Solar Energy and Present Energy Crisis

Solar Energy And Present Energy Crisis
1. INTRODUCTION
Solar energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy. The power from the sun
intercepted by the earth is approximately 1.8∗10 e 11 MW, which are many thousands of
times larger than the present consumption rate on the earth of all commercial energy sources.
Thus, in principle, solar energy could supply all the present and future energy needs of the
world on a continuing basis. This makes it one of the most promising of the unconventional
energy sources.
In addition to its size, solar energy has two other factors in its favour. Firstly, unlike
fossil fuels and nuclear power, it is environmentally clean source of energy. Secondly, it is
free and available in adequate quantities in almost all parts of the world where people live.
Solar energy is the act of capturing the sun's rays and either storing them, or
converting them into energy or heat. It's similar to when you get into a hot car in the summer,
or touch the hot road on a sunny day-these items have been heated with solar power. These
situations are not exactly solar power at its finest, but you get the idea. Solar power for your
home works the same way. The rays are captured, and then using top-notch technology, the
heat is stored and converted to heat your home or provide energy any time of day.
Now you have a basic idea of what is solar energy, so what happens next? Once the
sun's rays are captured, you can do many different things with them. With large solar panel
systems, you can store or convert the rays. They can be converted into heat energy or
electrical energy depending on what type of panels you have. Or the energy can be stored, so
that you have it at a later date-at night or on a cloudy day when there is no sun, for example.
When it comes to what is solar energy, there are many other options. You can choose
to use solar power to heat other things, such as swimming pools. Systems designed
specifically for pools are available. Or use solar power on a smaller scale. You can purchase
affordable systems that hook right up to your hot water heater and use the sun for all your hot
water needs. Or purchase a solar pond pump, a quick and affordable way to keep your pond
clean.
You have even more options in the world of solar power. There are other ways to
capture the sun's energy, without the use of any special equipment. Have a few skylights
installed throughout your home to ensure fewer lights need to be used. This way, you are still
Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 1

using solar power to light you home. This is called passive solar energy, and it offers many
options for using the sun in your home and in your life.
However, there are many problems associated with its use. The main problem is that it
is a dilute source of energy. Even in the hottest regions on earth, the solar radiation flux
available rarely exceeds 1 kW/me2 and the total radiation over a day is at best about
kWh/me2. These are low values from the point of view of technological utilization.
Consequently, large collecting areas are required in many applications and these results in
excessive costs.
A second problem associated with the use of solar energy is that its availability varies
widely with time. The variation in availability occurs daily because of the day-night cycle
and also seasonally because of the earth’s orbit around the sun. In addition, variations occur
at a specific location because of local weather conditions. Consequently, the energy collected
when the sun is shining must be stored for use during periods when it is not available. The
need for storage also adds significantly to the cost of any system. Thus, the real challenge in
utilizing solar energy as an energy alternative is of an economic nature. One has to strive for
the development of cheaper methods of collection and storage so that the large initial
investments required at present in most applications are reduced.

2. SOLAR ENERGY
2.1 Definition of Solar Energy:
Energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation emitted from the Sun; but especially
that part of this energy that is converted into thermal or electrical energy on Earth is known
as Solar Energy. Solar energy is the energy received by the earth from the sun. This energy
is in the form of solar radiation, which makes the production of solar electricity possible. It is
the radiant energy emitted by the Sun. It is also known as the energy derived from the Sun's
radiation.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar
depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy.
 Passive solar energy can be exploited through architectural design, as by positioning

windows to allow sunlight to enter and help heat a space. Passive solar techniques
include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favourable thermal
mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air
 Active solar energy involves the conversion of sunlight to electrical energy,

especially in solar (photovoltaic) cells. Active solar techniques include the use of
photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy.

2.2 History of Solar Energy:
Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans
since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation, along with
secondary solar-powered resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and
biomass, account for most of the available renewable energy on earth. Only a minuscule
fraction of the available solar energy is used.
Solar powered electrical generation relies on heat engines and photovoltaics. Solar
energy's uses are limited only by human ingenuity. A partial list of solar applications includes
space heating and cooling through solar architecture, potable water via distillation and
disinfection, day lighting, solar hot water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat
for industrial purposes. To harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to use solar
panels. Very often there is confusion about the various methods used to harness solar energy.
Energy from the sun can be categorized in two ways i.e., they can be divided into two forms:
 Thermal energy form.

 Light energy form.
Solar thermal technologies uses the solar heat energy to heat substances (such as
water or air) for applications such as space heating, pool heating and water heating for homes
and businesses. There are a variety of products on the market that uses solar thermal energy.
Often the products used for this application are called solar thermal collectors and can be
mounted on the roof of a building or in some other sunny location. The solar heat can also be
used to produce electricity on a large utility-scale by converting the solar energy into
mechanical energy.
So, fossil fuels are actually solar energy stored millions and millions of years ago.
Indirectly, the sun or other is responsible for all our energy. Even nuclear energy comes from
a star because the uranium atoms used in nuclear energy were created in the fury of a nova - a
star exploding. Let's look at ways in which we can use the solar energy.
Solar energy is vital to support life on earth, it helps to grow our food, light our days,
influence weather patterns, provide heat, and can be used to generate solar electricity. Solar
electricity relies upon man-made devices such as solar panels or solar cells in order to
provide a source of clean, and low cost renewable energy. We have used energy from the sun

to provide electricity for many years, in the form of solar cell calculators and other small, low
energy consuming devices.
As solar energy technologies become more advanced, we are able to exploit the
energy we receive from the sun to provide a greater, significant amount of our electricity or
even hot water (when using solar hot water panels). The solar energy definition above
mentions how energy from the sun is transported to earth through the form of solar radiation.
Photon contained in this solar radiation makes the generation of electricity from the sun’s
rays possible. Solar energy is also partly responsible for wind energy, as wind patterns are
greatly influenced by the sun. Also, the sun is responsible for heating the ground beneath our
feet to a significant degree to support the use of geothermal, ground source heat pumps.
Without the existence of solar energy, human life could not be supported on planet earth due
to many different factors.
2.3 Energy from the Sun:
The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation at the upper
atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by
clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly
spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet.
Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises
their temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing
atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the
temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface,
completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection,

producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight

absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of
14 °C. By photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy, which
produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.
Yearly Solar fluxes & Human Energy

