Professional Documents
Culture Documents
to Enhance Learning
and Teaching
Muhamad Saiful Bahri Yusoff
ISBN: 978-967-11270-8-7
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any
form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior
written permission of Centre for Development of Academic Excellence(CDAE), Universiti
Sains Malaysia.
Centre for Academic Excellence & Student Advisory and Development (CDAE)
Bangunan H24, Kompleks Cahaya,
Lorong Cahaya,
11800, USM Pulau Pinang
3
Contents
Contents 3
Preface 4
Synopsis 5
The Concept of Feedback 6
Continuum 7
The Concept of Feedback 7
The Concept of Feedback 8
Evidence for the Effects of Feedback on Learning and Teaching 9
2.1 How Effective is Feedback in the Educational Context? 9
2.2 Types of Feedback and How they Improve Learning Achievements 12
2.3 Reactions of Students and Teachers to Feedback 15
A Model to Identify the Contexts Under which Feedback has the Greatest
Impact 20
3.1 How Feedback Works 21
3.2 The Three Questions to be Addressed for Effective Feedback 22
3.2.1 Where am I going? 22
3.2.2 How am I doing? 25
3.2.3 Where to next? 25
3.3 Focus of feedback 26
Common Issues Related to Feedback 29
4.1 Timing of Feedback 29
4.2 Effects of Positive and Negative Feedback 30
4.3 Feedback and Classrooms 31
4.4 Feedback and Assessment 33
Utilizing Feedback to Enhance Learning and Teaching in the Classroom 35
Challenges to Creating a Culture that Values Feedback 41
Take-home Message 42
References 43
Preface
Dear Readers,
Continuum
TEACHING FEEDBACK
Without learning context, feedback has no effect. For feedback to have the
greatest impact there must be a learning context or a teaching context in which
feedback is addressed. In other words, the focus of feedback is an integral element
of effective feedback (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). Feedback must provide specific
information related to the learning task or process in order to reduce discrepancy The Concept of Feedback
between what is understood and what is supposed to be understood (Hattie &
Timperley, 2007).
In reality, feedback is part of teaching, and it takes place after a learner has been
taught something. Practically, information about some aspect of the learning
performance is provided as feedback. Feedback can be provided in numerous
different ways, including as an affective process (e.g., providing motivation,
inciting increased effort and engagement) and a cognitive process (e.g.,
8
restructuring understanding, guiding learners toward directions that they could
pursue, and suggesting relevant strategies to comprehend certain knowledge). In
addition, feedback can be either active or passive. Active feedback occurs when
an individual seeks feedback from an instructor and passive feedback occurs
when an individual is given feedback by an instructor.
In the context of learning and teaching in higher education, students can seek
feedback from teachers to improve the learning experience, and teachers can seek
feedback from students to improve the instructional design (i.e., their teaching).
Therefore, having a good understanding of the concept of feedback may help
teachers and/or students enhance the learning and teaching environment in
higher education. In a nutshell, using feedback effectively is an important strategy
to ensure a worthwhile learning and teaching experience in higher education.
Even though the impacts of feedback were reported mainly for learning
achievements, these results could also be applied to the teaching context
because teachers are always learning how to improve their teaching
performance. Therefore, feedback plays a vital role in enhancing both
learning and teaching in the classroom.
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2.2 Types of Feedback and How they Improve Learning
Achievements
Previous studies revealed that feedback has the greatest impact on learners
(i.e., students or teachers) who received information feedback about a
learning task and strategies to improve it in the future (Hattie & Timperley,
2007) (Table 3). Feedback has the least effect on learners who received praise,
rewards, and punishment (Hattie & Timperley, 2007) (Table 3).
13
The focus of feedback influences its effectiveness.
(Hattie & Timperley, 2007)
This section describes ways in which students and teachers react to feedback.
There are many ways to provide feedback to teachers about their teaching
performance, including student evaluation, peer review, portfolio, self-
evaluation, administration evaluation, and student outcomes (Berk, 2005;
Berk et al., 2004). Although debate continues about the value of these
All methods of feedback have strengths and flaws, thus the use of multiple
evaluation methods is a wiser approach, as different methods could
compensate for flaws in any one feedback method used (Epstein, 2007).
