CONCLUSION 203
Church was God’s representative on Earth. To counterbalance
Conclusion / an opposing force against which it could measure its sanctity.
Magic HAS PLAyED A PROMINENT ROLE THROUGHOUT ALL OF HUMAN
history. It arose out of the human being’s desire to gain more con­
trol over Nature’s immense forces and over Destiny. The magical
practitioner, through clsdming control over those forces, provided
others with a sense of safety, but also mystery. These magical
practitioners performed their magic in many different ways,
ranging from sorcery to necromancy, which became an integral
part of pre-Christian society. Ancient, pre-literate society was
predominantly matriarchal in structure and the Mother Goddess
ruled above sdl. Women played a prominent role in society and
often performed the duties of the magical practitioner, who was
closely linked to the Goddess. The rise of the three major patriar­
chal religions, Christianity, Islam, and Judaism sign^ed the fall
of the Mother and, subsequently, women’s important position in
society. After those patriarchal religions gained a strong foothold
in society, they, along with other social and political factors, con­
tributed to the inversion of the magical practitioner and herbal­
ist-midwife into the witch by the end of the fifteenth century.
When the Church began to evangelize throughout Peigan Eu­
rope, it considered magical practice a rival entity. At first, in
order to compete, the Church incorporated many of the Pagan
magical practices that it found into its own doctrine. It also began
to create its own magic and called it miracles. As the Church grew
in strength and gained the support of political leaders, it was able
to declare heretical any practice it deemed unsuitable for its pur­
poses.
Once it was firmly established, the Chiurch declared that there
were only two forces in existence that could produce supernatural
events: God and the Devil. Therefore, until the thirteenth cen­
tury, the Church considered magical practice, not yet completely
associated with the Devil, to be Ulusory. Only the miracles of the
saints and holy people were to be believed because God worked
through them. Church doctrine rested on the idea that the
202
and therefore highlight this idea, the Church fostered the concept
of Evil embodied in the figure of Satan. The wickedness of the
Devil and the threat of eternal damnation provided the Church
with not only a way to ensure adherence to its doctrine, but also
Satan, however, was an abstract, intangible being who could not
be apprehended by human measures in a physical way. Just as
the Church had created the saints and holy people to serve as
human agents through whom God could perform miracles, Chris­
tianity also created the saint’s covmterpart, the witch, through
whom the Devil could perform his demonic magic.
The magician and sorcerer, who had existed as an integral part
of society for so long, became the target in the fourteenth century
for the Church’s creation of witchcraft. The midwife, also per­
ceived as a threat to Christian order because she continued the
ways of the Mother, was added to the image of the demonic magi­
cal practitioner so that, by the latter half of the fifteenth century,
a fully formed witch figure emerged, captured in vivid detail by
the pens of two German Inquisitors in their Malleus Malefi-
carum. The fear of the witch as the destroyer of Christian civiliza­
tion went on to cause the deaths of thousands of people between
1450 and 1750, a period commonly known as the Witchcraze. The
once revered sorcerer/ess had become one of humankind’s most
frightening enemies.
Spain, however, did not experience a Witchcraze to the extent
that so many other European regions did. Although Spain shared
in many events as did other countries, such as Christianization,
plague, and political unrest, its unique history molded ajtnore
tempered and skeptical attitude toward the concept oF ma^cal
practice and witchcrafETMagical practice existed in pre-Chnsfian
Spamahd_was^;gAse^ent.ly spoken against in a series of Spanish
Church Counts from the fourth to the eighth centuries with in­
creasing severity ’w^e the Church was..m the process.of chris­
tianizing the peninsula.
The Moorish invasion of 711, however, interrupted that proc­
ess and caused the Church to concentrate on matters other than
opposing magical practice. Moorish influence on the peninsula
added to the magical practice aheady extant, tmgeing it with a
decidedly Arab flavor. The Moors imported their science, which
could easily be confused with magic, as weU as their cultural tol-
204 PERCEPTIONS OF MAGIC IN MEDIEVAL SPANISH LITERATURE CONCLUSION 205

eration for the magic arts. By the thirteenth and fourteenth cen^ K Calila e Dimna, Gran Conquista de Ultramar, and the Coplas de
turies, Spain had become Europe’s center for magic and even . K Vita Christi.
elevated several magicians and sorcerers to the level of fame. K. Many authors also recognize magic’s usefulness in matters of
Spain was not so isolated that it could completely ignore papal R love as weU as the idea that love can even overshadow magic. The /
dictates. Beginning in the thirteenth century, these papal pro- B Deviljoes appear in various texts, but never manages to seduce [
noimcements had begun to speak against magical practice with a hgge number of people into his service. There are roughly equal '
increasingly harsh tones. Some of Spain’s prominent intellectual ^ numbers of men and women who perform^LagicTin meffieval
and rehgious writers reflect the demonization of the sorcerer that t Spanish hterature. Thus; there is no apparent trend toward cre-
the papacy so vehemently advocated. Other authors reveal a dis­ I' ating a female witch because Spain, in general, held a skeptical
tinct skepticism toward these ideas. By the end of the fifteenth I opinion of witchcraft and also did not single out women as an out-
century, Spain did imderstand the concept of witchcraft, but in­ I side group which could subsequently be persecuted,
stead of blindly accepting it, perceived it with rational thought f Rather than creating an evil servant of Satan to reflect current
and skepticism. ' Eufopemip^itical and relfmbus "Erends. the authors of late
Like the varied opinions that medieval Spain maintained, t medie^^Spain instead desc^e^he ml'ch as ^ ordinary human
Spanish medieval hterature also contains a wide range of ideas I being 1^0 uses fier^r5[jmmanjai)ihties to make a living, and. as
concerning the magical practitioner and the perception of the ^ afigime able"to produce laughter sis.Ep.^i,aiidF,erndjidez so_dev-
witch. In fact, it cannot be stated that a solid witch figure did de­ *, erlv illustrate. Such portrayal not onlyremovea^the mystery frote
I the figure of the witch but also the^fear-thatiaeeempaniedrit,
velop in Spain’s medieval literature in a way that communicated
which was the real fuel in the Witchcraze. Although there are
that the witch was real and a figure to be feared and hated. Nev­
many elements that could easily have contributed to a convincing !
ertheless, there are bits and pieces in some works that allude to
the authors’ having been exposed to the idea of witchcraft, such
portrait of the witch, Spain’^authors instead chose a more ratio- I
nal route to transformhSTnto ifcliver object of debate and im-
as the pacts that appear with the Moors of Feman Gonzalez, . mask H^foO^ThumanityT
Theophilus, and Celestina, as weU as the detailed descriptions of
nefarious rituals which appear in Berceo, Mena, and Rojas’s writ­
ing. The portrayal of ah the magical practitioners ranges from ar­
dent admiration, as seen with the ideas about Virgil and VUlena,
to extreme disapproval, as the Corbacho, Rimado de Palacio, and
part of the Laberinto de Fortuna illustrate. Some Spanish writers
had a propensity for acceptance of magic which can be seen in
the Libro de Alexandre, Conde Lucanor, Amadis de Gaula, Siervo
Libre de amor, and parts of the Laberinto de Fortuna. The magi­
cal practitioner, as portrayed in Spain’s literature, could be a
great asset in political matters, as weU as in didactic lessons, reli­
gion, and entertainment. Magic politically supports the heroes of
the Libro de Alexandre, Poema de Feman Gonzdlez and Amadis
de Gaula. It also serves as a teacher in Calila e Dimna. Christian­
ity provides an alternative to magic with its own advantageous
supernatural power as seen in the Representacidn de los Reyes
Magos, Vida de Santa Maria Egipciaca, Vida de San Milldn de la
Cogolla, Vida de Santo Domingo de Silos, Poema de Santa Oria,

Notes
Chapter 1. Magic
1. The term “Church” refers to the Roman-based Church. “Spanish
Church” will be used when referring specifically to Spain.
2. The term “Inquisition” refers to the Papal Inquisition. “Spanish Inquisi­
tion” win be used to refer to Spain’s separate organization.