Consumption
Solar 3,850,000 EJ
Wind 2,250 EJ
Biomass 3,000 EJ
Primary energy use (2005) 487 EJ
Electricity (2005) 56.7 EJ
The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is
approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour
than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in
biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one
year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable
resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined.
From the table of resources it would appear that solar, wind or biomass would be
sufficient to supply all of our energy needs, however, the increased use of biomass has had a
negative effect on global warming and dramatically increased food prices by diverting forests
and crops into bio-fuel production. As intermittent resources, solar and wind raise other
issues,
Solar energy can be harnessed in different levels around the world. Depending on a
geographical location the closer to the equator the more "potential" solar energy is available.
2.4 Energy Storage Methods:
Solar energy is not available at night, making energy storage an important issue in
order to provide the continuous availability of energy. Both wind power and solar power are

intermittent energy sources, meaning that all available output must be taken when it is
available and either stored for when it can be used, or transported, over transmission lines, to
where it can be used. Wind power and solar power can be complementary, in locations that
experience more wind in the winter and more sun in the summer, but on days with no sun and
no wind the difference needs to be made up in some manner.
Energy Park including Solar Panels and Pumped-storage hydroelectricity
The Solar Two used this method of energy storage, allowing it to store enough heat in
its 68 m³ storage tank to provide full output of 10 MW for about 40 minutes, with an
efficiency of about 99%. Salts are an effective storage medium because they are low-cost,
have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with
conventional power systems, have the potential to eliminate the intermittency of solar power,
by storing spare solar power in the form of heat; and using this heat overnight or during
periods that solar power is not available to produce electricity. This technology has the
potential to make solar power dispatch able, as the heat source can be used to generate
electricity at will. Solar power installations are normally supplemented by storage or another
energy source, for example with wind power and hydropower.
Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess

electricity. With grid-tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid. Net
metering programs give these systems a credit for the electricity they deliver to the grid. This
credit offsets electricity provided from the grid when the system cannot meet demand,
effectively using the grid as a storage mechanism. Credits are normally rolled over month to
month and any remaining surplus settled annually.
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when

surplus electricity is available, from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one. The

energy is recovered when demand is high by releasing the water: the pump becomes a
turbine, and the motor a hydroelectric power generator.
Seasonal variation of the output of the Solar Panels
Combining power sources in a power plant may also address storage issues. The
Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University of Kassel pilot-tested a
combined power plant linking solar, wind, biogas and hydro storage to provide load-
following power around the clock, entirely from renewable sources.
3. SOLAR RADIATION

3.1 Solar Radiation outside the Earth’s Atmosphere:
The characteristics of the sun’s energy available outside the earth’s atmosphere are
first considered.
The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various kinds
of fusion reactions. Its diameter is 1.39∗10e6 km, while that of the earth is 1.27∗10e4 km.
The mean distance between the two is 1.496∗10e8 km. Although the sun is large, it subtends
an angle of only 32 minutes at the earth’s surface. This is because it is also at a very large
distance. Thus, the beam radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel. The
brightness of the sun varies from its centre to its edge. However, for engineering calculations,
it is customary to assume that the brightness all over the solar disc is uniform.
Measurements indicate that the energy flux received from the sun outside the earth’s
atmosphere is essentially constant. The solar constant (I sc) is the rate at which energy is
received from the sun on a unit area perpendicular to the rays of the sun, at the mean distance
of the earth from the sun. The value of the solar constant has been the subject of many
experimental investigations. Based on measurements made up to 1970, a standard value of
1353 W/m2 was adopted in 1971. However, based on subsequent measurements, a revised
value of 1367 W/m2 has been recommended. The difference between the two values is only 1
percent.
The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit having a very small
eccentricity, and with the sun at one of the foci. Consequently, the distance between the earth
and the sun varies a little through the year. Because of this variation, the extra-terrestrial flux
also varies. The value on any day can be calculated from the equation
I ' sc=Isc ¿
Where n is the day of the year.
It is also useful to know the spectral distribution of extra-terrestrial solar radiation.

The radiation coming from the sun is essentially equivalent to blackbody radiation. Using the
Stefan-Boltzmann law, the equivalent blackbody temperature can be shown to be 5762 K for
the solar constant of 1353 W/m2 and 5779 for a solar constant of 1367 W/m2.
3.2 Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface:

Solar radiation is received at the earth’s surface in an attenuated form because it is

subjected to the mechanisms of absorption and scattering as it passes through the earth’s
atmosphere. Absorption occurs primarily because of the presence of ozone and water vapour
in the atmosphere, and to a lesser extent due to other gases (like CO 2, NO2, CO, O2 and CH4)
and particulate matter. On the other hand, scattering occurs due to all gaseous molecules as
well as particulate matter in the atmosphere. The scattered radiation is redistributed in all
directions, some going back into the space and some reaching the earth’s surface.
The atmosphere at any location o the earth’s surface is often classified into two broad
types- an atmosphere without clouds and an atmosphere with clouds. In the former case, the
sky is cloudless everywhere, while in the latter, the sky is partly or fully covered by clouds.
The mechanism of absorption and scattering are similar with both types of atmosphere.
However it is obvious that less attenuation takes place in a cloudless sky. Consequently
maximum radiation is received on the earth’s surface under the conditions of a cloudless sky.
Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface without change of direction, i.e. in line
with the sun, is called beam or direct radiation. The radiation received at the earth’s surface

from all parts of the sky’s hemisphere is called diffuse radiation. The sum of the beam and
diffuse radiation is referred to as total or global radiation.
In general, the intensity of diffuse radiation coming from various directions in the sky
is not uniform. The diffuse radiation is therefore said to be anisotropic in nature. However in
many situations, the intensity from all directions tends to be reasonably uniform. It is then
modelled as being perfectly uniform and is said to be isotropic in nature.

4. SOLAR VARIATION
4.1 Meaning of Solar Variation:
Solar variation refers here to changes in the amount of total solar radiation and its
spectral distribution. There are periodic components to these variations, the principal one
being the 11-year solar cycle (or sunspot cycle), as well as a periodic fluctuations. Solar
activity has been measured by satellites during recent decades and estimated using 'proxy'
variables in prior times. Scientists studying climate change are interested in understanding the
effects of variations in the total and spectral solar irradiance on the Earth and its climate.
The variations in total solar irradiance remained at or below the threshold of detect
ability until the satellite era, although the small fraction in ultra-violet wavelengths varies by
a few percent. Total solar output is now measured to vary (over the last three 11-year sunspot
cycles) by approximately 0.1% or about 1.3 W/m² peak-to-trough during the 11 year sunspot
cycle. The amount of solar radiation received at the outer surface of Earth's atmosphere
averages 1366 watts per square meter (W/m²). There are no direct measurements of the
longer-term variation and interpretations of proxy measures of variations differ. The intensity
of solar radiation reaching the Earth has been relatively constant throughout the last 2000
years, with variations of around 0.1-0.2%. The combination of solar variation and volcanic
effects are likely to have contributed to climate change, for example during the Maunder
Minimum. Apart from solar brightness variations, more subtle solar magnetic activity
influences on climate from cosmic rays or the Sun's ultraviolet radiation cannot be excluded
although confirmation is not at hand since physical models for such effects are still too poorly
developed.
4.2 History of Study into Solar Variations:
The longest recorded aspects of solar variations are changes in sunspots. The first
record of sunspots dates to around 800 BC in China and the oldest surviving drawing of a
sunspot dates to 1128. In 1610, astronomers began using the telescope to make observations
of sunspots and their motions. Initial study was focused on their nature and behavior.
Although the physical aspects of sunspots were not identified until the 1900s, observations
continued. Study was hampered during the 1600s and 1700s due to the low number of
sunspots during what is now recognized as an extended period of low solar activity, known as

