AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE:

ACCELERATED FLIGHT
Course/Code: Aircraft Design and Performance – MECN 3350
Professor: Dr. Omar Enrique Meza Castillo
Lesson: 5.1.2
Objectives

■ To state the importance of aircraft performance at accelerated flight.

■ To solve problems about turn and V-n diagram approaches.
■ To solve problems about take-off and landing performance.
 Level Turn

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Level Turn
■ By definition, a level turn is one in which the curved flight path is in
a horizontal plane parallel to the plane of the ground; that is, in a
level tum the altitude remains constant.
■ The magnitude of the lift L and the value of 𝜙 are adjusted such that
the vertical component of lift, denoted by L cos 𝜙, exactly equals the
weight, or 𝐿 cos 𝜙 = 𝑊
■ Under this condition, the altitude of the airplane will remain
constant. Hence, previous equation applies only to the case of a level
turn; indeed, it is the necessary condition for a level turn.
■ For the case where 𝜃 = 0 and 𝜖 = 0 and turn radius 𝑅

𝑉∞ 2 𝑉∞ 2 𝑑𝜓
𝑚 = 𝐿 sin 𝜙 𝑚 = 𝐿 sin 𝜙 𝜔=
𝑟2 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
 Constraints on Load Factor
𝑊 1
cos 𝜙 = =
𝐿 𝐿 Τ𝑊
■ The ratio 𝐿Τ𝑊 is an important parameter in turning performance; it
is defined as the load factor n, where,
𝐿 1
𝑛≡ 𝜙 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑊 𝑛
■ To obtain an expression for the tum radius, insert 𝑚 = 𝑊 Τ𝑔 in
previous equation and solve for R:

𝑚𝑉∞ 2
𝑊 𝑉∞ 2
𝑉∞ 2
𝑉∞ 2 𝑔 𝑛2 − 1
𝑅= = = 𝑅= 𝜔=
𝐿 sin 𝜙 𝑔 𝐿 sin 𝜙 𝑛𝑔 sin 𝜙 𝑔 𝑛2 − 1 𝑉∞
 Constraints on Load Factor

■ At any given velocity, the maximum possible load factor for a

sustained level turn is constrained by the maximum thrust available.

1/2
1
𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2 𝑇 1
2 2 𝐶𝐷,0
𝑛= − 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞
𝐾 𝑊 Τ𝑆 𝑊 2 𝑊 Τ𝑆

1/2
1
𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2 𝑇 1 2 𝐶𝐷,0
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 − 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞
𝐾 𝑊 Τ𝑆 𝑊 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2 𝑊 Τ𝑆

■ Rather, for a given 𝑉∞ , n can only range between 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥

 Constraints on Load Factor

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Minimum Turn Radius

4𝐾 𝑊 Τ𝑆
𝑉∞ 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝜌∞ 𝑇Τ𝑊

4𝐾𝐶𝐷,0
𝑛𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2−
𝑇 Τ𝑊 2

4𝐾 𝑊 Τ𝑆
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑔𝜌∞ 𝑇Τ𝑊 1 − 4𝐾𝐶𝐷,0 Τ 𝑇Τ𝑊 2
 Minimum Turn Radius

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

Minimum Turn Radius

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

Maximum Turn Rate
1/2 1/4
2 𝑊 Τ𝑆 𝐾
𝑉∞ 𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0

1/2
𝑇/𝑊
𝑛𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −1
𝐾𝐶𝐷,0

1/2
𝜌∞ 𝑇/𝑊 𝐶𝐷,0
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑞 −
𝑊 Τ𝑆 2𝐾 𝐾
 Maximum Turn Rate