3. “However, since effects are sudiieved by those arts which surpass the lim­
its of aU the power of mankind, the only sensible course is to realize the true
nature of those marvels, in a way of predictions or events which seem to be ex­
amples of divine power, and yet have no connection with the worship of the one
God. It is to this God that man must cleave in all sincerity, if he is to attain the
only Good which brings true happiness. The Platonists themselves admit this,
by a multitude of testimonies. And so all these marvels are to be seen as mocker­
ies, seductions, and hindrances, contrived by malicious demons—things from
which true piety must protect us. Contrasted with these are aU the miracles
which are effected by divine power, whether by means of angels or in any other
manner, so as to commend to us the worship and religion of the one God, in
whom alone is the life of blessedness” (Augustine 1972, 391).
4. The English equivalents to St. Isidore’s definitions to be used in this
study are: mago—magician; nigromemte—necromancer; hidromante—hydro-
mancer; adivino—diviner; encantador—sorcerer; ariolo—demon worshiper; a-
nispice—time savant;' augures—augurer; astrologo—astrologer; horoscope—
horoscope caster; sortilegio—fortune-teller; salisator—medium.
5. Unless otherwise noted, all translations are mine.
6. “In quibus omnibus ars daemonum est ex quadam pestifera societate
hominum et angelorum malorum exorta. Vnde cuncta vitanda srmt a Christia-
no, et omni penitus execratione repudianda atque damnanda” (Isidore de Sevi­
lla 1982, 716).
7. An offshoot of Christianity that gained ground in Spain was the Arianism
brou^t by the Visigoths who strove to convert their subjects to it but had to
compete with a ■wide spectrum of Pagan practices. Visigothic Spain retained a
magical atmosphere in which omens, legends, and astrology intertwined with
all other aspects of life (Flores 1976,17).
8. “Qui post fidem baptismi salutaris adulta aetate ad templmn idoH idola-
turus accesserit, et fecerit quod est crimen capitale quia est summi sceleris, pla-
cuit nec in finem eum communionem accipere” (CondUo de El'vira 1850, 29).
9. “Si quis vero malefido interfidat alterum, eo quod sine idolatria perficere
206
NOTES 207
scelus non potuit, nec in finem impertiendam esse illi communionem” (Condho
de Elvira 1850,41-42).
10. “Non liceat derids incantatores esse et ligaturas facere, quod est coUi-
gatio animarum. Si quis haec fadt, de ecclesia projiciatur” (Conciho de Braga 11
1850, 645).
11. “Si quis paganorum consuetudinem sequens divinos et sortilegos in domo
sua introduxerit, quasi ut malum foras mittant aut malefida inveniant vel lus-
trationes paganorum fadant, quinque annis poenitentiam agat” (Condlio de
Braga n 1850,647).
12. “LXXn—No es lidto a los cristianos dar cr^to a las tradidones de los
gentiles, ni observer 6 den culto a los elementos, 6 al curso de la lima 6 a la vana
falada de los signos, cuando vayan a hacer una casa 6 k sembrar cereales, plan­
tar drboles 6 k casarse, porque estd escrito, cualquiera cosa que hagais, sea de
paJabra 6 de obra, hacedlo todo en el nombre de Nuestro SeUor Jesucristo, dando
gracias par el d Dios Padre. (Non liceat christianis tenere traditiones gentihum
et observare vel colere elementa aut lunae aut steUarum cursum aut inanem
signorum falladam pro domo facienda vel ad segetes vel conjugia sodanda,
scriptnm est enim: Omnia quae facitis aut in verbo aut in opere omnia in nomine
domini nostri Jesu Christi facite, gratias agentes Deo).
LXXni—No es licito hacer las observadones inicuas de las calendas, y entre-
garse a las diversiones gentilicas, ni cenir las casas con lamrel 6 con ramos verdes
de los krboles. Todas estas prdcticas son del paganismo. (Non liceat iniquas ob-
servationes agere calendarum et otiis vacare gentilibus neque lauro aut 'viridi-
tate arborum dngere domos. Omnis haec observatio paganismi est).
LXXIV—No es lidto en la recolecdon de yerbas medidnales, emplear algunas
observadones 6 encantamientos, sino que deben cogerse tan solamente con el
sfinbolo di'vino 6 con la oradon dominical, para honrar tal solo a Dios criador y
sefior de todo. (Non liceat in coUectione herbarum, quae medidnales sunt, ali-
quas observationes aut incantationes attendere, nisi tantum cum symbolo di-
vino aut oratione dominica, ut tantum Deus creator omnium et dominus
honoretur).
LXXV—No sea lidto k las mugeres cristianas observar alguna vana forma en
sus obras de lana, sino invocar al Senor que las ha concedido la denda para
tegerlas. (Non liceat mulieribus christianis ahquam vanitateln in suis lanifidis
observare, sed Dominum invocent adjutorem qui eis sapientiam texendi do-
navit)” (Condlio de Braga El 1850, 648).
[LXXn—It is not lawful for Christians to follow the traditions of the Pagans,
or to observe or worship the elements, or the course of the moon or the fallacy
of the signs, when they build a house or sow grain, plant trees or get married,
'because it is written, whatever one does, whether word or act, do it in the name
of Jesus Christ, giving thanks for him to God.
LiXXni—^It is not lawful to follow the wicked rites of calendas and give oneself
over to Pagan acti'vities, or to fasten laurels or green branches from trees to
one’s house. AU of these practices are Pagan.
LXXIV—It is not lawful, while coUecting medicinal herbs, to employ Pagan
rites or spells, but rather they should be coUected only with the divine symbol
or with the Sunday prayer to honor only God the Creator and Lord of aU.
LXXV—^It is not lawful for Christian women to perform any vain rites while
208 NOTES
working with wool, but rather to invoke Grod, Who has provided them with the
knowledge of weaving it.]
13. StiU employed today, the common practice of installing a Christmas tree
and other greenery inside one’s home indicates not only the Church’s failure to
enforce this rule but also how well it was able to assimilate Pagan practice into
its own.
14. Women often invoked Minerva, the Roman goddess of wisdom, while
weaving. Tying knots or weaving cloth was thought to bind the results of a speU
that was cast, a practice stiQ employed by Wiccans, the contemporary prac­
titioners of witchcraft.
15. “Desideramus, filii karissimi, adnuntiare vobis in nomine domini quae
aut minime audistis aut audita fortasse oblivioni dedistis” (Braga 1981, 22).
16. “Cum fecisset deus in principio caelum et terram, in Ula caelesti habita-
tione fecit spiritales creaturas, id est angelos, qui in conspectu ipsius adstantes
laudarent iUum. Ex quibus unus, qui primus omnium archangelus fuerat factus,
videns se in tanta gloria praefulgentem, non dedit honorem deo creatori suo,
sed simHem se flli dixit; et pro hac superbia cum aliis plurimis angelis qui iUi
consenserunt de iUa caelesti sede in aere isto qui est sub caelo deiectus est; et
Die, qui erat primus archangelus, perdita luce gloriae suae, factus est tenebrosus
et horribihs diabolus” (Braga 1981, 22-24). [God, having created Heaven and
Earth in the beginning, created spiritual beings in that celestial dwelling,
angels, so that they would praise him while remaining in his presence. One of
them, the one who had been named the most important archangel, saw himself
shine amidst so much glory and did not honor God his Creator, but rather said
he was his equal; and for this act of pride he was ejected from that celestial
dwelling to the airy region, which is below Heaven, with other angels who joined
him; emd he who was the leading archangel, having lost his light and glory, be­
came the firightening and horrible Devil.]
17. “Post istam ruinam angehcam placuit deo de limo terrae hominem plas-
mare, quern posuit in paradise; et dixit ei ut, si praeceptum domini servasset, in
loco illo caelesti sine morte succederet, unde angeh iUi refugae ceciderunt, si
autem praeterisset dei praeceptum, morte moreretur” (Braga 1981, 24). [After
the Ml of the angels, God created man &om the earth, who he put in paradise
and told that if he kept God’s precepts, he would rise to that celestial place from
which the apostate angels had fallen, and that if he did not abide God’s law, he
would be destroyed with death.]
18. “Post diluvium iterum recuperatiun est genus humanum per tres filios
Noe, reservatos cum uxoribus suis. Et cum coepisset multitudo subcrescens
mundum implere, obUviscentes iterum homines creatorem mrmdi deum, coep-
erunt, dimisso creators, colere creaturas. Alii adorabant solem, alii lunam vel
Stellas, alii ignem, alii aquam profundam vel fontes aquarum, credentes haec
homnia non a deo esse facta ad usum hominum, sed ipsa ex se orta deos esse”
(Braga 1981,26). [The human race recovered from the Flood because of Noah’s
three sons who were saved with their wives. And having begun to fill the Earth
with an ever increasing population, men began to worship idols, forgetting and
abandoning God, the Creator of the World. Some worsUpped the sun, others
the moon or stars, others fire, others imderground water or springs, believing
that aU of these things had not been created by God for man’s use, but rather
that, having been bom of themselves, they were Gods.]
