analysis , the greater the differences between the two
languages, the more negative transfer can be expected.

Generally speaking, the more similar the two languages are, and the more the learner is aware of
the relation between them, the more positive transfer will occur. For example, an Anglophone learner
of German may correctly guess an item of German vocabulary from its English counterpart.