1 - Page Of Content -

2Acknowledgment .…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2

3Introduction .…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3
4Roofs .…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 4
5Gable roof .…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6
6Hip roof .…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 7
7Mansard roof .…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 8
8Gambrel roof .…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 9
9Flat roof .…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 11
10Types of roofing materials ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 12
11Slabs …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 15
12Solid slabs …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 19
13Flat slabs …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 24
14Ribbed slabs and solid slabs ..………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 30
15Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 33
16References …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 34
17

18

19 .

20

21

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22 Acknowledgment

23

24 I am very pleased to present this main project work. This period of my student life has been truly
25 rewarding a number of people were of immense help to me during the course of my project work and
26 preparation of this book.

27 First, I wish to thank God Almighty who created heavens and earth, who helped me in completing this
28 project.

29 I thank my parents, encouraged me all along to complete this big task and to my friends who has given
30 good support along the way.

31 I would like to thank all my department’s lecturers, my project internal guide, for his guidance and help.
32 His insight during the course of my research and regular guidance were invaluable to me.

33 And also I thank Dr. Ayman Othman, Head of the Department, Architecture Engineering, The British
34 University in Egypt, for his encouragement and cooperation throughout the project.

35

36 I would also thank Dr. Ashraf Nessim, Principal of our college, for extending his help

37

38

39

40

41

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42 Introduction
43  A Roof of a building is covering on the uppermost part of a building or
44 shelter which provides protection from animals and weathers, not only
45 rain, but also heat, wind and sunlight.
46

47  The horizontal floor system resists the gravity load (dead load and live
48 load) acting on it and transmits this to the vertical framing systems. In this
49 process, the floor system is subjected primarily to flexure and transverse
50 shear, where as the vertical frame elements are generally subjected to
51 axial compression, often coupled with flexure and shear. The floor also
52 serves as a horizontal diaphragm connecting together and stiffening the
53 various vertical frame elements. Under the action of lateral loads, the floor
54 diaphragms behave rigidly (owing to its high in plane flexural stiffness) and
55 effectively distribute the lateral load to the various vertical frame
56 elements and shear walls.
57

58

59

60

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63

64 Roofs
65A roof is part of a building envelope. It is the covering on the uppermost part of a
66building or shelter which provides protection from animals and weather, not ably
67rain or snow, but also heat, wind and sunlight.

68 Roof shapes differ greatly from region to region. The main factors which
69influence the shape of roofs are the climate and the materials available for roof
70structure and the outer covering. Roof terminology is also not rigidly defined.
71Usages vary slightly from region to region, or from one builder or architect to
72another.

73Roof shapes vary from almost flat to steeply pitched. They can be arched or
74domed; a single flat sheet or a complex arrangement of slopes, gables and hips;
[1]
75or truncated (terraced, cut) to minimize the overall height.

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

4
 86 There are various types of Roofs shapes :
871. Gable
882. Hip
893. Mansard
904. Gambrel
915. Flat
926. Skillion
937. Jerkinhead
948. Butterfly
959. Bonnet
9610. Saltbox
9711. Sawtooth
9812. Curved
9913. Pyramid
10014. Dome
10115. Combination

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

1141- Gable roof:

115- Also known as pitched or peaked roof.

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116-They are easily recognized by their triangular shape.

117
118Pros: easily shed water and snow, allow more ventilation and cheaper than more complex designs

119Cons: not recommended in high wind and hurricane areas.

120-There are four types of Gable roofs:

1211 - Side Gable.
1222 - Crossed Gable.
1233 - Front Gable.

1244 - Dutch Gable Roof.

125

126

127

128

129

1302 - Hip roof:

131A hip roof has slopes on all four sides. The sides are all equal length and come together at the top to form a ridge .

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132

133Pros: Hip roofs are more stable than gable roof.

134Cons: more expensive to build and more complex design.

135Types of Hip roofs:

1361 -Simple Hip.

1372 - Cross Hipped.

1383 - Half Hipped. .

139

140

141

142

143

1443 - Mansard roof.

145Is known as a French roof, is a four-sided roof with a double slope on each side that meet forming a low-
146pitched roof.

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147

148Pros: extra living space, is very popular as the style itself has a sense of beauty.

149Cons: high cost.

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

1574 – Gambrel roof.

158A gambrel, or barn roof, is much like mansard in a sense that it has two different slopes. The difference
159between the two is that the gambrel only has two sides, while the mansard has four.