NOTES 209
19. “ut alius lovem se esse diceret, qui fuerat magus et in tantis adulteriis
incestus ut sororem suam haberet uxorem, quae dicta est luno” (Braga 1981,
26). [so that it was said that Jupiter, who was a magician and given to serious
crimes, took his sister Juno as his wife.]
20. “Abus autem daemon Martem se nominavit, qui fuit htigiorum et dis-
cordiae commisor. AHus deinde daemon Mercurium se appeUare voluit, qui fuit
omnis furti et fraudis dolosus inventor, qui homines cupidi quasi deo lucri, in
quadriviis transeimtes, iactatis lapidibus acervos petrarum pro sacrificio red-
dunt. Alius quoque daemon Satumi sibi nomen adscripsit, qui in omni crudeh-
tate vivens, etiam nascentes sues filios devorabat. AUus etiam daemon Venerem
se esse confinxit, quae fuit mulier meretrix. Non solum cum innumerabilibus
viris, sed etiam cum patre suo love et cum fratre suo Marte meretricata est”
(Braga 1981,28). [Another demon was called Mars, who created discord and dis­
putes. Another demon was Mercury; he was the inventor of aU types of theft
and fraud, to whom greedy men offer mountains of stones at crossroads as a
sacrifice. Another demon was Saturn, who indulged in edl t3T)es of cruelty, in­
cluding his own newborn children. Another demon was Venus, who was a
courtly woman. Not only did she prostitute herself with innumerable men, but
also with her father Jupiter and her brother Mars.]
21. “quae omnia mahgni daemones et spiritus nequam sunt, qui homines in-
fideles, qui signaculo crucis nesciunt se munire, nocent et vex2mt” (Braga 1981,
30).
22. “Qualis ergo amentia est ut homo baptizatus in fide Christi diem domini-
cum, in quo Christus resurrexit, non colat et dicat se diem lovis colere ^t Mercu-
rii et Veneris et Satumi, qui nullum diem habent, sed fuerunt adulteri et magi
et iniqui et male mortui in provinda sua” (Braga 1981, 30). [Therefore, it is
insane for a man baptized in the faith of Christ, to not celebrate the day of the
Lord in whom Christ arose, but rather celebrate Jupiter’s, Mercury’s, Venus’s,
and Saturn’s days, who do not own any days, but were adulterers, sorcerers,
evildoers, and who died an evil death in their own country.]
23. “qui nullum diem habent, sed fuerunt adulteri et magi et iniqui et male
morttii in provincia sua. Sed, sicut diximus, sub specie nominum istorum ad
hominibus stultis veneratio et honor daemonibus exhibetur” (Braga 1981, 30).
24. “homo Christiamus pro deo mures et tineas veneratur” (Braga 1981,32)?
[What can be said of Christian men who worship mice and moths?]
25. “non solum animalimn sed etiam hominum sanguinem illis fiinderent”
(Braga 1981, 28). [where they put images or statues of infamous men and to
whom they erect alters upon which they spill blood.]
26. “Nam ad petras et ad arbores et ad fontes et per trivia cereolos incendere,
qxud est ahud nisi cultura diaboli? Divinationes et auguria et dies idolorum ob-
servare, quid est ahud nisi cultura diaboh? Vulcanaha et Kalendas observare,
mensas omare, et lauros ponere, et pedem observare, et fundere in foco super
truncum frugem et vinum, et pemem in fontem mittere, qiud est ahud nisi cul­
tura diaboh? Muheres in tela sua Minervam nominare et Veneris diem in nup-
tias observare et quo die en via exeatur adtendere, quid est ahud nisi cultura
diaboh” (Braga 1981, 42)? [By hghting candles next to stones, trees, fountains
and crossroads, what else could it be but the Devil’s cult? Acts of divination and
augury and the celebration of the day of idols, what else could it be but the Dev-
210 NOTES
il’s cult? Celebrating Vulcanales and Calendas, adorning tables and puttiog out
laurel branches, paying attention to which foot is used, throwing grain and wine
in the fire over a tree stump, and putting bread in streams, what else could it be
but the cult of the Devd? Women invoke Minerva while they weave, they choose
Venus’ day for their weddings, and they pay attention to what day they begin a
joinmey, what else could it be but the cult of the Devd?]
27. “Non iussit deus hominem futura cognoscere, sed ut, semper in timore
illius vivens, ab ipso gubemationem et auxilium vitae suae speret. Solius dei est
antequam ahquid fiat scire, homines autem vanos daemones diversis argu-
mentis inludunt, donee illos in offensam dei perducant et animas illorum secum
pertrahant in infemum, sicut ab initio fecerunt per invidiam suam, ne homo
regnum caelorum intraret, de quo illi deiecti sunt” (Braga 1981, 34). [Clod did
not grant that man should know the future but rather that, by living in fear of
God, he can hope for direction and help with life from God. It is only for God to
know events before they occur, but demons deceive gullible men with opposing'
arguments xmtil convincing them, as they did in the beginning because of their
jealousy that man might enter Heaven from which they had been banished.]
28. “Et quia no poterat divinitas fihi dei ab hominibus ■videri accepit camem
humanam ex utero Mariae virginis, non ex coniugio viri, sed ex spiritu sancto
conceptem” (Braga 1981, 34).
29. “ubi iam nullus erit aut labor aut dolor, non tristitia, non famis aut sitis,
non calor aut fingus, non tenebrae aut nox, sed, semper laeti, saturi, in luce, in
gloria, similes erunt angeUs dei” (Braga 1981, 38).
30. “male agendo futurum in inferno ignem perpetuum expectare” (Braga
1981, 38). [by sinning, he will earn eternal fire in HeU.]
31. “Desiderat iterum mori, ut non sentiat poenas, sed non permittitur mori,
ut aetemas perferat cruciatus” (Braga 1981, 38).
32. “Quod sibi elegerit unusquisque, hoc habebit” (Braga 1981, 38). [What
each one chooses is what he will have.]
33. “Similiter dimisistis incantationem sanctam, id est symbolum quod in
baptismum accepistis, quod est Credo in deum patrem omnipotentem, et oraido-
nem dominicam, id est Pater noster qui es in caelis” (Braga 1981, 42-44). [At
the same time you have abandoned the sacred spell, the symbol of the Apostles
that you received at baptism, which is “I believe in God the Almighty,” and the
Lord’s prayer, “Our Father who art in Heaven.”]
34. “et tenetis diabolicas incantationes et carmina” (Braga 1981, 44).
35. “ quia non potest et deus simul et diabolus coli” (Braga 1981, 44).
36. “Tantum fac in corde tuo pactum cum deo, ut iam amplius culturas dae-
monmn non colas, nec praeter deum caeli aliquid adores” (Braga 1981, 44).
[Make a pact with him in your heart to never practice demonic rituals again, or
to worship anything outside of (Jod in Heaven]
37. “Sic ergo decet Christianum hominem diem dominicum venerare. Nam
satis iniquum et turpe est ut iUi qui pagemi sunt et ignorant fidem Christi, idola
daemonum colentes, diem lovis aut cuiuslibet daemonis colemt et ab opera se
abstineant cum certe nullum diem daemonia nec creassent nec habeant” (Braga
1981, 48) [It is beneficial to Christian men to honor the day of the Lord. It is
very uiyust and shameful that those who are Pagan and do not know the Chris­
tian faith, by worshipping demonic idols, honor Jupiter’s day or any other
.nhw’ lE
NOTES 211
demon and they refrain firom working, even though in reality the demons did
not create any day nor do they possess it.]
38. “Hoc itaque propter ampliandam fidei cathoHcae disciplinam elegimus
finiendum vel tenendum, ut si qui viri ac muheres di-vinatores, quos dicunt esse
carEigios atque sorticularios, in cujuscumque dome gothi, romani, syri, graeci vel
judaei fuerint invent! aut qui ausus fuerit amodo in eorum veina carmina inter-
rogare et non publics hoc voluerit anuntiare, pro hoc quod praesumpsit non
solum ab eedesia suspendatur, sed etiam sex auri undas comiti civitatis inferat.