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Maximum Turn Rate

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 The Pull-up and Pulldown Maneuvers
■ For the case where 𝜃=0 and 𝜖=0 and
turn radius 𝑅
𝑉∞ 2
𝑚 = 𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝜃
𝑅
𝑉∞ 2
𝑚 =𝐿−𝑊
𝑅
2 2 2
𝑚𝑉∞ 𝑊 𝑉∞ 𝑉∞
𝑅= = =
𝐿−𝑊 𝑔 𝐿 − 𝑊 𝑔 𝐿Τ𝑊 − 1
2
𝑉∞ 𝑔 𝑛−1
𝑅= 𝜔=
𝑔 𝑛−1 𝑉∞ Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson
 The Pull-up and Pulldown Maneuvers
■ For the case where 𝜃=180𝑜 and 𝜖=0
and turn radius 𝑅
𝑉∞ 2
𝑚 = 𝐿 + 𝑊 cos 𝜃
𝑅
𝑉∞ 2
𝑚 =𝐿+𝑊
𝑅
2 2 2
𝑚𝑉∞ 𝑊 𝑉∞ 𝑉∞
𝑅= = = 𝜃
𝐿+𝑊 𝑔 𝐿 + 𝑊 𝑔 𝐿Τ𝑊 + 1
2
𝑉∞ 𝑔 𝑛+1
𝑅= 𝜔=
𝑔 𝑛+1 𝑉∞ Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson
 Limiting Case for Large Load Factor
■ Consider the tum radius equations for the level tum, pull-up, and
pulldown maneuvers, as repeated here:

𝑉∞ 2
Level Turn 𝑅=
𝑔 𝑛2 − 1
2
𝑉∞
Pull-up 𝑅=
𝑔 𝑛−1

𝑉∞ 2
Pulldown 𝑅=
𝑔 𝑛+1
 Limiting Case for Large Load Factor
■ In the limit of large load factor n ≫ 1, these three equations reduce to
the same form, namely, 𝑉 2
∞
𝑅=
𝑔𝑛
■ Similarly, consider the expressions for turn rate for the level. turn,
pull-up, and down maneuvers, as repeated here:
Level Turn Pull-up Pulldown
𝑔 𝑛2 − 1 𝑔 𝑛−1 𝑔 𝑛+1
𝜔= 𝜔= 𝜔=
𝑉∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑉∞
■ In the limit of large load factor, these equations reduce to the same
form, namely,
𝑔𝑛
𝜔=
𝑉∞
 Limiting Case for Large Load Factor
■ We see clearly R will be a minimum and 𝜔 will be a maximum when
both 𝐶𝐿 and n are maximum. That is,
2 𝑊
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝜌𝑔 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆

𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑔
2 𝑊 Τ𝑆

1 2 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞
2 𝑊 Τ𝑆
The V-n Diagram

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

The V-n Diagram

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 The V-n Diagram
■ The velocity corresponding to point B is called the corner velocity
and is designed by V* in previous figure. The corner velocity can be
obtained by equation:

2𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑊
𝑉∗ =
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆
The V-n Diagram

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Energy Concepts: Accelerated rate of Climb
■ Energy Height: Potential energy + Kinetic energy

1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 𝑚𝑉∞ 2
2
■ The specific energy denoted by 𝐻𝑒 , is defined as total energy per
unit weight and is obtained by dividing equation by W = 𝑚𝑔. This
yields
1 2 2
𝑚𝑔ℎ + 𝑚𝑉∞ 𝑉
𝐻𝑒 = 2 =ℎ+
∞
𝑚𝑔 𝑔
𝑉∞ 2
𝐻𝑒 = ℎ +
2𝑔
Energy Concepts: Accelerated rate of Climb

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

Energy Concepts: Accelerated rate of Climb

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Specific Excess Power
■ We define specific excess power, denoted by 𝑃𝑠 , as the excess power
per unit weight:

𝑑ℎ 𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑉∞
𝑃𝑠 = +
𝑑𝑡 𝑔 𝑑𝑡

■ The time rate of change of energy height is equal to the specific

excess power:
𝑑𝐻𝑒
𝑃𝑠 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑷𝒔 Contour

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

𝑷𝒔 Contour

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

𝑷𝒔 Contour

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

Rate of Climb and Time to Climb
(Accelerated Performance)

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Rate of Climb and Time to Climb
(Accelerated Performance)
■ Accelerated rate of climb and time to climb can be treated by energy
considerations.