Reaction
Reactionto
toreceiving
receivingfeedback
feedback11 Reaction
Reaction to giving
to giving feedback
feedback 2 2
Purpose
To reduce discrepancies between current understanding/performance and the desired
understanding/performance
A Model to Identify the Contexts Under which Feedback has the Greatest Impact
If feedback fails to reduce the gap between what is understood and what
will be understood, learners (i.e., students and teachers) might reduce the
gap by 1) exaggerating their current learning accomplishment or 2) claiming
a variety of learning accomplishments that reduce effort and engagement.
If goals are poorly defined, feedback will not reduce the gap between
current understanding and intended understanding because learners will
not see valid reasons to put effort into reducing the gap (Hattie & Timperley,
2007). Feedback often is not connected to attainment of important aspects
of the intended goal. For example, frequently learners are given feedback
on presentation, spelling, and quantity of writing; however, if the intended
learning goal for the writing assignment is actually to create mood in a story,
such feedback will not be effective in reducing the gap in relation to the
intended goal (Hattie & Timperley, 2007).
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Table 7: Ways to reduce the discrepancy between current
understanding and intended understanding
Students Teachers
Productive Strategy
Increasing effort to tackle more Providing appropriate challenging and
challenging tasks specific goals
A Model to Identify the Contexts Under which Feedback has the Greatest Impact
Increasing effort to appreciate higher
Clarifying goals to reach students
quality experiences rather than doing
through feedback
“more”
Developing effective error detection Enhancing commitment to reach
skills that lead to self-feedback students through feedback
Seeking better strategies to complete Increasing effort to reach students
the task through feedback
Creating a learning environment in
Obtaining more information from
which students develop self-regulation
relevant sources to solve problems
and error detection skills
Using self-regulatory abilities Setting appropriate focus of feedback
Less Productive Strategy
Abandoning goals
Picking and choosing goals that can be achieved and ignoring the others
Changing the standard by setting less challenging goals
Changing the standard by accepting performance below their capability as
satisfactory
A Model to Identify the Contexts Under which Feedback has the Greatest Impact
i. Direct approach, such as passing an examination and finishing a
project;
A Model to Identify the Contexts Under which Feedback has the Greatest Impact
can plan and appraise their actions and efforts accordingly. It lets
them set appropriate goals and map their performance based on the
goals so that fine-tuning of effort, direction, and even strategy can be
made as required (Locke & Latham, 1990). The extent of attainment
of the goals is used as indicators of success (Hattie & Timperley,
2007). “Goals without clarity as to when and how a student (teacher)
would know they were successful are often too vague to serve the
purpose of enhancing learning” (Hattie & Timperley, 2007).
A Model to Identify the Contexts Under which Feedback has the Greatest Impact
when it provides information about how to move forward and
directions about how to make progress on a critical component of
the task. Most of the time, the question “How am I doing?” will lead to
assessment, but this is not the basic concept underlying this question.
Assessment always fails to deliver feedback information that can help
learners know how well they are doing (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). To
obtain the greatest benefit from feedback, the information should
be delivered in a specific manner that addresses a critical component
of a task or performance and it should be delivered in a low-threat
environment (Hattie & Timperley, 2007).
As has been discussed previously, the focus of feedback is vital. The four
main levels of focus are as follows:
A Model to Identify the Contexts Under which Feedback has the Greatest Impact
such as whether a task is correctly or incorrectly done, which later could be
readjusted to achieve the desired goals. It also involves directions to obtain
more information for building a better learning experience. It is also known as
corrective feedback or knowledge of result (Hattie & Timperley, 2007).
iv. Feedback on self (FS) involves providing information about the self as
a person. For example, “You are a very good student” and “You are very
beautiful”. This kind of feedback generally does not help a learner to achieve
learning goals.
Among these four levels, FR and FP are powerful in terms of deep processing
and mastery of a task (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). FT is powerful when
information subsequently is used to improve FP or enhance FR (Hattie &
Timperley, 2007). The least effective strategy is FS because the feedback is
often unrelated to performance on the task (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). The
characteristics of each level of focus are summarized in Table 8.