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160
161Pros: the gambrel provides extra living space. Plus it’s simple to frame out.

162Cons: The gambrel roof is not recommended for heavy wind areas or regions that receive significant
163snowfall.

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

1755 - Flat roof:

176 Flat roofs appear to be completely flat with no pitch.

177These roofs are generally used on industrial or commercial buildings.

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179
180

181Pros: Extra living space on the roof for a patio, garden or partially enclose for a penthouse room. Heating
182and cooling units can also be placed on flat roofs, keeping them out of sight.

183Cons: They are not advised for high rainfall or high snowfall areas.

184

185

186

187Another important aspect that comes into play with roofs is the choice of material. The material of a roof
188may range from banana leaves, wheaten straw or seagrass to laminated glass, copper, aluminum sheeting
189and pre-cast concrete. In many parts of the world ceramic tiles have been the predominant roofing material
190for centuries, if not millennia. Other roofing materials include asphalt, coal tar pitch, EPDM rubber,
191Hypalon, polyurethane foam, PVC, slate, Teflon fabric, TPO, and wood shakes and shingles. Roof shapes
192differ greatly from region to region. The main factors which influence the shape of roofs are the climate and
193the materials available for roof structure and the outer covering.

194

195 - Different kinds of roofing materials :

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196 # Asphalt Shingles: The most common residential roofing material used in the United States, asphalt
197 shingles are popular because they are economical and easy to install. These shingles can be reinforced
198 with fiberglass or organic materials (cellulose) without changing the appearance of the shingle.
199 # Clay and Concrete Tiles: Clay and concrete tiles add texture and elegance to a roof. Genuine flat,
200 ribbed or scalloped clay tiles are extremely durable but also very heavy, and must be installed by a
201 professional. Concrete tiles are versatile and are less expensive than genuine clay, but also have a heavy
202 weight
203 # Metal Roofing: Metal roofs are resistant to extreme weather conditions. Available in two types, panels
204 and shingles, metal roofs come in aluminum, copper, stainless steel and zinc
205 # Slate: Offering lots of beauty and a distinctive elegant appearance, slate colors include shades of black,
206 green, grey, red and purple.
207 # Wood Shingles and Shake: The go-to roofing choice for hundreds of years, many homeowners love
208 the look of wood shingles and shakes and how they weather to an attractive shade of gray. Wood shakes
209 are handmade and rougher-looking than wood shingles, which are usually cut by machine.
210 # Synthetic Roofing Products: There are now synthetic roofing products, including rubber, plastic and
211 polymer roofing, developed to give you the color, look and texture of natural materials like slate and
212 wood. These products are designed to be strong and easy to maintain. Some of these materials are fire-
213 resistant.

214

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215

216 - Aviva Stadium’s roofing structure:

217 Built on site of oldest sports stadium in Europe – Lansdowne Road. Originally constructed 1872. Home of Ireland’s
218international rugby and soccer teams. Redevelopment started 2007. Officially re-opened May 2010. The whole
219stadium was demolished over a two month period. Most of the existing structure was crushed on site and 25,000 tons
220of concrete blockwork and brickwork were re-used as fill on site. Over 1, 5000 tons of steelwork from the old
221stadium was recycled.
222Roof size: 19,000 sq.m
223Cladding: 4,251 polycarbonate panels.
224Construction: 5,000 tones structural steel. 150km (100 miles) pipework internal and external. 450km (280 miles)
225cabling including all power data and controls cabling. 8,000 pre cast concrete units manufactured off site. 72,000
226tones concrete cast in situ on site.

227

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229
230

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

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239

240 Slabs
241

242 Definition
243
244A slab is a common structural element of modern buildings. Horizontal slabs of steel reinforced concrete, typically between
2454 and 20 inches (100 and 500 millimeters) thick, are most often used to construct floors and ceilings, while thinner slabs are
246also used for exterior paving. Sometimes these thinner slabs, ranging from 2 inches (51 mm) to 6 inches (150 mm) thick, are
247called mud slabs, particularly when used under the main floor slabs or in crawl spaces. In many domestic and industrial
248buildings a thick concrete slab, supported on foundations or directly on the subsoil, is used to construct the ground floor of a
249building. These can either be "ground-bearing" or "suspended" slabs. In high rise buildings and  skyscrapers, thinner, pre-
250cast concrete slabs are slung between the steel frames to form the floors and ceilings on each level.