𝑑ℎ 𝑉∞
= 𝑃𝑠 − 𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑔

𝐻𝑒,2
𝑑𝐻𝑒
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = න
𝐻𝑒,1 𝑃𝑠
 Takeoff Performance
■ How much distance does the airplane cover along the runway before
it lifts into the air? This is the central question in the analysis of
takeoff performance. Called the ground roll ( or sometimes the
ground run) and denoted by 𝑠𝑔 .

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Takeoff Performance
■ The total takeoff distance also includes the extra distance covered
over the ground after the airplane is airborne but before it clears an
obstacle of a specified height. This is denoted by 𝑠𝑎 .
■ The ground roll 𝑠𝑔 is further divided into intermediate segments, as
shown in figure. These segments are defined by various velocities, as
follows:

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Takeoff Performance
1. As the airplane accelerates from zero velocity, at some point it will
reach the stalling velocity 𝑉stall , as noted in Fig.
2. The airplane continues to accelerate until it reaches the minimum
control speed on the ground, denoted by 𝑉mc𝑔 in Fig. This is the
minimum velocity at which enough aerodynamic force can be
generated on the vertical fin with rudder deflection while the
airplane is still rolling along the ground to produce a yawing moment
sufficient to counteract that produced when there is an engine
failure for a multiengine aircraft.
3. If the airplane were in the air (without the landing gear in contact
with the ground), the minimum speed required for yaw control in
case of engine failure is slightly greater than 𝑉mc𝑔 . This velocity is
called the minimum control speed in the air denoted by 𝑉mc𝑎 in
Fig. For the ground roll shown in Figure, 𝑉mc𝑎 is essentially a
reference speed-the airplane is still on the ground when this speed is
reached.
 Takeoff Performance
4. The airplane continues to accelerate until it reaches the decision
speed, denoted by 𝑉1 in Fig. This is the speed at which the pilot can
successfully continue the takeoff even though an engine failure (in a
multiengine aircraft) would occur at that point. This speed must be
equal to or larger than 𝑉mc𝑔 in order to maintain control of the
airplane. A more descriptive name for 𝑉1 is the critical engine
failure speed. If an engine fails before 𝑉1 is achieved, the takeoff
must be stopped. If an engine fails after 𝑉1 is reached, the takeoff can
still be achieved.
5. The airplane continues to accelerate until the takeoff rotational
speed, denoted by 𝑉R in Fig, is achieved. At this velocity, the pilot
initiates by elevator deflection a rotation of the airplane in order to
increase the angle of attack, hence to increase 𝐶𝐿 . Clearly, the
maximum angle of attack achieved during rotation should not exceed
the stalling angle of attack.
 Takeoff Performance
6. If the rotation of the airplane is limited by ground clearance for the
tail, the airplane must continue to accelerate while rolling along the
ground after rotation is achieved, until a higher speed is reached
where indeed the lift becomes larger than the weight. This speed is
called the minimum unstick speed, denoted by 𝑉m𝑢 in Fig. For the
definition of 𝑉m𝑢 , it is assumed that the angle of attack achieved
during rotation is the maximum allowable by the tail clearance.
7. However, for increased safety, the angle of attack after rotation is
slightly less than the maximum allowable by tail clearance, and the
airplane continues to accelerate to a slightly higher velocity, called
the liftoff speed, denoted by 𝑉LO in Fig. This is the point at which the
airplane actually lifts off the ground. The total distance covered
along the ground to this point is the ground roll 𝑠𝑔 .
 Calculation of Ground Roll
◼ The forces acting on the airplane during takeoff are shown in Fig. In
addition to the familiar forces of thrust, weight, lift, and drag, there is
a rolling resistance R, caused by friction between the tires and the
ground. This resistance force is given by:
𝑅 = 𝜇𝑟 𝑊 − 𝐿
𝜇𝑟 is the coefficient rolling friction

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Calculation of Ground Roll
◼ Summing forces parallel to the ground and employing Newton's
second law, we have from:

𝑑𝑉∞
𝑚 =𝑇−𝐷−𝑅
𝑑𝑡
◼ The next equation is the equation of motion for the airplane during
takeoff.