the Maunder Minimum. By the 1800s, there was a long enough record of sunspot numbers
to infer periodic cycles in sunspot activity. In 1845, Princeton University professors Joseph
Henry and Stephen Alexander observed the Sun with a thermopile and determined that
sunspots emitted less radiation than surrounding areas of the Sun. The emission of higher
than average amounts of radiation later were observed from the solar faculae.
Around 1900, researchers began to explore connections between solar variations and
weather on Earth. Of particular note is the work of Charles Greeley Abbot. He was assigned
by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) to detect changes in the radiation of
the Sun. His team had to begin by inventing instruments to measure solar radiation. Later,
when Abbot was head of the SAO, it established a solar station at Calama, Chile to
complement its data from Mount Wilson Observatory. He detected 27 harmonic periods
within the 273-month Hale cycles, includes 7, 13, and 39 month patterns. He looked for
connections to weather by means such as matching opposing solar trends during a month to
opposing temperature and precipitation trends in cities. With the advent of
dendrochronology, scientists such as Waldo S. Glock attempted to connect variation in tree
growth to periodic solar variations in the extant record and infer long-term secular variability
in the solar constant from similar variations in millennial-scale chronologies.
Statistical studies that correlate weather and climate with solar activity have been
popular for centuries, dating back at least to 1801, when William Herschel noted an apparent
connection between wheat prices and sunspot records. They now often involve high-density
global datasets compiled from surface networks and weather satellite observations and/or the
forcing of climate models with synthetic or observed solar variability to investigate the
detailed processes by which the effects of solar variations propagate through the Earth's
climate system.
4.3 Solar Activities and Irradiance Measurement:
Direct irradiance measurements have only been available during the last three cycles
and are based on a composite of many different observing satellites. However, the high
correlation between irradiance measurements and other proxies of solar activity make it
reasonable to estimate past solar activity. Most important among these proxies is the record
of sunspot observations that has been recorded since ~1610. Since sunspots and associated
faculae are directly responsible for small changes in the brightness of the sun, they are closely

correlated to changes in solar output. Direct measurements of radio emissions from the Sun at
10.7 cm also provide a proxy of solar activity that can be measured from the ground since the
Earth's atmosphere is transparent at this wavelength. Lastly, solar flares are a type of solar
activity that can impact human life on Earth by affecting electrical systems, especially
satellites. Flares usually occur in the presence of sunspots, and hence the two are correlated,
but flares themselves make only tiny perturbations of the solar luminosity.
Recently, it has been claimed that the total solar irradiance is varying in ways that
aren't duplicated by changes in sunspot observations or radio emissions. However, this
conclusion is disputed. Some believe that shifts in irradiance may be the result of calibration
problems in the measuring satellites. These speculations also admit the possibility that a small
long-term trend might exist in solar irradiance, though the data chosen for this plot do not
have a significant trend. Also, the differences in flare activity over the three cycles would not
be related to possible measurement artefacts’ in irradiance.
4.4 Solar interactions with Earth:
There are several hypotheses for how solar variations may affect Earth. Some variations, such
as changes in the size of the Sun, are presently only of interest in the field of astronomy.
4.4.1 Changes in total irradiance:
 Total solar irradiance changes slowly on decadal and longer timescales.
 The variation during recent solar magnetic activity cycles has been about 0.1% (peak-
to-peak).
 Variations corresponding to solar changes with periods of 9–13, 18–25, and >100
years have been detected in sea-surface temperatures.
 In contrast to older reconstructions, most recent reconstructions of total solar

irradiance point to an only small increase of only about 0.05 % to 0.1 % between
Maunder Minimum and the present.

 Different composite reconstructions of total solar irradiance observations by satellites

show different trends since 1980; see the global warming section below.
4.4.2 Changes in ultraviolet irradiance:
 Ultraviolet irradiance (EUV) varies by approximately 1.5 percent from solar maxima
to minima, for 200 to 300 nm UV.
 Energy changes in the UV wavelengths involved in production and loss of ozone have
atmospheric effects.
 The 30 hPa atmospheric pressure level has changed height in phase with solar
activity during the last 4 solar cycles.
 UV irradiance increase causes higher ozone production, leading to

stratospheric heating and to pole ward displacements in the stratospheric and
tropospheric wind systems.
 A proxy study estimates that UV has increased by 3% since the Maunder Minimum.
4.4.3 Changes in the solar wind and the Sun's magnetic flux:
 A more active solar wind and stronger magnetic field reduces the cosmic rays striking
the Earth's atmosphere.
 Variations in the solar wind affect the size and intensity of the heliosphere, the
volume larger than the Solar System filled with solar wind particles.
 Cosmogony production of 14C, 10Be and 36Cl show changes tied to solar activity.
 Cosmic ray ionization in the upper atmosphere does change, but significant effects are
not obvious.

 As the solar coronal-source magnetic flux doubled during the past century, the
cosmic-ray flux has decreased by about 15%.
 The Sun's total magnetic flux rose by a factor of 1.41 from 1964–1996 and by a factor
of 2.3 since 1901.
4.4.4 Effects on clouds:
 Cosmic rays have been hypothesized to affect formation of clouds through possible
effects on production of cloud condensation nuclei. Observational evidence for such a
relationship is inconclusive.
 1983–1994 data from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project

(ISCCP) showed that global low cloud formation was highly correlated with cosmic
ray flux; subsequent to this the correlation breaks down.
4.5 Other Effects due to Solar Variation:
Interaction of solar particles, the solar magnetic field, and the Earth's magnetic field, cause
variations in the particle and electromagnetic fields at the surface of the planet. Extreme solar
events can affect electrical devices. Weakening of the Sun's magnetic field is believed to
increase the number of interstellar cosmic rays which reach Earth's atmosphere, altering the
types of particles reaching the surface. It has been speculated that a change in cosmic rays
could cause an increase in certain types of clouds, affecting Earth's albedo.
4.5.1 Geomagnetic effects:
Solar particles interact with Earth's magnetosphere

The Earth's polar auroras are visual displays created by interactions between the solar wind,
the solar magnetosphere, the Earth's magnetic field, and the Earth's atmosphere. Variations in
any of these affect aurora displays.
Sudden changes can cause the intense disturbances in the Earth's magnetic fields which are
called geomagnetic storms.
4.5.2 Solar proton events:
Energetic protons can reach Earth within 30 minutes of a major flare's peak. During such a
solar proton event, Earth is showered in energetic solar particles (primarily protons)
released from the flare site. Some of these particles spiral down Earth's magnetic field lines,
penetrating the upper layers of our atmosphere where they produce additional ionization and
may produce a significant increase in the radiation environment.
4.5.3 Galactic cosmic rays:
Solar wind and magnetic field create heliosphere around solar system.
An increase in solar activity (more sunspots) is accompanied by an increase in the "solar

wind," which is an outflow of ionized particles, mostly protons and electrons, from the sun.
The Earth's geomagnetic field, the solar wind, and the solar magnetic field deflect galactic
cosmic rays (GCR). A decrease in solar activity increases the GCR penetration of the
troposphere and stratosphere. GCR particles are the primary source of ionization in the
troposphere above 1 km (below 1 km, radon is a dominant source of ionization in many
areas).
Levels of GCRs have been indirectly recorded by their influence on the production of carbon-
14 and beryllium-10. The Hallstead solar cycle length of approximately 2300 years is
reflected by climatic Dansgaard-Oeschger events. The 80–90 year solar Gleissberg cycles