252

253 Structural issues

254Reactive soil sites can be difficult to build on but ‘floating’ stiffened concrete raft slabs cope well with these
255conditions. Some stiffened raft slabs (known as waffle raft slabs) use void formers at regular intervals,
256forming closely spaced, deep reinforced beams criss-crossing the slab underside.
257Void formers are expanded foam boxes that insulate the slab, but more ground-coupled alternatives are
258available. These include proprietary systems that use recycled tyres or reused detergent bottles filled with
259water, grouped together as void formers.
260Steep sites may have geotechnical requirements that make slab-on-ground construction impracticable. A
261suspended slab may then be a suitable way to gain the advantage of thermal mass on a steep site. Typical
262pole frame construction can be adapted easily to incorporate a slab. The slab underside should be insulated
263in most climates.

265
266 Durability
267Long life — Concrete’s high embodied energy can be offset by its permanence. If reinforcement is correctly
268designed and placed, and if the concrete is placed and compacted well so there are no voids or porous areas,
269concrete slabs can have an almost unlimited life span.
270To ensure longevity of the slab, control cracking with:

271  proper preparation of foundations

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272  appropriate water content: excess water causes cracking and weakens the slab
273  appropriate placing and compaction
274  appropriate curing, employing a curing membrane in the first 3–7 days (continuous wetting is a
275 common practice but also consumes large amounts of water)
276  appropriate construction scheduling allowing 28 days, or the duration specified by your structural
277 engineer, for the concrete to reach design strength before placing significant loads.

278Termite resistance — For minimum termite risk construction, concrete slabs should be designed and
279constructed in accordance with Australian Standards to have minimal shrinkage cracking. Joints,
280penetrations and the edge of the slab should be treated.

281  Slab edge treatment can be achieved simply by exposing a minimum 100mm of slab edge above the
282 ground or pavers, forming an inspection zone at ground level.
283  Where a brick cavity extends below ground, physical barriers must be installed using sheet materials
284 including stainless steel, a termiticide-impregnated polyethylene vapour barrier (tPVC) and/or damp
285 course, a fine stainless steel mesh, or finely graded stone.
286  Pipe penetrations through concrete slabs require a physical barrier. Options include sheet materials
287 such as PVC, stainless steel mesh or graded stone.
288  Although physical barriers are environmentally preferable, chemical deterrents are also available,
289 which must be reapplied at regular intervals to maintain efficacy. Benign natural deterrents can be
290 applied by permanent reticulation pipework similar to a drip irrigation system.

291
292
293
294TYPES OF SLABS

Type of slab used in construction sectors are:

 Solid slab
 Flat slab
 Ribbed slab
 Waffle slab
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302

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303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316 (A) Solid slabs
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333 (B) FLAT SLAB
334
335
336
337
338

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340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347

348 (C) RIBBED SLAB

349
350

351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360

361 (D) WAFFLE SLAB

362

364
365

366

367 Solid Slabs:

368Solid Slabs are consisted of two types:

369 - One-Way Slabs

370 If the load is transferred in one direction.

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371 - Two-way Slabs
372 If the load is transferred in two directions

3731) One-Way Solid Slabs:

374
375Definition:

376If the load is transferred in one direction. Which makes the structural action of the structure only in
377directional the main reinforcement or main support beam is only found in one way slabs.

378One-Way Slabs Are slabs that are supported by two opposite edges, as it is supported at four edges with a
379rectangularity ratio; r > 2

380

381 Where ma & mb = 1 For Simple Span.

382 = .87 for spans
383continuous from one end only.

384 = .76 for spans continuous from both ends.

385When Slabs are supported by walls then: ma = mb = 1.
386

387

388Effective Span:

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389

390
391

392

393

394As For cantilevers:

395

396

397

398
399

400

401

402Minimum Thickness:
403For Spans That are less than 10m or cantilevers that are less than 2m long.
404

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405

406

407 2) Two-Way Solid Slabs:

408

409

410Definition:

411Ifthe load is transferred in two directions. The main supports are found going in
412both directions.