Uli vero qui tali iniquitate repleti sunt et sortes et di'vinationes fadunt et popu-
lum praevaricando seducunt, ubi invent! vel inventae fuerint, seu Uberi seu
servi vel anciUae sint, gra'vissime publice fiistigentur et venundentur, et pretia
ipsorum pauperibus erogentur” (Condlio de Narbona 1850, 697).
39. “En el nombre de nuestro Seftor Jesucristo, en el ano IV. del feliz reinado
1 J
del gloriosfsimo Senor nuestro Recaredo, reunidos con el aurilio de Dios el pri-
►
1 mero de Noviembre en la dudad de Narbona los obispos de la pro'vinda Galica,
Migedo, Sedacio, Benenato, Boedo, Pelagio, Tigrido, Agripino y Sergio, de-
seando observar con temor de Dios los condhos de los santos y antiguos Padres
6 sus decretos, segun lo ha estableddo el santo condlio convocado en la dudad
de Toledo por orden del gloriosfsimo Senor nuestro rey Recaredo. (In nomine
)F domini nostro Jesu Christi, anno fehdter quarto regni domini gloriosissimi Re-
caredi regis, Migetius, Sedatius, Benenatus, Boetius, Pelagius, Tigridius, Agripi-
nus et Sergis episcopi GaUiae provindae, condha sanctorum antiquorum
patrum vel decreta observare cum Dei timore cupientes, nos in urbe Narbona,
secundum quod sancta synodus per ordinationem gloriosissimi domini nostri
Reccaredi regis in urbe Toletana finivit, die calendarum novembrium Deo aus­
pice in unum convenimnus” (Condlio de Narbona 1850, 693-94). [In the name
of our Lord Jesus Christ in the fourth year of the reign of oxir glorious lord Re­
cared, meeting -with the help of God the 1st of November in the dty of Narbona,
the bishops of the pro'vince of Galica, Migedo, Benenato, Boedo, Pelagio, Ti-
gricio, Agripino, and Sergio, desirous of observing with the fear of God, the
Coundls of the saints, and Church fathers or their decrees, as has been estab­
lished in the Holy Council convened in the dty of Toledo by order of the most
glorious lord our king Recared.]
40. “Habiendo el mismo principe gloriosfsimo en ■virtud de la sinceridad de
su fe mandado reunir el condlio de todos los pontffices de sus dominios, para
que se alegraran en el Senor por su conversion y por la de la raza de los Godos,
y dieran gracias a la bondad divina por un don tal especial: el mismo santfsimo
prfndpe habl6 al venerable condlio en estos t6rminos. (Quum pro fidei suae
sinceritate idem gloriosissimus princeps omnes regiminis sui pontifices in unum
convenire mandasset, ut tarn de ejus conversione quam de gentis Gothorum in-
novatione in Domino exultarent et divinae dignationi pro tanto munere gratias
agerent, sanctissimus idem princeps sic venerandmn concilium aUoquitur di-
cens)” (ConcUio de Toledo HI 1850, 217). [The glorious prince himself by virtue
of sincere faith, having ordered the meeting of the Coundl of aU the pontifs of
his kingdom, to celebrate his conversion and that of the Goths, and to give
thanks to the di'vine goodness for such a spedal favor: the prince himself spoke
to the venerable Coimcil in these terms.]
41. “Por hacer ya mucho tiempo, que casi por toda Espana y Gaha se fre-
212 NOTES
cuenta el sacrilegio de la idolatria, el santo concilio establedd con consentimi-
ento del glorioslsimo prindpe, que todos los sacerdotes, en union del juez del
territorio, cuiden de averiguar donde se abriga en su jurisdicdon el mendonado
sacrilegio, y haUando que sea le estingan: los hombres que concurran A tal error
salvo el peligro del alma, seran refrenados con todo el castigo que se pudiere: y
si despredan hacerlo asi, sepan ambos que seran escomulgados. Y si algunos se-
floras despredaren estiipar de su posesion este mal, 6 no quisieren prohiblrsele
A su familia, sean eUos mismos privados de la comimion por el obispo. (Quoniam
pene per omnem Hispaniam sive Galliam idolatriae sacrilegium inolevit, hoc
cum consensu ^oriosissimi prindpis sancta synodus ordinavit, ut omnis sacer-
dos in loco suo una cum judice territorii sacrilegium memoratum studiose per-
quirat, et exterminari inventa non differat; homines vero, qui ad talem errorem
concurrunt, salvo discrimine animae, qua poterint animadversiono coerceant:
quod si neglexerint, sdant se utrique excommunicationis periculum esse subi-
turos. Si qui vero domini extirpare hoc malum a possessione sua neglexerint vel
familiae suae prohibere noluerint, ab episcopo et ipsi a communione peUantur)”
(Condlio de Toledo in 1850,246). [Because throv^out Spain and Gaul the sac­
rilege of idolatry has been occurring for much time, the Holy Council estab­
lished, with the consent of the glorious prince, that all priests, together with the
judge of the land, will undertake finding where the eiforementioned sacrilege
takes place in their territory in order to extinguish it: men who meet in such
error, barring endangering the soul, will be stopped with aU possible punish­
ment: and if they refuse, make it known they wUl be excommiinicated. And if
any men refuse to rid themselves of this evil, or do not prohibit their family
fi-om engaging in it, they will be forbidden communion by the bishop.]
42. “Debe esterminarse de todo punto la costumbre irreligiosa, que el vulgo
ha introduddo en las solemnidades de los santos, y consiste en que los pueblos,
en vez de cuidarse de los ofidos divinos, se entregan a bailes y torpes canticos,
con lo cual no solo se peijudican, sino que incomodan con el ruido a la devodon
de los religiosos; y para que esto sea aboUdo en toda Espafla, se da comision al
efecto por el santo condlio A los sacerdotes y jueces. (Exterminanda omnio est
irreligiosa consuetudo quam vulgus per sanctorum solemnitates agere con-
suevit, ut populi qui debent offida divina ajtendere saltationibus et turpibus
invigilet cantids, non soltun sibi nocentes sed et rehgiosorum offidis perstre-
pentes: hoc enim ut ab omni Hispania depeUatur, sacerdotum et judicum a con­
dlio sancto curae committitur” (Condlio de Toledo m 1850,250). [All irreligious
customs that the people have introduced in the feasts of saints must be extermi­
nated, consisting of the people who, instead of observing their divine duties, en­
gage in dance and clumsy song, with which they not only harm themselves, but
also disturb the devotions of the rehgious; and so that this wiU be abolished in
all of Spain, the Coundl empowers priests and judges to cany it out.]
43. Cemon XXES—“Si se descubriere que algun presbltero, diflcono 6 clerico
consultaba a los magos, agoreros, sortfiegos, 6 A los que profesan algun arte; 6
se le encontrare ejerdendo cosas pareddas a estas, depuesto del honor de su dig-
nidad, serfl encerrado en vm monasterio; y entregado aUi A penitenda perpetua,
espiara el crimen cometido de sacrilegio. (Si episcopus quis aut presb3rter sive
diaconus vel quilibet ex ordine clericorum magos aut aruspices aut certe aug-
ures vel sortfiegos vel eos, qui profitentur artem aliquam, aut aliquos eorum si-
milia exercentes, consulere fuerit deprehensus, ab honore dignitatis suae
depositus monastery poenam exdpiat, ibique perpetuae poenitentiae deditus
NOTES 213
scelus admissum sacrfiegu luat)” (Concilio de Toledo IV 1850, 286). [Canon
XXK—^If it is discovered that a priest, deacon, or deric consulted magidans,
soothsayers, sorcerers, or any who profess an art; or if one is found practicing
things that appear as such, according to the honor of his dignity, he wfil be con­
fined to a monastery; where he wfil perform perpetual penance, contemplating
the sacrilege of his crime.]
44. Canon IV—“Porque esto ve contra razon, et que todos los omnes lo tienen
por mala presumpdon, por cuidar omne las cosas, que son de venir, como non
debe, et querer saber la morte de los prindpes, por ganar depois el regno para
si: Que damos escripto del nuestro Seimor Dios, que dixo A los apostoles: ‘Non
VOS pertenece a vos de saber el tiempo, nen los monmnentos que han de venir,
et lo que Dios Padre tien en so poder.’ Por ende establecemos en esti degredo,
que todo omne, que for allado, que demande tales cosas, 6 que faz A otri forcta
de aver el regno, vivendo el prindpe, 6 que allega los omnes A si, por dicer que
lo ha de haber, sea escomungado et echeido de la companna de los christianos.