appear to vary in length depending upon the lengths of the concurrent 11 year solar cycles,
and there also appear to be similar climate patterns occurring on this time scale.
4.5.4 Cloud effects:
Changes in ionization affect the abundance of aerosols that serve as the nuclei of
condensation for cloud formation. As a result, ionization levels potentially affect levels of
condensation, low clouds, relative humidity, and albedo due to clouds. Clouds formed from
greater amounts of condensation nuclei are brighter, longer lived, and likely to produce less
precipitation. Changes of 3–4% in cloudiness and concurrent changes in cloud top
temperatures have been correlated to the 11 and 22 year solar (sunspot) cycles, with
increased GCR levels during "antiparallel" cycles. Global average cloud cover change has
been found to be 1.5–2%. Several studies of GCR and cloud cover variations have found
positive correlation at latitudes greater than 50° and negative correlation at lower latitudes.
However, not all scientists accept this correlation as statistically significant, and some that do
attribute it to other solar variability (e.g. UV or total irradiance variations) rather than directly
to GCR changes. Difficulties in interpreting such correlations include the fact that many
aspects of solar variability change at similar times, and some climate systems have delayed
responses.
4.5.5 Carbon-14 production:
Sunspot record (blue) with 14C (inverted)
The production of carbon-14 (radiocarbon: 14C) also is related to solar activity. Carbon-14 is
produced in the upper atmosphere when cosmic ray bombardment of atmospheric nitrogen
(14N) induces the Nitrogen to undergo β+ decay, thus transforming into an unusual isotope of
Carbon with an atomic weight of 14 rather than the more common 12. Paradoxically,
increased solar activity results in a reduction of cosmic rays reaching the earth's atmosphere

and reduces 14C production. This is because cosmic rays are partially excluded from the Solar
System by the outward sweep of magnetic fields in the solar wind. Thus the cosmic ray
intensity and carbon-14 production vary inversely to the general level of solar activity.
Therefore, the atmospheric 14C concentration is lower during sunspot maxima and higher
during sunspot minima. By measuring the captured 14C in wood and counting tree rings,
production of radiocarbon relative to recent wood can be measured and dated. A
reconstruction of the past 10,000 years shows that the 14C production was much higher during
the mid-Holocene 7,000 years ago and decreased until 1,000 years ago. In addition to
variations in solar activity, the long term trends in carbon-14 production are influenced by
changes in the Earth's geomagnetic field and by changes in carbon cycling within the
biosphere (particularly those associated with changes in the extent of vegetation since the
last ice age).

5. APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR TECHNOLOGY
Solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends.
However, all renewable energies, other than geothermal and tidal, derive their energy from
the sun.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on

the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use
photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar
techniques include selecting materials with favourable thermal properties, designing spaces
that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Active solar
technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies,
while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally
considered demand side technologies.
5.1 Architecture and Urban Planning:
Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history.
Advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the Greeks
and Chinese, who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth.
The common features of passive solar architecture are orientation relative to the Sun,
compact proportion (a low surface area to volume ratio), selective shading (overhangs) and
thermal mass. When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they
can produce well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range. Socrates' Megaron
House is a classic example of passive solar design. The most recent approaches to solar
design use computer modelling tying together solar lighting, heating and ventilation
systems in an integrated solar design package. Active solar equipment such as pumps, fans
and switchable windows can complement passive design and improve system performance.
Urban heat islands (UHI) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of
the surrounding environment. The higher temperatures are a result of increased absorption of
the Solar light by urban materials such as asphalt and concrete, which have lower albinos and
higher heat capacities than those in the natural environment. A straightforward method of
counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white and plant trees. Using these
methods, a hypothetical "cool communities" program in Los Angeles has projected that

urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 °C at an estimated cost of

US$1 billion, giving estimated total annual benefits of US$530 million from reduced air-
conditioning costs and healthcare savings.
5.2 Agriculture and Horticulture:
Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to
optimize the productivity of plants. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row
orientation, staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve
crop yields. While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource, the exceptions
highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture. During the short growing seasons of
the Little Ice Age, French and English farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the
collection of solar energy. These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by
keeping plants warm. Early fruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground and facing
south, but over time, sloping walls were developed to make better use of sunlight. In 1699,
Nicolas Fatio de Duillier even suggested using a tracking mechanism which could pivot to
follow the Sun. Applications of solar energy in agriculture aside from growing crops include
pumping water, drying crops, brooding chicks and drying chicken manure. More recently the
technology has been embraced by vintners’, who use the energy generated by solar panels to
power grape presses.
Greenhouses like these in the Westland municipality of the Netherlands grow

vegetables, fruits and flowers.
Greenhouses convert solar light to heat, enabling year-round production and the
growth (in enclosed environments) of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to
the local climate. Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to produce
cucumbers year-round for the Roman emperor Tiberius. The first modern greenhouses were
built in Europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations

abroad. Greenhouses remain an important part of horticulture today, and plastic transparent
materials have also been used to similar effect in polytonal and row covers.
5.3 Solar Lighting:
The history of lighting is dominated by the use of natural light. The Romans
recognized a right to light as early as the 6th century and English law echoed these
judgments with the Prescription Act of 1832. In the 20th century artificial lighting became
the main source of interior illumination but day lighting techniques and hybrid solar lighting
solutions are ways to reduce energy consumption.
Day lighting systems collect and distribute sunlight to provide interior illumination.
This passive technology directly offsets energy use by replacing artificial lighting, and
indirectly offsets non-solar energy use by reducing the need for air-conditioning. Although
difficult to quantify, the use of natural lighting also offers physiological and psychological
benefits compared to artificial lighting. Day lighting design implies careful selection of
window types, sizes and orientation; exterior shading devices may be considered as well.
Individual features include saw tooth roofs, clerestory windows, light shelves, skylights and
light tubes. They may be incorporated into existing structures, but are most effective when
integrated into a solar design package that accounts for factors such as glare, heat flux and
time-of-use. When day lighting features are properly implemented they can reduce lighting-
related energy requirements by 25%.
Day lighting features such as this oculus at the top of Pantheon, in Rome, Italy have
been in use since antiquity.
Hybrid solar lighting is an active solar method of providing interior illumination.

HSL systems collect sunlight using focusing mirrors that track the Sun and use optical

fibres to transmit it inside the building to supplement conventional lighting. In single-story

applications these systems are able to transmit 50% of the direct sunlight received.
Solar lights that charge during the day and light up at dusk are a common sight along
walkways.
Although daylight saving time is promoted as a way to use sunlight to save energy,
recent research has been limited and reports contradictory results: several studies report
savings, but just as many suggest no effect or even a net loss, particularly when gasoline
consumption is taken into account. Electricity use is greatly affected by geography, climate
and economics, making it hard to generalize from single studies.
5.4 Solar Thermal:
Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling
and process heat generation.
5.4.1 Water Heating:
Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. In low geographical latitudes
(below 40 degrees) from 60 to 70% of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to
60 °C can be provided by solar heating systems. The most common types of solar water
heaters are evacuated tube collectors (44%) and glazed flat plate collectors (34%) generally
used for domestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly to heat
swimming pools.
As of 2007, the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems is approximately
154 GW. China is the world leader in their deployment with 70 GW installed as of 2006 and
a long term goal of 210 GW by 2020. Israel and Cyprus are the per capita leaders in the use
of solar hot water systems with over 90% of homes using them. In the United States, Canada
and Australia heating swimming pools is the dominant application of solar hot water with an
installed capacity of 18 GW as of 2005.