𝑑𝑉∞
𝑚 = 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝜇𝑟 𝑊 − 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
 Calculation of Ground Roll
◼ The engine thrust T in general varies with velocity during the ground
roll. For a reciprocating engine/propeller combination, the power
available is reasonably constant with 𝑉∞ .

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒/𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 𝑇 =
𝑉∞

𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑡 = 𝑇 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑛 = 𝑇 = 𝑘1 ∗ − 𝑘2 ∗ 𝑉∞ + 𝑘3 ∗ 𝑉∞ 2
 Calculation of Ground Roll
◼ There is a reduction in the induced drag due to the close proximity of
the wings to the ground-part of the "ground effect.“ An approximate
expression for the increase in 𝐶𝐷,0 due to the extended landing gear is
given:
𝑊
∆𝐶𝐷,0 = 𝐾𝑢𝑐 𝑚−0.215
𝑆
◼ The 𝑚 is maximum mass of airplane, the factor 𝐾𝑢𝑐 depends on the
amount of flap deflection. 𝐾𝑢𝑐 = 5.81x10−5 for zero flap deflection
and 3.16x10−5 for maximum flap deflection.
◼ Factor G, where h is height of the wing above the ground and b is the
wingspan
16 ℎΤ𝑏 2
𝐺= 2
1 + 16 ℎΤ𝑏
Calculation of Ground Roll

𝑑𝑉∞
𝑚 =𝑇−𝐷−𝑅
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉∞
𝑚 = 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝜇𝑟 𝑊 − 𝐿
𝑑𝑡

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Calculation of Ground Roll

◼ The ground roll 𝑠𝑔 , can then be obtained from

𝑡𝐿𝑂
𝑠𝑔 = න 𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑡
0

◼ The integral in equation is evaluated numerically, using the tabulated

values of 𝑉∞ versus t obtained from the numerical solution of
previous equation.
 Approximate Analysis of Ground Roll

◼ The ground roll 𝑠𝑔 , can then be obtained from

𝑉𝐿𝑂
𝑑 𝑉∞ 2
𝑠𝑔 = න
0 2𝑔 𝐾𝑇 − 𝐾𝐴 𝑉∞ 2
1 𝐾𝐴
𝑠𝑔 = 𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝑉𝐿𝑂 2 + 𝑁𝑉𝐿𝑂 𝑉𝐿𝑂 = 1.11𝑉𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙
2𝑔𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝑇
◼ Where N = 3 for large aircraft and N = l for small aircraft.

𝑇 𝜌∞ 𝐺 2
𝐾𝑇 = − 𝜇𝑟 𝐾𝐴 = − 𝐶𝐷,0 + ∆𝐶𝐷,0 + 𝑘1 + 𝐶𝐿 − 𝜇𝑟 𝐶𝐿
𝑊 2 𝑊 Τ𝑆 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
 Approximate Analysis of Ground Roll

2 𝑊 1
𝑉𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥

◼ A simplified form of equation of 𝑠𝑔

1.21 𝑊 Τ𝑆
𝑠𝑔 ≈
𝑔𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇Τ𝑊
Calculation of Distance While Airborne to Clear
an Obstacle

6.96𝑉𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 2
𝑅= 𝜃
𝑔

ℎ𝑂𝐵
𝜃𝑂𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 1−
𝑅

𝑠𝑎 = 𝑅 sin 𝜃𝑂𝐵

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Calculation of Distance While Airborne to Clear
an Obstacle

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Calculation of Distance While Airborne to Clear
an Obstacle

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Calculation of Distance While Airborne to Clear
an Obstacle

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Calculation of Distance While Airborne to Clear
an Obstacle

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Calculation of Distance While Airborne to Clear
an Obstacle

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Calculation of Distance While Airborne to Clear
an Obstacle