(Ergo quia et religioni inimicum et omnibus constat esse superstitiosum fiitura
filidte cogitare et casus principum exquirere ac sibi in posterum providers,
quum scriptum sit: Non est vestrum nosse tempora vel momenta quae Pater in
suaposuitpotestate: hoc decreto censemus, ut quisquis inventus fuerit talia per-
quisisse et vivente prindpe in aliiim attendisse pro futura regni spe aut alios in
se propter id attraxisse, a conventu catholicorum exommunicationis sententia
expeUatur)” (Concilio de Toledo V 1850, 321). [Canon IV—Because this goes
against reason, and that all men do not understand it, because man cares about
the things to come, which he should not, and he wants to know when princes
wfil die, in order to take the kingdom for himself afterwards: We have found
written by our Lord God, who said to the apostles: “It is not for you to know the
time or Ihe events that are to come, and God the Father has this within his
power.” Therefore, we establish in this decree that aU men who are found, who
demand such things, or who commit other acts to gain the kingdom while the
prince is alive, or who gather men around to speak of things to come, wfil be
excommunicated and exiled from the company of Christians.]
45. “Colocando nostros estos preceptos del Seflor, no en la venganza sino en
el terror de los delincuentes, promu^amos por esta sentenda, no la muerte, sino
que amonestamos A los que dan culto A los fdolos, a los que veneran las piedras,
endenden hsichas, y adoran las fuentes 6 los drboles, que conozcan que ellos mis­
mos se sentendan espontaneamente A muerte, porque parece que sacrifican al
diablo. Porque este Ueva el nombre de muerte, como esta escrito acerca de 51, y
era su nombre MUERTE. Y por lo tanto todo sacrilegio de idolatria o cualquier
cosa en contra de la santa fe, que los hombres nedos esclavizados por el culto de
los diablos hacen, requeridos por el sacerdote 6 juez, y haUados estos sacrfiegos,
seran destruidos y estermidados: y cuantos concurran A un error tal serfln sizo-
tados y entregados A sus seflores, cargados de cadenas, siempre que estos pro-
metan con juramento que tendran tal cuidado de eUos, que en adelante no
cometerfln semejante maldad. Y si sus seflores no quieren bsQO su palabra
admitir A los reos, entonces serfln presentados al rey por quienes fiieron casti-
gados, con hbertad de hacer donacion de ellos a qidenes qiuera: y los seflores
que despues de haberles manifestado que sus siervos erraban de este modo, no
los castigaren al momento, serfln escomulgados, y perderfln los derechos sobre
214 NOTES
aquellos a quienes no quieren castigar. Mas si las personas que cometieren estos
errores fiiesen ingenuas, seran escomulgadas perpetuamente y desterradas con
severidad. (Praecepta haec Domini non in ultione sed in terrore delinquentium
apponentes non mortis per hanc sententiam promulgamus, sed cultores ido-
lorum, veneratores lapidum, accensores faculorum et excolentes sacra fontium
vel arborum admonemus, ut agnoscant quod ipsi se spontaneae morti subjidunt
qui diabolo sacrificare videntur. Mortis enim nomen diabolus appellatur sicut
de eo scriptum est: Et erai illi nomen mors: ac proinde onme sacrilegium idola-
triae vel quidquid Ulud est contra sanctam Mem in quo insipientes homines
captivati iabolids culturis inserviant, sacerdotis vel judicis instantia, inventa
haec sacrilegia eradantur et exterminata truncentur; eos vero qui ad talem hor-
rorem concurrunt et verberibus coerceant et onustos ferro suis dominis tradant,
si tamen domini eorum per jusjurandi attestationem promittant se eos tan sol-
lidte custodire, ut ultra illis non liceat tale nefas commitere. Quod si domini
eorum nolint hujusmodi reos in sua Me suscipere, tunc ab eis, a quibus coerdti
glint., regiis conspectibus praesententur, ut prindpalis auctorites liberam de ta-
libus donandi potestatem obtineat; domini tamen eorum, qui nuntiatos sibi ta-
Uum servorum errores ulcisci distulerint, et excommimicationis sententiam
preferant, et jura servi illius quern coercere nolunt se amisisse cognoscant. Quod
si ingenuorum personae bis erroribus fuerint implicatae et perpetua excommu-
nicationis sententia ferientur et arctiori exilio ulciscentur)” (Concilio de Toledo
XII1850, 479-80). [By placing these precepts from God, not m vengeance, hut
from fear of the wrongdoers, we prodaim with this sentence, not death, but an
admonition to those who worship idols, those who venerate stones, light tor­
ches, and adore fountains or trees, that they know that they themselves have
spontaneously condenmed themselves to death, because it seems they sacrifice
to the Devil. Because this carries the name of death, as it is written, and his
Tiamp was DEATH. And since aU sacrilege of idolatry or anything that goes
against the holy faith, that foolish men enslaved by the cult of demons cany
out, as required by a priest or judge and once these sacrileges are found, they
wfil be destroyed emd exterminated: and those who commit such an error will
be whipped and turned over to their masters, in chains, as long as the masters
swear they will take charge of them so that they do not commit such an error in
the future. And if the masters do not want, under oath, to take charge of the
prisoners, they will be presented to the king by those who punished them, with
the liberty to give them to whoever they like: and those who, after having dem­
onstrated that their servants committed such an error but did not pumsh them
immediately, will be excommunicated, and they will lose aU claim to those they
did not wish to punish. But if the people who committed these errors are simple,
they will be perpetually excommunicated and exiled.]
46. “MnnifpgtissiTne liquet quod hostis humani generis, ut Apostolus narrat,
per mundiun rugiens currat quaerens quern devoret, neun diverse tergiversa-
tionis suae astu quamplurimos insipientium decipiens suis eos decipulis irretire
non cessat: et quum Dominus praecipiat” (Concilio de Toledo XVI1850, 566).
47. “illi diversis suadelis decepti cultores idolorum efficiuntur, veneratores
lapidum, accensores facularum, excolentes sacra fontiiun vel arborum, augura-
tores quoque seu praecantatores, multaque alia quae per longum est enarrare”
(Concilio de Toledo XVI1850, 566).
NOTES 215
48. “y ademas, si es persona noble, pague tres libras de oro al sacratisimo
fisco; y si inferior, redba den azotes, sea torpemente decalvada, y ademas confis-
quesela la mitad de sus bienes. ( ... si nobilis persona fuerit, auri hbras tres
sacratissimo fisco persolvat; si inferior, centenis verberibus flagellabitur ac tur-
piter decalvabitur, et medietas rerum suarum fisd viribus apphcabitur)” (Con­
cilio de Toledo XVI 1850, 567). [and if it is a noble person, he will pay three
poimds of gold to the holy treasurer; and if he is inferior, he will receive one
hundred Iggbpg^ he will be shaven, and half of his belongings will be confiscated.]
49. According to don Juan Tejada y Ramiro, this Sentence was taken from
the council of Agde (506), Canon 68, which in Latin reads: “Quoniam non opor-
tet ministros altaris aut dericos magos aut incantatores esse aut facere quae
dicuntur phylacteria, quae simt magna obligamenta ammarum: hos autem qui
talibus utuntur projid ab ecdesia jussimus” (Condlio de Agde 1849,425).
50. “pues se sabe que celebran con voto falaz misa de difuntos por los vivos,
con el solo objeto de que muera aquel por quien se ofrece el sacrifido, y se pierda
por la intervendon de la misma sacrosanta ostia; de mode que lo concedido d
todos para salvadon, quieren semej antes sacerdotes por un instinto perverso
que a muchos sirva de muerte. (Nam missam pro requie defunctorum promulga-
faiTTi fallad voto pro vivis student celebrare hominibus, non ob aliud, nisi ut is
pro quo idipsum offertur sacrifidum ipsius sacrosancti libaminis interventu
mortis ac perditionis incurrat periculum, et quod cunctis datum est in salutis
remedium illi hoc perverso instinctu quibusdam esse expetunt in interitum)
(Concilio de Toledo XVII1850, 600). [it is known that they celebrate mass with
treacherous vows for the dead for people who are still alive, so that the person
from whom the mass is said will die, and be lost by the intervention of the sacro­
sanct host; in a manner that is given to everyone for salvation, they want similar
priests, through a perverse instinct, to cause death to many.]
