Lecture 11

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Learning outcomes:
• Derive the algebraic equations of computational fluid
dynamics
• Model fluid mechanics problems using computational fluid
dynamics software and extract solutions from it
 Design air-con placement
• People – 310K
• Food – 323K
• Stoves at kitchen – 373K
• Lighting – 338K
CFD Simulation
Design air-con ducts
Meshing
Extract outputs
 Overview
Computational Fluid Dynamics

Finite Volume Method

Finite
Element
Method Model
Domain (Geometry) Governing Equations
Discretization
• Space: 1D, 2D, 3D; • Continuity equation
Time • Momentum equations
Finite • Initial values • Energy equation
Difference Solution • Boundary conditions
Method Methods
 Domain in space & time
Simulating a wing airfoil

Domain
Inlet boundary Outlet boundary
Wall boundary

Test section Wind tunnel

Wall boundary
 Space & Time
• Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is applied
over a domain of Eulerian space and time.
• CFD can be 1D, 2D, or 3D; can be steady,
quasi-steady, or unsteady.
• Unsteady CFD analysis is known as transient
analysis.
 Lagrangian viewpoint
Tracks a particle by moving the view from one position to another position
y

x
 Lagrangian coordinates
The particle path is given by the history of the position vector
y Like Dynamics

r (x + Δx, y + Δy, t + Δt)

r (x, y, t)

Particle path

x
 Eulerian viewpoint
Tracks a property of the particles from one fixed position
y

x
 Eulerian coordinates
The coordinates correspond exactly to the positions
y
Fixed boundary

v (x2, y2, t2)

v (x1, y1, t1)

x
 Boundary Conditions
Neumann boundary condition

Simulation domain

u
𝜕𝑢
=0
𝜕𝑦

u (x, y, t)=0

Dirichlet boundary condition

The Conservation Laws of Physics

Conservation of Mass
(properties of interest: density, velocities)

Conservation of Momentum
(properties of interest: density, pressure, velocities)

Conservation of Energy
(properties: density, pressure, temperature, velocities)
 Conservation laws & CFD
• CFD is modeled with conservation laws.
• The conservation laws as applied over the
Eulerian space, leads to partial differential
equations or the governing equations.
• Governing equations are used to calculate the
properties (velocities, density, pressure,
temperature, etc.) in the CFD domain.
Basic conservation structure
no space/geometry information

=
First Law of Thermodynamics
The equation below cannot describe the physics in the chamber

𝛿𝑈 = 𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊
Dynamic conservation structure
with space/geometry information

Partial Differential Equation

Changes = Add – Remove

 Arranging the structure into mesh
The mesh consists of the elements in a domain to keep track of the properties

x
x
CFD Mesh with boundary conditions

Fluid flowing through a pipe

Inlet Outlet

Wall
 In mathematics form:
This equation makes sure that fluid
is not created out of thin air

𝜕𝜌 𝜕
Continuity equation: + 𝜌𝑢 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝜌𝑢 𝜕𝜌𝑢2 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝜕𝑢
Momentum equation: + =− + 𝜇 + 𝜌𝑓𝑥
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

This equation determines the speed of

the fluid traveling from left to right
 Derivation of the continuity equation
[Rate of mass accumulation] = [Net mass flow into the volume]

Control volume Velocity field 𝜕

න 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 = − න 𝜌 𝑢 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆
𝜌 𝜕𝑡 𝑉 𝑆

Normal vectors
න 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑉 = න 𝜌 𝑢 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆
𝑉 𝑆
Divergence theorem

𝜕
Source 𝛻∙𝑢 >0 න 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 + න 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝑉 𝑉

𝜕𝜌
Sink 𝛻∙𝑢 <0 + 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑢 = 0
𝜕𝑡
Divergence in Cartesian coordinates
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝛻∙𝑢 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Adding Removing