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Table 8: The characteristics of each level of focus
FT FP FR FS
It is about how well a It concerns the processes Self-regulation involves It is personal feedback
task is being performed underlying tasks or interplay between and typically expresses
or accomplished and relating and extending commitment, control, and positive evaluation and
building more surface tasks, thus providing confidence to accomplish effects about the learner,
knowledge. deeper understanding. a task. and it usually contains
A Model to Identify the Contexts Under which Feedback has the Greatest Impact
little task-related
information.
It relates to correctness, It relates to students’ It addresses the way It is not very effective
neatness, behaviors, or strategies for error learners monitor, direct, yet is widely used in
other criteria related to detection. and regulate actions classrooms.
task accomplishment. toward accomplishment
of learning goals.
It is about providing It provides information as It leads to seeking, It is rarely converted
correct or different a cueing mechanism and accepting, and into favorable
information. leads to more effective accommodating feedback accomplishment or
information search and information. performance of tasks.
use of task strategies.
It is more powerful when Cues are most useful Its effectiveness is Its effectiveness is very
the problem is faulty when they assist learners mediated by capability of much influenced by
interpretation rather than in rejecting errors learners to create internal learners’ self-conception.
lack of information. and provide direction feedback.
for searching and
strategizing.
It aims to move students It is more effective than Its effectiveness is Praise or criticism
from task to processing FT for enhancing deeper mediated by capability of directed toward personal
and then from processing learning. learner to self-appraise. characteristics has little
to regulation. influence on student
achievements. (e.g., “You
are a good student.”)
It is most beneficial Its effectiveness is Praise or criticism
when it helps learners mediated by the directed toward effort,
recognize errors and willingness to invest self-regulation, or
provides cues as to effort into seeking and processes can assist in
direction for searching dealing with feedback enhancing self-efficacy
and strategizing toward information. and have an impact on
task accomplishment. the task (e.g., “You are a
good student because you
have carefully completed
the task by applying
these concepts.”)
Too specific and too much Its effectiveness is It should be delivered
feedback only at the task mediated by the degree in ways that enhance
level can interfere with of confidence or certainty learning gains in an
task accomplishment. in the correctness of the appropriate educational
response. context.
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Simple rather than Its effectiveness is Older learners perceive
complex FT tends to be mediated by the praise after success or
more effective. attribution of success or neutral feedback after
failure. failure as an indication
that their ability is low.
Good students are more Its effectiveness is Younger learners perceive
likely to make efficient mediated by the level of praise as an indication of
use of the FT, whatever its proficiency at seeking high ability and criticism
A Model to Identify the Contexts Under which Feedback has the Greatest Impact
complexity. help. after failure as an
indication of low ability.
FT can be delivered It has two types: effort FS tends to be more
and received in both feedback and ability generalized at the self
individual and group feedback. level, thus it is difficult
contexts. for the teacher to change
learning behaviour.
Providing FT through It depends on the stage
written format is more of task accomplishment.
effective than marks or (e.g., effort feedback
grades. It is very useful is more required at
when learning new skills the beginning stages,
or tasks. whereas ability feedback
is more required as skills
develop successfully.
The following four issues related to feedback are commonly debated: timing of
feedback, effects of positive and negative feedback, feedback and classrooms,
and feedback and assessment (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). Each issue will be
elaborated further in the next sections.
Generally there are two types of feedback: immediate and delayed (Table 9).
Its effects are likely to be more powerful Its effects are likely to be more powerful
at the task level (FT). at the process level (FP).
It is useful for attaining easy learning It is useful for attaining difficult learning
outcomes because it involves a shorter outcomes because it involves a greater
degree of processing about the task. degree of processing about the task.
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4.2 Effects of Positive and Negative Feedback
Feedback Effect
level Positive feedback Negative feedback
FT i. Poor feedback delivery can be i. Disconfirmation with
disregarded by learners. adequate information
can be effective because
ii. It also can be ignored by learners it provides relevant
if the learners’ knowledge is information regarding what
insufficient to accommodate to do or how to respond
additional feedback information. next time.