51. The Coimcil of Coyanza is the first to break the silence with a brief men­
tion which alludes to magical practice with the term maleficios included in a list
of sinners such as thieves and murderers. The punishment for not repenting is
excommunication. “En el titulo cuarto establecimos que todos los arcedianos y
presbiteros, en observancia de los sagrados cdnones, inviten a penitenda a los
adiilteros, incestuosos, sanguinarios, ladrones, homiddas, maldficos, y a los que
tienen coito con animales; y sino quisieren arrepentirse, sean separados de la
iglesia, y privados de la comunion. (Quarto vero Titulo statuimus, ut omnes Ar-
chidiaconi, et Presbyteri, sicut sacri canones praedpiunt, vocent ad poeniten-
tiam adidteros, incestuosos, sanguine mistos, fares, homiddas, maleficos, et qui
cum animalibus se inquinant. Et si poenitere noluerint, separentur ah Ecdesia,
et a communione)” (Concilio de Coyanza 1851, 97). [In title four we establish
that all archdeacons and priests, in observance of the sacred canons, invite aU
adulterers, those who commit incest, those who are bloodthirsty, thieves, mur­
derers, evildoers (magical practitioners), and those who have coitus with am-
TTiflla to do penance; and if they do not want to repent, they will be separated
from the Church, and deprived of communion.]
52. “Ademas prohibimos a los cristianos den oidos 4 los agiieros y encanta-
dones y 4 las superstidones que dimanan del curso de la luna, ni para domar
los animales, ni para echar las telas las mugeres, porque todo esto huele 4 idola-
tria; y la santa madre iglesia lo anatematiza; y por el contrario todo debe hacerse
216 NOTES
en el nombre del Padre, y del Hijo y del EspMtu Santo. (Iterum interdicimus
omnes Christianos auguria, et incantationes, et lunae prosemina, nec ad ani-
malia domanda, nec mTilierculas ad telas alia suspendere, quia omnia cuncta
idolatria est, et terrena, animalis, diabolica, anathematizat earn sancta mater
Ecdesia; sed omnia cuncta in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti debent
Christiani facere)” (Condlio de Compostela 1851, 107). [Furthermore we pro­
hibit Christians from listening to omens and spells and to the superstitions that
arise from the course of the moon, or to train animals, or to attribute anything
to women’s cloth, because aU of this rings of idolatry; and the Holy Mother
Church anathematizes it; and everything should be done in the name of the
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.]
53. These Councils are: Oviedo 811,872,901; Astorga 842,946; Cdrdoba 852
860,862; Urgel 890, 991,1040; Barcelona 907,1009; Leon 914,1020; Elne 947-
RipoU 977; Gerona 1019,1040; Leire 1022; Pamplona 1025; Vich 1027.
54. These Councils are: San Juan de la Pefia 1062; Jaca 1063; Barcelona
1064; Tulujas 1065; Leire 1068; Vich 1068; Gerona 1068, 1078, 1097, 1143;
Burgos 1076,1136; Besald 1077; Toledo 1086,1138; Tolosa 1090,1118; Husillos
1088; Ledn 1090, 1110, 1114, 1134, 1135, 1173; Compostela 1114, 1121, 1122,
1124, 1125; Palenda 1114, 1129, 1148; Oviedo 1115; Sahagiin 1121; Narbona
1127; Salamanca 1133, 1192; Tarragona 1146, 1147, 1180, 1230, 1239, 1240,
1242, 1244, 1247; Lerida 1173, 1190, 1229, 1237, 1246, 1257; Tarazona 1229’
Valladolid 1124,1137,1155,1228.
55. “De sorthegus. Establecemos et ordenamos, que los sortoreros et las sort-
oreras, et las devinas se non se pastiren de este pecado, nen a la muerte non los
sotierren sin especial mandado del Obispo. Pero mandamos que los manifiesten,
et los comunguen a la bora de la morte. Et los Clerigos que los soterraren, seran
sospensos de oficio et de benefido” (Condlio de Le6n 1851, 392). [Of sorcerers.
We establish that if sorcerers and diviners do not abandon this sin, they will not
be buried at death without a special mandate from the bishop. But we decree
that they be presented and administered to at the hour of death. And those der-
ics who bury them will be suspended from their post and benefits.]
56. The Benedictine monk credited with converting Germany to Christianity
in the eighth century.
57. Lea dtes as his source the Archivo de Simancas, Inq., Sala 40, Lib. 4, fol.
191-95.
58. Salazar y Frias was far removed from the Middle Ages but he is included
here to show the outcome of the Spanish Inquisition’s policies toward witch­
craft. The skeptical attitude fostered by the Spanish Inquisition and other intel­
lectual writers in the fifteenth century remained constant and continued to be
a powerfvil deterrent factor against the promulgation of the witch’s persona.
59. Lea does not reveal where he obtained this letter.
60. “Estando reprobada por el derecho civil y candnico la pemiciosa supersti-
cion de los sortflegos, hechiceros, encantadores y adivinos, y como que muchos
cometen escesos en este particular, prohibimos firmemente por esta constitu-
cion, que nadie se atreva a aproximarse d ellos, 6 d consultaries sobre estas cosas
6 sobre los actos de otros; y si lo hacen, unos y otros queden por ello escomul-
gados. Prohibimos ademas bajo pena de escomunion que nadie de crddito d los
agueros, ni se rfja por el consejo de los agoreros en lo que tenga que hacer. Los
NOTES 217
prelados y los predicadores de la palabra de Dios desenganardn d los cristianos
en sus sermones sobre la falsedad de los agileros. (Cum sortilegorum, malefi-
corum, incantatorum, divinatorum, superstitiosa pemides sit reprobata a Jure
Canonico, et Civili, et in his a pluribus excedatur, praesenti Constitutione fir-
miter inhibemus, ne ahqui ad hiijusmodi sortilegos, maleficos, incantatores, di-
vinatores accedere, aut ab eis super his, vel ahorum actibus consilium petere
praesumant; ahoquin tarn ipsi, quam ab eis consUia requirentes, ipso facto sen-
tentiam excommunicationis incurrant. Inhibemus insuper sub excommunica-
tionis poena, ne ahquis intendat (attendat) auguriis aut in agendis secundum
augurum consilia dirigatur. Praelati vero, et Praedicatores verbi Dei in suis ser-
monibus auguria dissuadeemt omnibus Christianis)’’ (Condlio de VaUadohd
1851,503). [The pemidous superstition of sorcerers, spell casters, and diviners,
being condemned by dvil and cannon law, and since many commit such ex­
cesses, we prohibit firmly with this decree that anyone dare approach them, or
consult them about these acts or the acts of others; and if they do it they wfil be
excommunicated. We also prohibit, on pain of excommunication, that anyone
give credence to omens, or act on the advice of augurers. Priests and preachers
of the Word of God will teach Christians in their sermons about the falsity of
omens.]
61. “Debe sostenerse con la mayor firmeza con sujecion a los institutos canon-
icos, que toda averiguacion y conjuro que se haga por los adivinos y mdjicos o
por los demonios de los mismos, en culto de fdolos, debe llamarse muerte; y que
los que la ejecutan, sino Uegaren a corregirse, caminEm 6. la condenadon etema.
Por eso prohibimos firmemente por la actual constitudon, que nadie acuda a los
sortflegos, maleficos, encantadores y adivinos d pedirles consejo sobre sus actos
6 sobre los agenos, ni bajo ningun concepto ejerza este arte ignominioso, cay-
endo los contraventores ipso facto en escomunion. Los prelados y los que predi­
can la palabra de Dios disuadirdn en sus sermones 4 todos los cristianos de
entregarse d los agiieros. Of’irmitate ineffabili est tenedum, juxta canonica insti-
tuta, quod omnis inquisitio, et omnis conjuratio, quae a divinis, et magicis, vel
ipsorum daemonibus, in idolorum cultum expetitur, mors dicenda potius, quam
et qui earn sectantur, si se non correxerint, ad aetemam damnationem tendimt.
Ideo praesenti Constitutione firmiter inhibemus, ne ahqui ad sortilegos, ma­
leficos, incantatores, divinatores, ab eis super suis, vel ahorum actibus consil-
imn petere, vel eandem ignominiosam artem quomodohbet exercere praesumant;
ahoquin contra fadentes ipso facto sententiam excommunicationis incurrant.