𝑢1 + 𝑢2 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 𝑢1 - 𝑢2 𝑢1 - 𝑢2

𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥1 𝑥2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
<0 <0 >0 >0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
Consider the x direction: = lim
𝜕𝑥 Δ𝑥→0 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Different forms of continuity equation
𝜕𝜌
+ 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑢 = 0
𝜕𝑡
Rectangular coordinates 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 :
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌𝑢 𝜕𝜌𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑤
+ + + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Cylindrical coordinates 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧 :
𝜕𝜌 1 𝜕𝜌𝑟𝑢 1 𝜕𝜌𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑤
+ + + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
Spherical coordinates 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑 :
𝜕𝜌 1 𝜕𝜌𝑟 2 𝑢 1 𝜕𝜌𝑣 sin 𝜃 1 𝜕𝜌𝑤
+ + + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑
Derivation of the momentum equation
[Rate of momentum accumulation] = [Momentum flow into the volume]
+ [Surface forces] + [Volume forces]

𝑑
න 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑉 = − න 𝜌𝑢 𝑢 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 + න 𝜎Ԧ ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 + න 𝜌𝑓Ԧ 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑉 𝑆 𝑆 𝑉

𝑑
න 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑉 = − න 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑉 + න 𝛻 ∙ 𝜎Ԧ 𝑑𝑉 + න 𝜌𝑓Ԧ 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉

Stress tensor: 𝛻 ∙ 𝜎Ԧ = 𝛻 ∙ −𝑝𝛿Ԧ + 𝜏Ԧ = −𝛻𝑝 + 𝛻 ∙ 𝜏Ԧ

Viscous stress tensor

𝑑
𝜌𝑢 + 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑢𝑢 = −𝛻𝑝 + 𝛻 ∙ 𝜏Ԧ + 𝜌𝑓Ԧ
𝑑𝑡
 Terms in governing equations
• Unsteady term
𝜕
Has
𝜕𝑡
• Convection term
𝜕 𝜕
First order: or etc.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
• Diffusion term
𝜕2
Second order:
𝜕𝑥 2
• Pressure term
Has 𝑝
• Source term
Anything else like 𝜌𝑔, 𝑞ሶ
• 1D, 2D, 3D?
Has 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 or not
 3D Rectangular Coordinates (x, y, z)
Steady State, Navier-Stokes Equations
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜇 𝜕 2 𝑢 𝜕 2 𝑢 𝜕 2 𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝
𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 2
+ 2+ 2 − + 𝑔𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜇 𝜕 2 𝑣 𝜕 2 𝑣 𝜕 2 𝑣 1 𝜕𝑝
𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 2
+ 2+ 2 − + 𝑔𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜇 𝜕 2 𝑤 𝜕 2 𝑤 𝜕 2 𝑤 1 𝜕𝑝
𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 2
+ 2+ 2 − + 𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑧

Constant viscosity
Newton’s law of viscosity
for momentum transport

𝑇
−𝜏റ = 𝜇 𝛻𝑢 + 𝛻𝑢

A process of viscous diffusion

For momentum equations
Fourier Law of Conduction
for thermal analysis

−𝑞റ = 𝑘𝛻𝑇

A process of thermal diffusion

For energy equation
Fick’s law of mass diffusion
for multiple fluids analysis

−റ𝑗 = D𝛻φ

A process of mass diffusion

For species equations
Dimensionless number of diffusion
• Lewis number
𝛼
𝐿𝑒 =
𝐷
• Prandtl number
𝜈
𝑃𝑟 =
𝛼
• Schmidt number
𝜈
𝑆𝑐 =
𝐷
 Example 11.1
Given the following equations:
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
+𝑢 =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢2 1 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝜕𝑢
+ =− + 𝜈
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑢 0, 𝑡 = 1
𝑑𝑢(1,𝑡)
=0
𝑑𝑥
𝑢 𝑥, 0 = 0
𝑝 𝑥, 0 = 𝑝 0, 𝑡 = 𝑝 1, 𝑡 = 0
𝜌 𝑥, 0 = 𝜌 0, 𝑡 = 𝜌 1, 𝑡 = 𝜌atm

Define each equation and draw the domain of the problem.