Solar water heaters facing the Sun to maximize gain
5.4.2 Heating, Cooling and Ventilation:
In the United States, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems
account for 30% (4.65 EJ) of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50%
(10.1 EJ) of the energy used in residential buildings. Solar heating, cooling and ventilation
technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy.
Seasonal Thermal storage
Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat—heat from the Sun in the
case of solar energy. Common thermal mass materials include stone, cement and water.
Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings
cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler
atmosphere at night. However they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as
well. The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such as climate, day
lighting and shading conditions. When properly incorporated, thermal mass maintains space

temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling
equipment.
A solar chimney (or thermal chimney, in this context) is a passive solar ventilation
system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the
chimney warms, the air inside is heated causing an updraft that pulls air through the
building. Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials in a way
that mimics greenhouses.
Deciduous trees and plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar
heating and cooling. When planted on the southern side of a building, their leaves provide
shade during the summer, while the bare limbs allow light to pass during the winter. Since
bare, leafless trees shade 1/3 to 1/2 of incident solar radiation, there is a balance between the
benefits of summer shading and the corresponding loss of winter heating. In climates with
significant heating loads, deciduous trees should not be planted on the southern side of a
building because they will interfere with winter solar availability. They can, however, be used
on the east and west sides to provide a degree of summer shading without appreciably
affecting winter solar gain.
5.4.3 Water treatment:
Solar distillation can be used to make saline or brackish water potable. The first
recorded instance of this was by 16th century Arab alchemists. A large-scale solar distillation
project was first constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining town of Las Salinas. The plant,
which had solar collection area of 4,700 m², could produce up to 22,700 L per day and
operated for 40 years. Individual still designs include single-slope, double-slope (or
greenhouse type), vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick, and multiple effect. These
stills can operate in passive, active, or hybrid modes. Double-slope stills are the most
economical for decentralized domestic purposes; while active multiple effect units are more
suitable for large-scale applications.

Solar water disinfection
Solar water disinfection (SODIS) involves exposing water-filled plastic polyethylene

terephthalate (PET) bottles to sunlight for several hours. Exposure times vary depending on
weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days during fully overcast
conditions. It is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for
household water treatment and safe storage. Over two million people in developing countries
use this method for their daily drinking water.
Solar energy may be used in a water stabilization pond to treat waste water without
chemicals or electricity. A further environmental advantage is that algae grow in such ponds
and consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis, although algae may produce toxic chemicals
that make the water unusable.
5.4.4 Cooking:
The Solar Bowl in Auroville, India, concentrates sunlight on a movable receiver to

produce steam for cooking.
Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization. They can be
grouped into three broad categories: box cookers, panel cookers and reflector cookers. The
simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first built by Horace de Saussure in 1767. A basic
box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid. It can be used effectively
with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90–150 °C. Panel
cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated container and reach
temperatures comparable to box cookers. Reflector cookers use various concentrating
geometries (dish, trough, Fresnel mirrors) to focus light on a cooking container. These
cookers reach temperatures of 315 °C and above but require direct light to function properly
and must be repositioned to track the Sun.

Solar Bowl concentrating sunlight on a movable receiver to produce steam for cooking
The solar bowl is a concentrating technology employed by the Solar Kitchen in

Auroville, Pondicherry, India, where a stationary spherical reflector focuses light along a
line perpendicular to the sphere's interior surface, and a computer control system moves the
receiver to intersect this line. Steam is produced in the receiver at temperatures reaching
150 °C and then used for process heat in the kitchen.
A reflector developed by Wolfgang Schaeffer in 1986 is used in many solar kitchens.

Schaeffer reflectors are flexible parabolic dishes that combine aspects of trough and power
tower concentrators. Polar tracking is used to follow the Sun's daily course and the
curvature of the reflector is adjusted for seasonal variations in the incident angle of sunlight.
These reflectors can reach temperatures of 450–650 °C and have a fixed focal point, which
simplifies cooking. The world's largest Schaeffer reflector system in Abu Road, Rajasthan,
India is capable of cooking up to 35,000 meals a day. As of 2008, over 2,000 large Schaeffer
cookers had been built worldwide.
5.4.5 Electrical Generation:
STEP parabolic dishes used for steam production and electrical generation
Sunlight can be converted into electricity using photovoltaic’s (PV), concentrating

solar power (CSP), and various experimental technologies. PV has mainly been used to
power small and medium-sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar

cell to off-grid homes powered by a photovoltaic array. For large-scale generation, CSP
plants like SEGS have been the norm but recently multi-megawatt PV plants are becoming
common. Completed in 2007, the 14 MW power stations in Clark County, Nevada, United
States and the 20 MW site in Beneixama, Spain are characteristic of the trend toward larger
photovoltaic power stations in the United States and Europe. As an intermittent power
source, solar power requires a backup supply, which can partially be complemented with
wind power. Local backup usually is done with batteries, while utilities normally use
pumped-hydro storage. The Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University
of Kassel in Germany pilot-tested a combined power plant linking solar, wind, biogas and
hydro storage to provide load-following power around the clock, entirely from renewable
sources.
5.4.6 Solar vehicles:
Australia hosts the World Solar Challenge where solar cars like the Nuna3 race
through a 3,021 km (1,877 mi) course from Darwin to Adelaide.
Nuna3 Solar Car
Development of a solar powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s.
The World Solar Challenge is a biannual solar-powered car race, where teams from
universities and enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometers (1,877 mi) across central
Australia from Darwin to Adelaide. In 1987, when it was founded, the winner's average
speed was 67 kilometres per hour (42 mph) and by 2007 the winner's average speed had
improved to 90.87 kilometres per hour (56.46 mph). The North American Solar Challenge
and the planned South African Solar Challenge are comparable competitions that reflect an
international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered vehicles.

Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power, such as for air conditioning, to
keep the interior cool, thus reducing fuel consumption.
In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in England. By 1995, passenger
boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively. In 1996,
Kenichi Horie made the first solar powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean, and the sun21
catamaran made the first solar powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 2006–
2007. There are plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010.
In 1974, the unmanned AstroFlight Sunrise plane made the first solar flight. On 29
April 1979, the Solar Riser made the first flight in a solar powered, fully controlled, man
carrying flying machine, reaching an altitude of 40 feet (12 m). In 1980, the Gossamer
Penguin made the first piloted flights powered solely by photovoltaics. This was quickly
followed by the Solar Challenger which crossed the English Channel in July 1981. In 1990
Eric Raymond in 21 hops flew from California to North Carolina using solar power.
Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) with the Pathfinder
(1997) and subsequent designs, culminating in the Helios which set the altitude record for a
non-rocket-propelled aircraft at 29,524 meters (96,864 ft) in 2001. The Zephyr, developed by
BAE Systems, is the latest in a line of record-breaking solar aircraft, making a 54-hour flight
in 2007, and month-long flights are envisioned by 2010.
Helios UAV in solar powered flight
A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air. As sunlight shines
on the balloon, the air inside is heated and expands causing an upward buoyancy force, much
like an artificially heated hot air balloon. Some solar balloons are large enough for human
flight, but usage is generally limited to the toy market as the surface-area to payload-weight
ratio is relatively high.