413Slabs with a rectangularity ratio; r ≤2

414

415

21
416

417

418 Where ma & mb = 1 For Simple Span.

419 = .87 for spans continuous from one end only.
420 = .76 for spans continuous from both ends.
421When Slabs are supported by walls then: ma = mb = 1.
422Load Distribution Factors:
423

424

425

426 - W1: Load Transferred in the short direction = αw

427 - W2: Load Transferred in the long direction = βw
428 - α + β < 1.0
r
429 α= 2 −0.15

22
 0.35
430 β= r2
431

432Effective Span:

433

434
435

436

437Minimum Thickness:
438For Spans That are less than 10m or cantilevers that are less than 2m long.
439

440Difference between one-way & Two-way Sold slabs:

441One way slabs are supported by beams on two side only, while two way slabs are
442supported by all four side.

443The support or main reinforcement for one way slabs only go in one direction,
444while the supports for two way slabs will go both directions.

445One way slab will behave in the same manner as a support beam, while with two
446way slabs is evenly distributed will reduce bending and shifting.

447

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448

449

450

451

452

453

454

455

456 Flat slab:

457Definition:

458The term flat slab means a reinforced concrete slab with or without drops,
459supported generally without beams, by columns with or without flared heads.

460Flat slab is consisted of four types:

461

24
462

463
464

465

466 - Flat Slab.

467 - Flat Slab with drop panels.
468 - Flat Slab with Column head.
469 - Flat Slab with drop panel and column head.
470

471

472Flat Slab with drop panels:

473Uses:

474  Increase shear strength if slab

475  Increase negative moment capacity of slab
476  Stiffen the slab and hence reduce deflection
477

478

479Flat Slab with Column head:

25
480Uses:

481  Increase shear strength of slab.

482  Reduce the moment in the slab by reducing the clear effective span.
483

484

485 Benefits of Flat Slabs:

486 - Flexibility in room layout.
487 - Saving in building height.
488 - Shorter construction time.
489 - Ease of installation of M&E Services.
490 - Prefabricated welded mesh.
491 - Buildable score.
492

493 - Flexibility in room layout:

494  It allows Architect to introduce partition walls anywhere required.
495  Allows owner to change the size of room layout.
496  Allows choice of omitting false ceiling and finish soffit of slab with skim
497 coating.
498

499 - Saving in Building Height:

500  Lowering the storey height will reduce the building weight due to lower
501 partitions and cladding façade.
502  Reduce foundation load.

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503
504

505

506

507

508 - Shorter construction time:

509FlatPlate Design Will Facilitate the use of big table formwork to increase
510productivity.

511

512

513 - Ease of installation of M&E Services:

514  All M&E Services can be mounted directly on the underside of the slab
515 instead of bending them to avoid the beams.
516  Avoids hacking through beams.
517

518 - Prefabricated welded mesh:

27
519  Prefabricated in standard sizes.
520  Minimized installation time.
521  Better quality control.
522

523 - Buildable score:

524  Allows standardized structural members and prefabricated sections to be
525 integrated in the design for ease of construction.
526  This process will make the structure more buildable, reduce the number of
527 site workers and increase the productivity at site.
528  More tendency to achieve a higher buildable score.
529

530

531

532

533

534

535

536

537 Methods of Analysis of Flat Slab:

538 There are three methods of analysis of flat slabs:
539 1- Direct Design Method (DDM)
540 2- Equivalent Frame Method (EFM)
541 3- Finite Element Method (FEM)
542Out of this, the first 2 methods are the most recommended by the I.S.
543code for determining the bending moments in the slab panel.

28
544These methods are applicable only to two way rectangular slabs. And in
545the case of direct design method the recommendations apply to the

546gravity loading condition alone (and not to the lateral load condition)

547

548

549

550

551

552

553

554

555

556

557

558

559 Some evident of flat slab failure:

560

561

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562
563 Punching Shear Failure in the Main Roof at corner Column.
564

565

566 This multi-floor parking garage collapsed

567like a stack of cards while some of the neighboring building remained
568undamaged.
569
570
571

572
573

574

575

576 Ribbed slabs & Waffle Slabs

Ribbed Slabs:

30
 Rib
bed slabs are made up of wide band beams running between columns with
narrow ribs spanning the orthogonal direction. Normally the ribs and the beams
are the same depth. A thin topping slab completes the system.

Waffle Slabs:

Waffle slabs tend to be deeper than the equivalent ribbed slab. Waffle slabs have
a thing topping slab and narrow ribs spanning in both directions between column
heads or band beams. The column heads or band beams are the same depth.