 Finite Volume Method
• In this method, the flow domain is divided into many
small control volumes in a process called meshing.
• Each small control volume has one central node and
several faces.
• Together the many control volumes form a grid (or
mesh).
• FVM applies the governing equations over the control
volumes to ensure global conservation.
• To apply the method, FVM converts the partial
differential equations of the governing equations into
many algebraic equations.
A 2D structured grid of FVM

Each grid is a control volume

represented by a single set of
values of the properties
(density, pressure, velocities)
 1D Function Approximation
Linear solutions
Properties

Grid
 1D Function Approximation
Quadratic solutions
Properties

Grid
 1D Finite Volume Method
Partial differential equation:
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝜕𝑈
𝜌𝑈 + 𝜌𝑈 2 = − + (𝜇 )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Integrate

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝜕𝑈
න 𝜌𝑈 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝜌𝑈 2 𝑑𝑥 = − න 𝑑𝑥 + න (𝜇 )𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Discretization
Algebraic equation:
𝑎𝑃 𝑈𝑃 = 𝑎𝐸 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑎𝑊 𝑈𝑊 + 𝑠𝑢,𝑃

fw w e fe
FW W P E FE

Δx
 Convection term
w e
W P E

𝜕
න 𝜌𝑈 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜌𝑈 𝑒 𝑈𝑒 − 𝜌𝑈 𝑤 𝑈𝑤
𝜕𝑥

(𝑈𝐸 +𝑈𝑃 ) (𝑈𝑃 + 𝑈𝑊 )

= 𝜌𝑈 𝑒 − 𝜌𝑈 𝑤
2 2

𝜌𝑈 𝑒 𝜌𝑈 𝑤 𝜌𝑈 𝑒 𝜌𝑈 𝑤
= − 𝑈𝑃 + 𝑈𝐸 + − 𝑈𝑊
2 2 2 2
 Diffusion term
w e
W P E

𝜕 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
−න 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝜇 + 𝜇
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 e
𝜕𝑥 𝑤

Δ𝑈 Δ𝑈
=− 𝜇 + 𝜇
Δ𝑥 e
Δ𝑥 w

𝜇
=− 𝑈𝐸 − 𝑈𝑃 − 𝑈𝑃 − 𝑈𝑊
Δ𝑥

2𝜇 𝜇 𝜇
= 𝑈 + − 𝑈 + − 𝑈
Δ𝑥 𝑃 Δ𝑥 𝐸 Δ𝑥 𝑊
 Unsteady term
w0 e0 Time 0
W0 P0 E0

Time step
w e Time 1
W P E

𝜕 𝜌𝑃
න 𝜌𝑈 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑈𝑃 − 𝑈𝑃0 Δ𝑥
𝜕𝑡 Δ𝑡

𝜌𝑃 Δ𝑥 𝜌𝑃 Δ𝑥 0
= 𝑈𝑃 + − 𝑈
Δt Δt 𝑃
Source term – Pressure gradient
w e
W P E

𝜕𝑝
−න 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑝𝑒 + 𝑝𝑤
𝜕𝑥

𝑝𝐸 𝑝𝑊
= − +
2 2
 Handling boundary conditions
• Dirichlet boundary condition
Boundary wall
𝑈=𝑎
b e Domain
𝑈𝐵 + 𝑈𝑃 B P E
=𝑎
2
Δx
• Neumann boundary condition
𝜕𝑈
=𝑎
𝜕𝑥
Δ𝑈 = 𝑈𝑃 − 𝑈𝐵 = 𝑎Δ𝑥
 Dirichlet boundary conditions
• Wall (not moving)
Boundary wall
𝑈 𝑏 =0
b e Domain
𝑈𝐵 + 𝑈𝑃 B P E
=0
2
Δx
• Moving wall at 2m/s
𝑈 𝑏 =2

𝑈𝐵 + 𝑈𝑃
=2
2
 Neumann boundary conditions
• Symmetry (zero gradient)
Boundary wall
𝜕𝑈
=0
𝜕𝑥 b e Domain
B P E
Δ𝑈 = 𝑈𝑃 − 𝑈𝐵 = 0