Praelati vero, Praedicatores verbi Dei, in suis sermonibus auguria dissuadeant
omnibus Christianis)’’ (Condho de Salamanca 1851, 576). [It must be upheld
with the greatest firmness subject to canonical institution, that ah divining and
conjuring done by diviners, or magicians, or their demons, in worship of idols,
should be caUed death; and that those who carry it out, run the risk of eternal
damnation. Because of this, we prohibit with this document that anyone consult
sorcerers, evildoers, enchanters, and diviners to ask them for advice on what to
do, or about other people, or under any circumstance carry out this ignoble act;
those who disobey wiU be excommunicated ipso facto. Prelates and those who
preach the Word of God whl dissuade ah Christians from believing in omens.]
62. The Councils are: Tarragona 1369, Alcala 1379; Burgos 1379; Toledo
1379; Palenda 1388; Vahadohd 1403; Perpinan 1409; Salamanca 1410; Sevilla
1412; Lerida 1418; Tortosa 1429; Aranda 1473; Madrid 1473.
218 NOTES
63. “Mandamos a los Arciprestes e vicarios de nuestro Argobispaddo que a
los adevinos e fechiceros e encantadores e agoreros e sortilegos, asi omes como
mugeres, e a los que con ellos se aconsejan e siguen sus opinionea, los apartedes
de los ofidos divinos en tanto que continuaren los dichos pecados” (Smodo Dioc-
esano de Alcala 1976, 304). [We order that the Archpriests of our Archdiocese
stop diviners and sorcerers and augurers, men as weU as women, and those who
seek their advice from carrying out any religious service for as long as they con­
tinue the aforementioned sins.]
64. “Cum nobis notum sit, quod in nostro Archiepiscopatu, et Provinda, ad-
sunt plures personae utriusque sexus, quae timoris Dei oblitae, et fidei, ac spei,
quam habere debent in Divina providentia, utuntur vaticiniis, magids artibus,
sortilegiis, et maleficiis, euntque, seu mandant ad capiendum consilium a tahum
malefidorum gestoribus, qui Diabolo famulantur: et quamvis tales personae in-
currant in magneis poenas de jure stabihtas, et in sententiam excommunica-
tionis vigore Constitutionum Provindalium nostri Archiepiscopatus, in dictas
poenas, et Censuras incurrunt, et ab usu tarn gravis peccati non abstinent. Ideo
teintae Dei ofensioni obviare cupientes, statuimus, et mandamus, ut in post-
erum omnes personae, quae dictis magids artibus, sortilegiis, vaticiniis, vel aliia
malefidis utentur, sive cum talia gerentibus consihum iniverint, vel iUos adive-
rint, vel participes delicti eorumdem quocumque modo fuerint, ultra omnes
ahas poenas in tali casu constitutas, omnes iUi incurrant in sententiam excom-
municationis ipso facto, et in poenam duorum millium morapetinorum, pro
prima vice et pro secunda vice poena duplo augeatur, et pubhce diffamentur,
et in exilium mittantur ad tempos Judicibus de eo cognoscentibus bene visum”
(Condlio de Sevilla 1852, 73).
65. “First, by the description of witches which S. Isidore gives in his Etymo-
logiae, c. 9: Witches are so called on account of the blackness of their guilt, that
is to say, their deeds are more evil than those of any other malefactors. He con­
tinues: They stir up and confound the elements by the aid of the devil, and
arouse terrible hailstorms and tempests. Moreover, he says they distract the
minds of men, driving them to madness, insane hatred, and inordinate lusts.
Again, he continues, by the terrible influence of their spells alone, as it were by
a drau^t of poison, they can destroy hfe” (Kramer and Sprenger 1971,14).
66. “I. Flavius Cindasvintus Rex. Si ingenuus de salute, vel morte hominis
vaticinatores consulai. Qui de salute vel morte pindpis, vel cuiuscumque homi­
nis anolos, aruspices, vel vaticinatores consuht, una cum his qui responderint
consulentibus, ingenui siquidem flagellis caesi, cum rebus omnibus fisco servi-
tun adsodentur, aut a rege, cui iusserit, donati perpetuo servitio addicantur.
Quod si et filii eorum tah fuerint parentibus crimine socii, simili damnatione
plecantur. Si vero ab scelere parentum habeantur extranei, et dignitatem et
rerum omnium possessionem quam parentes amiserint, plenissime obtinebunt.
Servi vero diverso genere tormentorum adflicti, in transmarinis amiserint, plei-
nissime obtinebunt. Servi vero diverso genere tormentorum adflicti, in trans­
marinis partibus transferendi vendantur; ut serveritas vindicatae non habeat
excusatos, quos propriae volimtatis excessus nefariae pravaricationis fadt ob-
noxios.
(“I. Si el omne libre toma conseio eon los adevinos, 6 con los sorteros de la vida
6 de la muerte de algun omne. Quien toma conseio de muerte 6 de vida del rey 6
NOTES 219
de otro omne con los adevinos, 6 con los encantadores, 6 con los provizeros, 6 los
qui les responden, si fueren hbres, con todas sus cosas sean siervos de la corte,
6 de quien mandare el rey. El si los fiios usaren deste mester, ayan otra tal pena.
E si lo non fizieren lo que fazen sus padres, deven aver toda la buena del padre,
6 demas la digniHad que perdid el padre. E los siervos que esto flzieren sean tor-
mentados por muchas maneras, e sean vendidos, que los heven en ultra mar,
que estos non sean escusados daver pena, que por su grado fazen estos adevina-
mientos.)
n. Flavius Cintasvintus Rex. De veneficis. Diversorum criminum noxii, di­
verso simt poenarum genere feriendi: ac primum ingenues, sive servos vene-
ficos, id est, qui venena conficiunt, ista protinus vindicta sequatur: ut si
venenatan potionem alicui dederint, et qui biberit, mortuus fnerit exinde, iUi
etiam continuo supplidis subditi morte sunt turpissima puniendi. Si certe po-
culo veneni potatus evaserit, in eius potestatem tradendus est ille qui dedit, ut
de eo facere quod voluerit, sui sit incunctanter arbitrii.
(n. El Rey Flavio Ervigio. De los que dan yerbas. Los que fazen pecados de
muchas maneras deven ser penados de muchas maneras. E primeramientre
aqueUos que dan yerbas deven aver tal pena, que si aquel a quien dieran las
yerbas murier, manamano deven ser penados los que ie las dieron, e morir mala
mientre. E si por ventura escapar de muerte aquel que las bevier, el que ie las
did deve ser metudo en su poder, que faga ddl lo que quisiere.)
TTT Flavius Cindasvindus Rex. De maleficis et consulentibus eos. Malefld vel
immissores tempestatum, qui quibusdam incantationibus grandines in vineis,
messibusque immitere perhibentur, vel ii qui per invocationem daemonum
mentes hominum turbant, seu qui noctuma sacrificia daemonibus celebrant,
eosque per invocationes nefarias nequiter invocant: ubicumque a iudice, vel ac-
tore, sive procuratore lod reperti fuerint, vel detect!, ducentenis flagellis pubhce
verberentur, et decalvati deformiter decern convidnas possessiones circuire co-
gantur inviti, ut eorum alii corrigantur exemplis. Quos tamen iudex, ne ulterius
evagantes taha facere permittantur, aut in retrusione fadat esse, ut ibi accepta
veste atque substantia ita vivant, ne viventibus nocendi aditum habeant; aut
regiae praesentiae dirigat, ut quod de iUis sibi placitum fuerit, evidenter statuat.
Hi autem, qui tales considuisse reperiimtur, in popuh conventu ducentenos
ictus accipiant flagellorum: ut impmiiti non maneant, quos culpae similis reatus
accusat.