Solar sails are a proposed form of spacecraft propulsion using large membrane
mirrors to exploit radiation pressure from the Sun. Unlike rockets, solar sails require no fuel.
Although the thrust is small compared to rockets, it continues as long as the Sun shines onto
the deployed sail and in the vacuum of space significant speeds can eventually be achieved.
The High-altitude airship (HAA) is an unmanned, long-duration, lighter-than-air

vehicle using helium gas for lift, and thin-film solar cells for power. The United States
Department of Defence Missile Defence Agency has contracted Lockheed Martin to
construct it to enhance the Ballistic Missile Defence System (BMDS). Airships have some
advantages for solar-powered flight: they do not require power to remain aloft, and an
airship's envelope presents a large area to the Sun.

6. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR

ENERGY
6.1 Advantages of Solar Energy:
Solar energy is the newest and most cost effective way to satisfy the huge energy
needs of human beings. There are many useful applications of the solar energy in day-to-day
life, with many advantages over traditional and the conventional sources of energy.
Many of us know that solar energy is a good thing, but few really understand why.
Therefore, I compiled a comprehensive list of solar energy advantages and disadvantages that
will enable you to make an educated decision whether or not Solar Power is right for YOU.
Solar Energy Is Abundant:
Solar energy is everywhere, it’s abundant and we’ll practically never run out. Even in
mid winter we are blessed with a moderate amount of natural daylight provided courtesy of
the sun. Okay, it might not be sunny everyday but we are still experiencing radiation from the
sun and it is this which can be gleaned for our own renewable energy purposes. Thus the need
for finding a long lasting energy resource is over!
Solar Energy Is Free:
Solar energy is completely free. Sure, there is an initial capital cost but once you have
made the investment the energy harvested from the sun costs you nothing. No one will be
sending you a bill for sunshine. Thus, there is no need of spending enormous amount of your
salary in satisfying your energy requirements.
Solar Energy Is Cost Effective:
While solar photovoltaic are still relatively expensive,, the technology is growing
rapidly as is production – and as a result the costs involved are coming down and is now cost
effective. Solar hot water panels have been greatly improved in recent years and, with lower
cost, payback times for domestic systems can not be as short as five years. As coal, gas and
oil prices continue to raise solar energy will become a viable alternative. It’s secure. We live
in uncertain times and we are increasingly relying on our fossil fuel supplies coming from
areas abroad over which we have little or no control.

Solar Energy Is Clean:
Finally solar energy is clean. It is a clean alternative to fossil fuels and nuclear power
and it will never run out. It’s silent. Solar power can be captured anywhere without creating
noise pollution that might otherwise up set neighbors’ and wildlife. It works wherever the sun
shines. It doesn’t matter how remote, solar can generate energy where no other form of power
can be obtained. Thus, no danger of damaging our already damaged environment further and
you can be part of the Green initiative, lower your carbon footprint, and save our planet from
harmful greenhouse gases.
Solar Energy is environmentally friendly:
Solar Energy is clean, renewable (unlike gas, oil and coal) and sustainable, helping to
protect our environment. It does not pollute our air by releasing carbon dioxide, nitrogen
oxide, sulphur dioxide or mercury into the atmosphere like many traditional forms of
electrical generations does. Therefore Solar Energy does not contribute to global warming,
acid rain or smog. It actively contributes to the decrease of harmful green house gas
emissions. It's generated where it is needed. By not using any fuel, Solar Energy does not
contribute to the cost and problems of the recovery and transportation of fuel or the storage of
radioactive waste.
Solar Energy is Independent/ semi-independent:
Solar Energy can be utilized to offset utility-supplied energy consumption. It does not
only reduce your electricity bill, but will also continue to supply your home/ business with
electricity in the event of a power outage. A Solar Energy system can operate entirely
independent, not requiring a connection to a power or gas grid at all. Systems can therefore
be installed in remote locations (like holiday log cabins), making it more practical and cost-
effective than the supply of utility electricity to a new site. The use of Solar Energy reduces
our dependence on foreign and/or centralized sources of energy, influenced by natural
disasters or international events and so contributes to a sustainable future. Solar Energy
supports local job and wealth creation, fuelling local economies.
Solar Energy is Low/ no maintenance:
Solar Energy systems are virtually maintenance free and will last for decades. Once
installed, there are no recurring costs. They operate silently, have no moving parts, do not

release offensive smells and do not require you to add any fuel. More solar panels can easily
be added in the future when your family's needs grow.
6.2 Disadvantages of Solar Energy:
In the main these disadvantages are really engineering problems for which solutions
are becoming increasingly available and efficient. They are not serious reasons to dismiss the
value or utility of solar energy.
 One of the main disadvantages is the initial cost of the equipment used to harness the
suns energy. Solar energy technologies still remain a costly alternative to the use of
readily available fossil fuel technologies. As the price of solar panels decreases, we
are likely to see an increase in the use of solar cells to generate electricity.
 A solar energy installation requires a large area for the system to be efficient in
providing a source of electricity. This may be a disadvantage in areas where space is
short, or expensive (such as inner cities).
 Pollution can be a disadvantage to solar panels, as pollution can degrade the

efficiency of photovoltaic cells. Clouds also provide the same effect, as they can
reduce the energy of the sun’s rays. This certain disadvantage is more of an issue with
older solar components, as newer designs integrate technologies to overcome the
worst of these effects.
 Solar energy is only useful when the sun is shining. During the night, your expensive
solar equipment will be useless; however the use of solar battery chargers can help to
reduce the effects of this disadvantage.
 The location of solar panels can affect performance, due to possible obstructions from
the surrounding buildings or landscape.

 The cost of solar energy is also high compared to non-renewable utility-supplied

electricity. As energy shortages are becoming more common, solar energy is
becoming more price-competitive.
 The efficiency of the system also relies on the location of the sun, although this
problem can be overcome with the installation of certain components.
 The production of solar energy is influenced by the presence of clouds or pollution in

the air.
 It is available most abundantly in areas with a high number of sunshine hours. Where
it is needed most, cold countries in high northern or southern latitudes, it is less easily
captured and used.
 It is not directly available at night or under cloud cover and conversion into another
form of energy storage systems are necessary for those times.
 DC power is produced by solar cells which must be converted to AC power before it

can be used.

7. ENERGY CRISIS
7.1 Definition:
An energy crisis is any great bottleneck (or price rise) in the supply

of energy resources to an economy. It usually refers to the shortage of oil and additionally
to electricity or other natural resources.
The crisis often has effects on the rest of the economy, with many recessions being
caused by an energy crisis in some form. In particular, the production costs of electricity rise,
which raises manufacturing costs.
For the consumer, the price of gasoline (petrol) and diesel for cars and other vehicles
rises, leading to reduced consumer confidence and spending, higher transportation costs and
general price rises.
7.2 Causes for Energy Crisis:
Market failure is possible when monopoly manipulation of markets occurs. A crisis

can develop due to industrial actions like union organized strikes and government
embargoes. The cause may be over-consumption, aging infrastructure, choke point
disruption or bottlenecks at oil refineries and port facilities that restrict fuel supply. An
emergency may emerge during unusually cold winters due to increased consumption of
energy.
Pipeline failures and other accidents may cause minor interruptions to energy
supplies. A crisis could possibly emerge after infrastructure damage from severe weather.
Attacks by terrorists or militia on important infrastructure are a possible problem for energy
consumers, with a successful strike on a Middle East facility potentially causing global
shortages. Political events, for example, when governments change due to regime change,
monarchy collapse, military occupation, and coup may disrupt oil and gas production and
create shortages.
7.3 Historical Crisis:
 1970s Energy Crisis - Cause: peaking of oil production in major industrial nations
(Germany, U.S., Canada, etc.) and embargoes from other producers.