Δx
• Flux (gradient=3)
𝜕𝑈
=3
𝜕𝑥
Δ𝑈 = 𝑈𝑃 − 𝑈𝐵 = 3Δ𝑥
 Apply the algebraic equation to the
grid
𝑎𝑃 𝑈𝑃 = 𝑎𝐸 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑎𝑊 𝑈𝑊 + 𝑠𝑈,𝑃

Boundary wall
𝑎1 𝑈1 = 𝑎2 𝑈2 + 𝑎𝑏 𝑈𝑏 + 𝑠𝑈,1
𝑎2 𝑈2 = 𝑎3 𝑈3 + 𝑎1 𝑈1 + 𝑠𝑈,2
So on..
b 1 2 𝑎3 𝑈3 = 𝑎4 𝑈4 + 𝑎2 𝑈2 + 𝑠𝑈,3
𝑎4 𝑈4 = 𝑎5 𝑈5 + 𝑎3 𝑈3 + 𝑠𝑈,4
Δx ⋮
⋮
 From the algebraic equations to the
global matrix
𝑎𝑃 𝑈𝑃 = 𝑎𝐸 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑎𝑊 𝑈𝑊 + 𝑠𝑈,𝑃

𝑎1,1 −𝑎1,2
−𝑎2,1 𝑎2,2 −𝑎2,3 𝑈1 𝑆𝑈,1 + 𝑎𝑏 𝑈𝑏
−𝑎3,2 𝑎3,3 −𝑎3,4 𝑈2 𝑆𝑈,2
⋮ ⋮
𝑈𝑖−1 𝑆𝑈,𝑖−1
⋱
𝑈𝑖 = 𝑆𝑈,𝑖
−𝑎𝑛−2, 𝑈𝑖+1 𝑆𝑈,𝑖+1
𝑎𝑛−2, −𝑎𝑛−2,
𝑛−3 𝑛−2 𝑛−1 ⋮ ⋮
−𝑎𝑛−1, 𝑎𝑛−1, −𝑎𝑛−1, 𝑈𝑛−1 𝑆𝑈,𝑛−1
𝑛−2 𝑛−1 𝑛
𝑈𝑛 𝑆𝑈,𝑛 + 𝑎𝑐 𝑈𝑐
−𝑎 𝑛, 𝑎𝑛,𝑛
𝑛−1
Iterative methods: Explicit method
𝑎𝑃 𝑈𝑃 = 𝑎𝐸 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑎𝑊 𝑈𝑊 + 𝑠𝑈,𝑃

𝑎𝐸 𝑈𝐸′ + 𝑎𝑊 𝑈𝑊
′
+ 𝑠𝑈,𝑃 Grid and coordinates
𝑈𝑃 =
𝑎𝑃

xb x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 …
Ub’ U1’ U2’ U3’ U4’ U5’ U6’ U7’ U8’ … Previous iteration

Ub U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 … Current iteration

Next iteration

Convergence / divergence
Explicit method is simple to implement but not 100% stable.
 Iterative methods: Implicit method
𝑎𝑃 𝑈𝑃 = 𝑎𝐸 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑎𝑊 𝑈𝑊 + 𝑠𝑈,𝑃 b1 c1 0 0 0 U1 S1 – a1Ub

a2 b2 c2 0 0 U2 S2
𝑎𝑈𝑊 + 𝑏𝑈𝑃 + 𝑐𝑈𝐸 = 𝑠𝑈,𝑃
0 a3 b3 c3 0 U3 = S3
𝑠𝑈,𝑃 = 𝑑
0 0 a4 b4 c4 U4 S4

0 0 0 a5 b5 U5 S5 – c5Uc
Tri-Diagonal Matrix Algorithm*
function x = TDMAsolver(a,b,c,d) %a, b, c are the columns, d is the right vector
n = length(d); % n is the number of rows
c(1) = c(1) / b(1); d(1) = d(1) / b(1); % Modify the first-row coefficients
for i = 2:n-1
temp = b(i) - a(i) * c(i-1); c(i) = c(i) / temp; d(i) = (d(i) - a(i) * d(i-1))/temp;
end
d(n) = (d(n) - a(n) * d(n-1))/( b(n) - a(n) * c(n-1)); % Now back substitute.
x(n) = d(n);
for i = n-1:-1:1
x(i) = d(i) - c(i) * x(i + 1);
end
Implicit method is more complicated to implement but 100% stable.
*Matlab TDMA solver, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tridiagonal_matrix_algorithm, accessed 4/10/2014.
 Example 2
Given a partial differential equations and its initial and boundary conditions:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢2
+ =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