Benefits:
 Flexible
 Relatively light, therefore less foundation costs and longer spans are
economic.

31
  Speed of construction.
 Fairly slim floor depths.
 Robustness.
 Excellent vibration control.
 Thermal mass.
 Good for services integration.
 Durable finishes.
 Fire resistance.

Disadvantages:
 Depth of slab between the ribs may control the fire rating.
 Requires special proprietary formwork.
 Large vertical penetrations are more difficult to handle.

Limitations of ribbed and waffle slabs:

- Distance between ribs axes can be increased up to 1.5m
- Thickness of upper slab is determined by a value not less than 50mm
whichever greater

32
 - The minimum value of rib width (b) isn’t less than 1/4 slab thickness (t) or
100mm whichever greater with taking into account requirements of
concrete cover, distance between bars and fire requirements

577

578

579

580

581

582

583

584

585

586

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587

588 :Conclusion
589

590So to be remained roofs and slaps are a part of the building that designed for an specific major
591the shapes ,design and material are different from building to building according to their needs for
592example the roofs, the roofs are the upper part that covers the building there are different types
593from it such as (gables, hip, mansard, gambrel, flat, curved, dome) and many other types also the
594materials that used in roofs are depend on the wide of the building that is important for the roof
595stability . for example the new Aviva stadium that originally constructed in 1872 these stadium
596had been re-opened in 2010 they used 25000 tons of concrete and over 5000.tons of steel work
597from the old stadium to renewed .The slab is a common structural element of modern building .
598slabs have different thickness and different types such as (solid slab, flat slab, ribbed slab, waffle
599slab) there are many different way to make the slabs stick together it depend on the place that
600going to stick on it that helps to know what the thickness of slab should be used .there are many
601ways to make this slaps life longer, by proper preparation of foundations, appropriate water
602content and appropriate placing and compaction

603

604

605

606

607

608

609

610

611

612

613

614

615

616

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617

618

619

620

621 References
622 Long, George. "Roof". The Penny cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.
623London: Charles Knight, 18331843. 143. Print.
624  Cowan, Henry J., and Peter R. Smith. "Shed roof" Dictionary of architectural and building
625technology. London: Elsevier Applied Science Publishers ;, 1986. 272. Print.
626  "The Machine Shop and the Works. Modern Principles of Design", The Times: Engineering
627Supplement, London, November 13, 1912, p.25.
628  Harris, Cyril M.. "Pent roof". Harris dictionary of architecture & construction. 3rd ed. New York:
629McGraw-Hill, 2000. Print.
630  Fleming, Honour, & Pevsner, A Dictionary of Architecture
631  Passmore, Augustine C.. "Span Roof". Handbook of technical terms used in architecture and
632building and their allied trades and subjects,. London: Scott, Greenwood, and Co.;, 1904. 325. Print.
633  Passmore, Augustine C.. "V Roof" Handbook of technical terms used in architecture and building
634and their allied trades and subjects,. London: Scott, Greenwood, and Co.;, 1904. 362. Print.
635  Coutts, John. Loft Conversions. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 2012. Print.
636  Davies, Nikolas, and Erkki Jokiniemi. Dictionary of architecture and building construction.
637Amsterdam: Elsevier/Architectural Press, 2008.304
638 http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/rainbow+roofhttp://www.avivastadium.ie/docs/default-
639document-library/download-the-aviva-stadium-fact-sheet-here-.pdf?sfvrsn=0

640http://www.sportsmanagementdegreehub.com/the-30-most-architecturally-impressive-sports-stadiums-in-
641the-world/

642Civil Engineering Basic. www.Civilengineeringbasic.com

643Concrete Center ''Ribbed and waffle slabs''. www.concretecenter.com

644Hyun-Su Kim1, Dong-Guen Lee2, “Efficient Seismic Analysis of Flat Plate System Structures” (13th World
645Conference on Earthquake Engineering Vancouver, B.C., Canada August 1-6, 2004 Paper No. 680) (2004)

Ash Development Association of Australia. www.adaa.asn.au

Australasian (Iron and Steel) Slag Association. www.asa-inc.org.au
Baggs, S, Baggs, J and Baggs, D. 1991. Australian earth-covered building. New South Wales University
Press. http://trove.nla.gov.au
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia. www.concrete.net.au
Cement Industry Federation. www.cement.org.au
Industrial Hemp Association. http://www.ihansw.org.au/
646

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648

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