 1973 oil crisis - Cause: an OPEC oil export embargo by many of the major Arab oil-
producing states, in response to western support of Israel during the Yom Kippur
War.
 1979 oil crisis - Cause: the Iranian revolution.
 1990 spike in the price of oil - Cause: the Gulf War.
 2000–2001 California electricity crisis - Cause: failed deregulation, and business

corruption.
 The UK fuel protest of 2000 - Cause: Raise in the price of crude oil combined with
already relatively high taxation on road fuel in the UK.
 North American natural gas crisis.
 Argentine energy crisis of 2004.
 North Korea has had energy shortages for many years.
 Zimbabwe has experienced a shortage of energy supplies for many years due to
financial mismanagement.
 Political riots occurring during the 2007 Burmese anti-government protests were
sparked by rising energy prices.
7.4 Emerging Shortages:
Crises that exist as of 2008 include:

 Oil price increases since 2003 - Caused by continued global increases in petroleum
demand coupled with production stagnation, the falling value of the U.S. dollar, and
a myriad of other secondary causes.
 2008 Central Asia energy crisis caused by abnormally cold temperatures and low
water levels in an area dependent on hydroelectric power. Despite having significant
hydrocarbon reserves, in February 2008 the President of Pakistan announced plans to
tackle energy shortages that were reaching crisis stage. At the same time the South
African President was appeasing fears of a prolonged electricity crisis in South
Africa.
 South African electrical crisis- The South African crisis, which may last to 2012, led
to large price rises for platinum in February 2008 and reduced gold production.
 China experienced severe energy shortages towards the end of 2005 and again in
early 2008. During the latter crisis they suffered severe damage to power networks
along with diesel and coal shortages. Supplies of electricity in Guangdong province,
the manufacturing hub of China, are predicted to fall short by an estimated 10 GW.
 It has been predicted that in the coming years after 2009 that the United Kingdom
will suffer an energy crisis due to its commitments to reduce coal fired power stations,
its politician's unwillingness to set up new nuclear power stations to replaces those
that will be de-commissioned in a few years (even though they will not be running in
time to stop a full blown crisis) and unreliable sources and sources that are running
out of oil and gas. It is therefore predicted that the UK may have regular blackouts
like South Africa.

World’s second largest Oil Field in Kuwait (Al Burqan Oil Field)
7.5 Statement of the Problem in Capsule Form:
Abundant and economical energy is the life blood of modern civilizations. The bar graph
shows oil, coal and natural gas together supplying 85 percent of the world's energy supply in
2008.
Coals, nuclear and hydro are used primarily to make electricity. Natural gas is widely used
for heating. Biomass, which usually means wood or dried dung, is used for heating and
cooking. The red sliver is wind and solar power, primarily. The red sliver may be small, but it
is the future because wind and solar power are sustainable.
Oil powers almost all machines that move and that makes oil uniquely versatile. Oil powered
airplanes carry 500 people across the widest oceans at nearly the speed of sound. Oil powered
machines produce and transport food. In North America there are many more seats in oil
powered vehicles than there are people. Oil powered machines are ubiquitous. Clearly,
we live in the age of oil, but the age of oil is drawing to a close.
If oil production remains constant until it's gone, there is enough to last 42 years. Oil wells
produce less as they become depleted which will make it impossible to keep production
constant. Similarly, there is enough natural gas to last 61 years and there is enough coal to
last 133 years. Nearly everyone realizes oil and gas will become scarce and expensive within
the life times of living humans. Inevitably, there will be a transition to sustainable energy
sources. The transition may be willy-nilly or planned--the choice is ours.
Consider the implications of the following facts;

 The United States consumes 25 percent of the world's oil and 70 percent of that is
imported.
 61 percent of the world's oil reserves are in the Middle East. The United States has 2.4
percent.
 66.3 percent of the world's gas reserves are in the Middle East and the Russian
Federation. The United States has 3.4 percent.
Because of our numbers and our technology, we humans greatly influence the ecology of
Earth. We humans qualified or not, are at the controls. Earth does not come with an operating
manual. We humans need to look to science to create one.
The coming era of limited and expensive energy will be very difficult for everyone on Earth
but it will be even more difficult if it is not anticipated. It is of utmost importance that the
public and especially policymakers understand the global energy crisis and the underlying
science.
7.6 World’s Current Energy Crisis:
The world is gradually marching towards a severe energy crisis, what with an ever-increasing
demand of energy overstepping its supply. We have always known that the energy we use
every day is not unlimited, yet we take it for granted. Oil, gas, power, even water has limited
availability. Yet, we have not taken enough precautions to deal with a possible energy crisis.
When I say ‘we’, I am not referring to the governments but to all of us, the common people.
Oil and gas have already become too expensive, and with each passing day, they are moving
towards being extinct. Some ignorant people think that energy crisis is a myth. They fail to
see the big picture. There have been three major energy crises so far – the 1973 oil crisis, the
1979 energy crisis, and the 1990 oil-price hike, apart from several regional crisis.
Prices have been rapidly increasing for the last five years, thanks to the ever-increasing
demand and the increasing shortage of energy resources.

How soon will it be all gone?

We have already exhausted 50 percent of the available oil. At the current rate of
consumption, the rest of the oil will finish in 32 years! Imagine if the rate of consumption
increases! We all know it is bound to increase. So, even the present generation will face an
acute energy crisis in the later years, let alone future generations.
What are we doing about it?

For starters, we need to understand the importance of energy in our lives and stop taking it for
granted. We have to minimize the use of oil, gas, electricity, or any other fuel. We cannot
afford to waste any available energy. It is also important to spread awareness about limited
availability of energy resources. Simple things like joining a car pool, switching off car
engines at traffic lights, and minimizing the use of gas and oil in everyday activities will help
a long way in crisis-readiness.
What are the alternate energy options?

As a responsible world citizen, start looking for alternate energy solutions like solar energy
and wind energy. Employing these alternate power solutions is extremely feasible and cost-
effective. You will not only cut down your power bills but also contribute to a better future of
the world.
7.7 Four Ways to Solve the Energy Crisis:
1. Make gasoline-only cars illegal:
"Every gas-powered car has an average street life of seventeen years, which means that the
minute you leave the lot, you're signing up for two decades of foreign-oil dependence. The
easiest way to change this is to mandate that every vehicle sold in the U.S. is flex-fuel
compatible so that it can run on just about any blend of hydrocarbon-based fuels -- gasoline,
ethanol, methanol, etc. The technology already exists, and the process is cheap, about a
hundred dollars per vehicle. Detroit will cry about 'government interference,' but in fact the
mandate would open a vast new free market in alternative-fuel development."