𝑢 0, 𝑡 = 1

𝑑𝑢(1,𝑡)
=0
𝑑𝑥

𝑢 𝑥, 0 = 0

Solve the problem using finite volume method.

 Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes
equations (RANS)
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Split velocity into average velocity and fluctuation around
average velocity:
𝑢 = 𝑈 + 𝑢′
𝑣 = 𝑉 + 𝑣′
𝑤 = 𝑊 + 𝑤′
Substitute and average:
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑊
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 RANS (momentum)
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑢′ 𝑢′ 𝜕𝑢′ 𝑣′ 𝜕𝑢′ 𝑤′
𝑈 +𝑉 +𝑊 + + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕2𝑈 𝜕2𝑈 𝜕2𝑈 1 𝜕𝑝
=𝜈 2
+ 2
+ 2
− + 𝑔𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑢′ 𝑣′ 𝜕𝑣 ′ 𝑣′ 𝜕𝑣 ′ 𝑤′
𝑈 +𝑉 +𝑊 + + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 1 𝜕𝑝
=𝜈 + + − + 𝑔𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜌 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑤 ′ 𝑢′ 𝜕𝑤 ′ 𝑣′ 𝜕𝑤 ′ 𝑤′
𝑈 +𝑉 +𝑊 + + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕2𝑊 𝜕2𝑊 𝜕2𝑊 1 𝜕𝑝
=𝜈 + + − + 𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜌 𝜕𝑧
Reynolds stresses
 CFD model – Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)
Definitions
Properties:
𝑢ഥ𝑖 time-averaged velocities
𝑢𝑖′ fluctuating velocities
𝜌 density
𝑥𝑖 positions
𝑝ҧ time-averaged pressure
𝑓ഥ𝑖 time-averaged body forces
𝜈 kinematic viscosity
𝑡 time
1 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗
𝑆𝑖𝑗 mean strain rate, +
2 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖
 CFD Turbulence model
Governing equations
Conservation of mass:
𝜕𝑢ഥ𝑖
=0
𝜕𝑥𝑖

Conservation of momentum:
′ ′
𝜕𝑢ഥ𝑖 𝜕𝑢ഥ𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 1 𝜕𝑝ҧ
+ 𝑢ഥ𝑗 + = 𝑓ഥ𝑖 − + 2𝜈𝑆𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜌 𝜕𝑥𝑖
 CFD model
Turbulence model
Boussinesq hypothesis:
2
−𝑢𝑖′ 𝑢𝑗′ = 2𝜈𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑗 − 𝑘𝛿𝑖𝑗
3
Where:
𝜈𝑡 Eddy viscosity
𝑘 Turbulent kinetic energy
CFD model - standard k-epsilon model
There are other more complex, more computationally expensive models

𝜕𝑘 𝜕 𝑘𝑢𝑖 𝜕 𝜈𝑡 𝜕𝑘
+ = 𝜈+ + 2𝜈𝑡 𝑆 2 − 𝜖
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜎𝑘 𝜕𝑥𝑗
𝜕𝜖 𝜕 𝜖𝑢𝑖 𝜕 𝜈𝑡 𝜕𝜖 𝜖 𝜖 2
+ = 𝜈+ + 𝐶1𝜖 2𝜈𝑡 𝑆 2 − 𝐶2𝜖
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜎𝜖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑘 𝑘
Where
𝐶𝜈 𝑘 2
𝜈𝑡 =
𝜖
𝐶𝜈 = 0.09 𝜎𝑘 = 1.0 𝜎𝜖 = 1.3
𝐶1𝜖 = 1.44 𝐶2𝜖 = 1.92