There are many ways in which teachers can deliver feedback to their students
and students can receive feedback from their teachers, peers, and other
sources. Using more tests is not the solution; the solution lies in how the
tests are designed (Epstein, 2007).
i. Gain information about what and how well they understood and
misunderstood a task;
ii. Find directions and strategies that they must use to improve their learning
achievement;
For teachers, tests are regarded as a type of feedback about their teaching
The answers to these questions will provide insight to teachers and learners
about ways to move forward to enhance learning and teaching effectiveness
when there are gaps between what is currently known and what is expected
to be known in relation to accomplishment of tasks (Hattie & Timperley, 2007).
Various approaches to reducing the gaps include increasing effort, motivation,
or engagement and increasing cue searching and task processes that lead to
understanding. The three questions certainly should not be linearly interpreted
or implemented, and the boundaries between them are quite unclear.
Thus, goals might be stagnant for particular issues, and feedback concerning “How
am I doing?” might help to provide relevant information to refine these “stagnant
goals” and help the student move towards achieving the desired understanding
and performance.
37
Similarly, the answer to “Where to next?” might be stagnant for particular issues if:
Feedback at the task level (FT) has the greatest impact on learning when it is
used to correct distorted interpretation, but it is not effective in situations in
which learners lack understanding. It also has a significant impact on learning
when it assists in generating more information about flawed assumptions and
thoughts, which then leads to the development of better strategies to process
and comprehend the tasks to be accomplished.
Feedback at the process level (FP) has the greatest impact on learning when
it helps students eliminate flawed assumptions and when it provides more
information for searching and developing better approaches to complete the
tasks. Such information allows learners to fine tune their effort towards attaining
required competencies to complete the tasks. Preferably, it should progress from
task to process (i.e., understanding that is required to learn the task) and later to
38
self-regulation (i.e., learners’ commitment, confidence, and motivation to engage
in more challenging tasks and goals that go beyond the initial task). This process
might lead to greater motivation, commitment, and confidence and to greater
investment of effort toward achieving more challenging tasks. Commonly, this
kind of flow will be seen in learners who have shown a high level of fluency and
mastery (Hattie & Timperley, 2007).
Feedback at the self or personal level (FS) (i.e., usually praise) is often ineffective.
It rarely addresses the three feedback questions, thus it does not lead to
enhancement of learning. When feedback concentrates at the self, learners try to
do the following (Black & Wiliam, 1998):
A challenge for teachers is to ensure that all learners perceive the learning goals as
relevant and salient because learners who are prepared to inquire and reflect on
what they know and understand are more ready to provide and receive feedback
(i.e., both positive and negative), and this situation offers them the best chances
for learning.
Clearly, teachers should be as ready as learners to look for and learn from various
sources of feedback. If assessments address the three major feedback questions,
they will provide valuable information to both teachers and learners that might
enhance learning accomplishment. Unfortunately, assessments frequently
provide insignificant feedback to learners because they are used merely as
grades or numbers rather than as feedback devices that are important to enhance
teaching and learning processes (Hattie & Timperley, 2007).
Feedback together with effective teaching in the classroom has the greatest
impact on learning achievement. However, feedback can only build on previous
teaching; it is of little use when there is no initial learning. Feedback is what
happens after teaching has taken place, and it is a powerful tool that can influence
learning achievement as well as teaching effectiveness (Hattie & Timperley, 2007).
6.0
Challenges to Creating a Culture that
Values Feedback
Two main factors challenge the creation of a culture that values feedback. First,
teachers are extremely busy and their lack of time is a major obstacle. It is very
important to reward busy teachers in a way that recognizes their dedication to a
culture of feedback, and administrators must provide them with time to engage
in and cultivate it (Norcini, 2010). Second, faculty training programs are needed to
ensure that the feedback process will optimize the learning process and augment
the quality of teaching (Norcini, 2010).
7.0
Take-home Message
2. There is ongoing debate about which source of feedback has the most
potent effect on learning and teaching.
6. There are three major questions (i.e., Where am I going? How am I doing?
Where to next?) that can be used as a guide to help teachers and learners
deliver effective feedback.
10. A culture that values feedback should be instilled in every teacher and
learner.
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