2. Kill the Iowa caucuses:
"Here's the first thing every presidential candidate who visits Iowa is asked: 'Where do you
stand on ethanol?' Why's this a problem? Because the ethanol lobby has managed to place
huge tariffs on ethanol produced abroad while freezing out the development of other
alternative fuels at home. It portrays itself as this sort of savoir, the domestic solution to our
reliance on foreign oil, but it really just protects a tiny number of Midwestern corn farmers.
Anyone who thinks otherwise, bear in mind: Even if every single kernel of corn grown in
America were converted to ethanol, it would still only replace about 12 percent of America's
gasoline requirement.”
3. Think of the world in terms of sugarcane:
"America hasn't been very good about making friends in the Middle East lately, but there are
still a few countries in Latin America, Africa, and Southeast Asia that like us. And many of

them, such as Panama, Kenya, and Thailand, grow sugarcane, from which you can make
ethanol at half the cost of making it from corn. We should direct foreign aid throughout the
agricultural sector in these countries to increase their efficiency and create jobs. That will
make them happy, and it'll improve our national security. They'll be our friends forever.
Unlike the OPEC nations."
4. Revolutionize waste:
"Sixty-five percent of our garbage is biomass: food, paper, scrap wood. All of it could be
converted to methanol. The process has been around for two hundred years. And it's twice as
efficient as cellulosic ethanol, supposedly the next big thing in alternative fuels. Then there's
coal -- America has a quarter of the world's reserve, but we use it mainly to feed power
plants, which is a dirty and inefficient use. Instead, coal can be converted to clean-burning
methanol for the equivalent of one dollar per gallon. Last, look to recyclables, like black
liquor, a toxic by-product of the paper industry. Right now, paper mills inefficiently recycle it
themselves. But black liquor can be converted to methanol. Do so and we'd generate nine
billion gallons of methanol a year -- almost twice the ethanol we now make from corn."

Actually getting this done:
"These are only four of many common-sense opportunities throughout the economy, but
we're not taking advantage of them, because there isn't a sustainable market for alternative
fuels. Yet, which brings us back to step one: flex-fuel technology? Get that and the other
three will take care of themselves. There will be stiff opposition from the oil, corn, and auto
lobbies. There always is. But let's hope that Washington can step up for a change. Because
once you take politics out of the energy policy, you get very different -- and much better –
results."

CONCLUSION
Solar energy is a clean, pollution free and renewable source of energy. Development
of this source of energy requires an accurate detailed long-term knowledge of the potential
taking into account seasonal variations. The region of the earth between the latitudes of 401N
and 401S is generally known as the solar belt and this region is supposed to be with an
abundant amount of solar radiation.
Solar energy is an easy source of energy to use once the systems have been set up.
Not many problems go wrong with them. For a business it’s a good way to save on the
electricity bill as long as a backup generator is there in case the energy supply from the
battery runs out when there is not much sun for a long period of time, for example over
winter.
Solar Energy research is focusing on the development of thin film crystalline solar
cells that trap 91.5% of light. The combined study of photovoltaic’s and thermal conversion
and the practical application of optical principles produced novel transparent insulating
materials that can be utilized for passive solar architectures that absorb heat and solar
radiation for buildings. Furthermore, the research on the applications of bifacial photovoltaic
systems and bifacial sensitive cells can be utilized for the development of photovoltaic
generators.
For starters, we need to understand the importance of energy in our lives and stop
taking it for granted. We have to minimize the use of oil, gas, electricity, or any other fuel.
We cannot afford to waste any available energy. It is also important to spread awareness
about limited availability of energy resources. Simple things like joining a car pool, switching
off car engines at traffic lights, and minimizing the use of gas and oil in everyday activities
will help a long way in energy crisis-readiness.

REFERENCE
1. Agrafiotis, C.; Roeb, M.; Konstandopoulos, A.G.; Nalbandian, L.; Zaspalis,

V.T.; Sattler, C.; Stobbe, P.; Steele, A.M. (2005). "Solar water splitting for
hydrogen production with monolithic reactors". Solar Energy 79 (4): 409–
421. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2005.02.026.
2. Anderson, Lorraine; Palkovic, Rick (1994). Cooking with Sunshine (The
Complete Guide to Solar Cuisine with 150 Easy Sun-Cooked Recipes). Marlowe
& Company. ISBN 156924300X.
3. Balcomb, J. Douglas (1992). Passive Solar Buildings. Massachusetts Institute
of Technology. ISBN 0262023415.
4. Bénard, C.; Gobin, D.; Gutierrez, M. (1981). "Experimental Results of a
Latent-Heat Solar-Roof, Used for Breeding Chickens". Solar Energy 26 (4):
347–359. doi:10.1016/0038-092X(81)90181-X.
5. Bolton, James (1977). Solar Power and Fuels. Academic Press, Inc..
ISBN 0121123502.
6. Bradford, Travis (2006). Solar Revolution: The Economic Transformation of
the Global Energy Industry. MIT Press. ISBN 026202604X.
7. Butti, Ken; Perlin, John (1981). A Golden Thread (2500 Years of Solar
Architecture and Technology). Van Nostrand Reinhold. ISBN 0442240058.
8. Carr, Donald E. (1976). Energy & the Earth Machine. W. W. Norton &
Company. ISBN 0393064077.
9. Daniels, Farrington (1964). Direct Use of the Sun's Energy. Ballantine Books.
ISBN 0345259386.
10. solar energy - definition of solar energy by the Free Online Dictionary,
Thesaurus and Encyclopedia.htm
11. Solar energy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.mht

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Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 1

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 2

2.1 Definition of Solar Energy:

 Passive solar energy can be exploited through architectural design, as by positioning

 Active solar energy involves the conversion of sunlight to electrical energy,

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 3

2.2 History of Solar Energy:

 Thermal energy form.

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 4

2.3 Energy from the Sun:

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 5

producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight

Yearly Solar fluxes & Human Energy

Primary energy use (2005) 487 EJ

Electricity (2005) 56.7 EJ

2.4 Energy Storage Methods:

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 6

Energy Park including Solar Panels and Pumped-storage hydroelectricity

Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 7

Seasonal variation of the output of the Solar Panels

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 8

3.1 Solar Radiation outside the Earth’s Atmosphere:

Where n is the day of the year.

It is also useful to know the spectral distribution of extra-terrestrial solar radiation.

3.2 Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface:

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 9

Solar radiation is received at the earth’s surface in an attenuated form because it is

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 10

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 11

4.1 Meaning of Solar Variation:

4.2 History of Study into Solar Variations:

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 12

4.3 Solar Activities and Irradiance Measurement:

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 13

4.4 Solar interactions with Earth:

4.4.1 Changes in total irradiance:

 Total solar irradiance changes slowly on decadal and longer timescales.

 In contrast to older reconstructions, most recent reconstructions of total solar

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 14

 Different composite reconstructions of total solar irradiance observations by satellites

4.4.2 Changes in ultraviolet irradiance:

 UV irradiance increase causes higher ozone production, leading to

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 15

4.4.4 Effects on clouds:

 1983–1994 data from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project

4.5 Other Effects due to Solar Variation:

4.5.1 Geomagnetic effects:

Solar particles interact with Earth's magnetosphere

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 16

4.5.2 Solar proton events:

4.5.3 Galactic cosmic rays:

An increase in solar activity (more sunspots) is accompanied by an increase in the "solar

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 17

4.5.4 Cloud effects:

4.5.5 Carbon-14 production:

Sunspot record (blue) with 14C (inverted)

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 18

Department of Electrical Engineering, GAT Page 19

5. APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR TECHNOLOGY

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on