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Landing Performance

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Landing Performance
■ The analysis of the landing performance of an airplane is somewhat
analogous to that for takeoff, only in reverse. Consider an airplane on
a landing approach. The landing distance, as sketched , begins when
the airplane clears an obstacle, which is taken to be 50 ft in height.
■ At that instant, the airplane is following a straight approach path with
angle 𝜃𝑎 , as noted in figure. The velocity of the airplane at the instant
it clears the obstacle, denoted by 𝑉𝑎 , is required to be equal to
1.3𝑉𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 for commercial airplanes and 1.2𝑉𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 for military airplanes.
At a distance above the ground, the airplane begins the flare, which
is the transition from the straight approach path to the horizontal
ground roll. The flight path for the flare can be considered a circular
arc with radius R, as shown in Fig. The distance measured along the
ground from the obstacle to the of initiation of the flare is the
approach distance 𝑠𝑎 .
 Landing Performance
■ Touchdown occurs when the wheels touch the ground. The distance
over the ground covered during the flare is the flare distance 𝑠𝑓 . The
velocity at the touchdown 𝑉𝑇𝐷 is 1.15𝑉𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 for commercial and
1.11𝑉𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 for military airplanes. After touchdown, the airplane is in
free roll for a few seconds before the pilot applies the brakes and/or
thrust reverser. The free-roll distance is short enough that the
velocity over this length is assumed constant, equal to 𝑉𝑇𝐷 . The
distance that the airplane rolls on the ground from touchdown to the
point where the velocity goes to zero is called the ground roll 𝑠𝑔 .
 Calculation of Approach Distance
■ Examining previous figure, we see that the approach distance 𝑠𝑎
depends on the approach angle 𝜃𝑎 and the flare height ℎ𝑓 . In turn, 𝜃𝑎
depends on T/W and L/D. This can be seen from previous figure,
which shows the force diagram for an aircraft on the approach flight
path. Assuming equilibrium flight conditions,

𝐿 = 𝑊 cos 𝜃𝑎

𝐷 = 𝑇 + 𝑊 sin 𝜃𝑎
𝐷−𝑇 𝐷 𝑇
sin 𝜃𝑎 = = −
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
Calculation of Approach Distance

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Calculation of Approach Distance
■ The approach angle is usually small for most cases. For example,
Raymer (Ref. 25) states that for transport aircraft 𝜃𝑎 ≤ 3𝑜 . Hence,
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑎 ≈ 1 and from 𝐿 ≈ 𝑊. Previous equation can be written as
1 𝑇
sin 𝜃𝑎 = −
𝐿Τ𝐷 𝑊
■ The flare height ℎ𝑓 , shown in previous figure, can be calculated from
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑅 − 𝑅 cos 𝜃𝑓
■ As shown in next figure, 𝜃𝑎 = 𝜃𝑓 ℎ𝑓 = 𝑅 1 − cos 𝜃𝑎
■ With a load factor of n=1.2
𝑉𝑓 2 50 − ℎ𝑓
𝑅= 𝑠𝑎 =
0.2𝑔 tan 𝜃𝑎
Calculation of Approach Distance

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Calculation of Flare Distance
■ The flare distance 𝑠𝑓
𝑠𝑓 = 𝑅 cos 𝜃𝑓

■ As shown in previous figure, 𝜃𝑎 = 𝜃𝑓

𝑠𝑓 = 𝑅 cos 𝜃𝑎
 Calculation of Ground Roll
■ The total ground roll 𝑠𝑔

1 𝐽𝐴
𝑠𝑔 = 𝑁𝑉𝑇𝐷 + 𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝑉𝑇𝐷 2
2𝑔𝐽𝐴 𝐽𝑇

■ Where:
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝐽𝑇 ≡ + 𝜇𝑟
𝑊

𝜌∞ 𝐺
𝐽𝐴 ≡ 𝐶𝐷,0 + ∆𝐶𝐷,0 + 𝑘1 + 𝐶𝐿 2 − 𝜇𝑟 𝐶𝐿
2 𝑊 Τ𝑆 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
 Calculation of Ground Roll

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Calculation of Ground Roll

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Calculation of Ground Roll

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

References

■ Anderson Jr. John D. (2012). Aircraft Performance and Design. Boston,

MA: McGraw-Hill Higher education.