(TTT De los alcaldes i de los otros omnes que toman conseio con los adevina-
dores. Assf cuemo la verdad non es prindida por la mintira, assf se sigue que la
mintira non viene de la verdad; ca toda verdat vien de Dios, e la mintira viene
del diablo, ca el diablo fue siempre menterero. Et porque cada ima de estas a su
prindpe, 6cuemo deve omne pesquirir la verdad por la mintira? Ca algunos
iuezes que non son de Dios, e son Uenos de error, quando non pueden fallar por
pesquisa los fechos de los malfechores, van tomar conseio con los adevinos 6 con
los agoradores, 6 non cuidan faUar verdad se non toman conseio con estos; mas
por end non pueden fallar verdad, porque la quieren demandar por la mentira,
e quieren provar los malos fechos por las adevinaciones, e los malfechores por
los advinadores; § dan a si mismos en lugar del diablo con los adevinadores. E
por ende mandamos que si algun iuez quisiere pesquirir, 6 provar alguna cosa
por adivinos 6 por agoradores, 6 si algun omne toma conseio con estos tales de
220 NOTES
muerte 6 de vida dotre, 6 demaadar que les respondan en algima cosa, faga la
emienda que dize en este sexto libro en la ley que es en el segundo titol en la era
piimera en la ley que dice: De los que toman conseio con los adevinadores de
muerte 6 de vida dotre. Mas los iuezes non sean tenudos de la pena dessa ley
los quales demandan los adevinadores, non por provar por eUos nada, mgg pgr
demostrar que son atales ante muchos, e por fazer venga en ellos. E porque estos
atales agoradores son aborridos de Dios, por ende establezemos en esta ley espe­
cial mientre que todo ombre que es agorador, 6 que se guia por agoros 6 por
adevinancias, reciba C. azotes. E si despues tomare en eUo, pierda toda buena
testimonia, 4 reciba otros C. azotes.)
IV. Flavius Cintasvintus Rex. De his, qui in hominibus, aut in animus libus,
vel quibuscumque rebus quaUacumque ligamenta, aut quodcumque contrarium
fedsse reperiuntur. Praesentis legis superiori sententia damnari iubemus, seu
ingenuus sit sive servus, utriusque sexus, qui in hominibus vel brutis animah-
bus omnique genere quod mobile esse potest, seu in agris, vel vineis, diversisque
arboribus malefidum, aut diversa ligamentei, aut etiam scripta in contrarieta-
tem alterius excogitaverint facere, aut expleverint, pero quod aliirm laedere aut
mortificare, vel obmutescere velint, ut damnum tarn in corporibus, quam etiam
in universis rebus, id patiantur, quod eis fedsse reperiuntur” (Fnero Juzgo
1815, 81-82).
(IV. De los encantadores, provizeros, idelos que los conseian. Los proviceros,
6 los que fazen caer la piedra en las vinas 6 en las mieses, 4 los que fablan con
los diablos, 4 les fazen torvar las voluntades 4 los omnes 4 a las muieres, 4 aque-
Uos que fazen circos de noche, 4 fazen sacrifldo 4 los diablos, estos atales o que
quier que el iuez 6 so merino les podiere fallar 6 provar, f4ganles dar 4 cada uno
CC. azotes, 4 senn41elos na fronte layda mientre, 4 f4galos andar por diez villas
en derredor de la dbdat, que los otros que los vieren sean espantados por la pena
destos. E porque non ayan poder de fazer tal cosa dali adelantre, el iuez los meta
en algun logeir o bivan, 4 que non puedan empezar 4 los otros omnes, 6 los enbie
al rey que faga deUos lo que quisiere. E los que tomaren conseio con eUos redban
CC. azotes cada uno deUos; ca non deven seer sin pena los que por semeiable
culpa son culpados.”)
“V. De los omnes que fazen mal d los omnes, 6 a las animalias, 6 d otros cosas.
Por la ley presente mandamos que todo omne libre 6 siervo que por encanta-
miento 6 por hgamiento faze mal 4 los omnes, 6 4 las animalias, 6 4 otras cosas
en vinnas, 6 en miesses, 6 en campos, 6 fiziere cosa porque fagan morir algun
omne, 6 seer mudo, 6 quel fagan otro mal; mandamos que todo el danno redban
en sus cuerpos, y en todas sus cosas que fizieren a otre” (fuero Juzgo 1815,
104-6).
[I. King Flavio Ervigio. If a free man takes council from diviners, or from sor­
cerers about the life or death ofsomone. Whoever ask.g a diviner or sorcerer about
the death or life of the king or about another man, and those who respond to
them, if they are free, with all of his things he will be become a servant of tbe
court, or of whomever the king decides. And if his children use this art, there
will be a similar punishment. And if they do not do what their parents do, they
will retain the good name of their father, as well as the dignity the father lost.
And servants who do this will be tortured in many ways, and will be sold, and
brought to sea, and they will not be pardoned from being punished, for divining.
NOTES 221
n. King Flavio Ervigio. Of those who dispense herbs. Those who commit sins
in many ways should be punished in many ways. First, those who distribute
herbs should be punished, and if the recipient of the herbs dies, we order that
the person who gave him the herbs should die badly. And if the recipient sur­
vives, the person who gave him the herbs will be given to the recipient to do
with as he pleases.
in. Of constables and other men who take advice form diviners. Since the
truth is not caught by lies, and it follows that lies do not come from the truth;
therefore all truth comes from God, and lies come from the Devil, since the Devil
WEIS always a bar. And because each one of these has their beginning, how can
mem teU the difference between the truth and lies? Some judges are not of God,
i
4 and are filled with flaws, when they cannot find out through investigation the
deeds of the wrongdoers, they take council from diviners and augurers, and they
do not care about the truth when they take cotmcil fix)m them; or rather, they
cannot find the truth because they try to get it with hes, and they want to prove
the evil deeds through divination, and evildoers through diviners; and they give
themselves in pkce of the Devil to the diviners. Therefore, we order that if a
judge wishes to investigate or prove something through diviners or augurers, or
if someone takes coimcil with such people about the death or life of smother, or
demands that they teH them something, the amendment found in the sixth book
in the second title in the first law shall be carried out: Those who take council
with diviners about the death or life of another. But judges wUl not be held to
the punishment of the law, who diviners sue, not for proving an3dhing through
them, but for demonstrating that they are such before many, and for going to
them. And since these augurers are abhorred by God, we therefore establish in
this special law that aU men who are augurers, or who are guided by divination
or omens, will receive one hundred lashes. And if he returns to it afterwards, he
win lose all good testimony and receive another one hundred Isishes.
IV. Of sorcerers, and those who consult. Sorcerers, or those who nmke stones
fall in vineyards, or in fields, and those who speak with devils, and twist men’s
and women’s wills, and those who msike circles at night, smd nmke sacrifices to
devils, these who a judge can find or prove, will receive two hundred lashes, in
pubhc so that others will be frightened by the punishment. And because they
will not have the ability to do such a thing afterwards, the judge will put them
in a plEice, or they will live where they CEinnot start with other men, qr they will
be sent to the king to do with them as he wishes. And those who consiilt with
them will receive two hundred lashes because they should not go without pun­
ishment those who have committed a similar offense.
V. Of those men who commit wicked deeds against men, animals or other
things. By this law we order that every nmn, free or servant, who commits evil
deeds against men, animals, or other things in vineyards, fields, or who makes
someone die, or become mute, or other wicked deed through enchantment; we
order that aU harm caused to body and things wfil be done to the other.]
67. “Partida VII, Titulo XXIII, Ley III: Aeusar puede cada vno del pueblo de-
lante el JudgEidor a los agoreros, e a los sorteros, a alos otros baratadores de
que fablamos en Ieis leyes deste titulo. E si les fuere prouado por testigos, o por
conocencia deUos mismos, que fazen, e obran contra nuestro defendimiento, al-
guno de los yerros sobredichos, deuen morir porende. E los que los encubrieren
222 NOTES
en sus casas a sabiendas, deuen ser echados de nuestra tierra por siempre. Pero
los que fiziessen encantamiento, o otras cosas, con entencion buena, assi como
sacar demonios de los cuerpos de los omes; o para desHgar a los que fuessen
marido, e muger, que non pudiessen conuenir; o para desatar nube, que echasse
granizo, o niebla, porque non corrompiesse los fimtos; o para mater langosta, o
pulgon, que dafia el pan, o las vinas; o por alguna otra razon provechosa seme-
jante destas, non deue auer pena; ante dezimos, que deue recebir gualardon por
ello” (Alfonso X 1844, 337). [Partida Vn, Title XXlil, Law HI: Anyone may ac­
cuse an augurer or sorcerer or other magical practitioner referred to in the laws
of this Title before a Judge. And if it is proven by witnesses, or by their own
confession, that they act against our will in any of the aforementioned errors,
they must die. And those who hide them knowingly in their homes will be for­
ever exiled. But those who cast a speU, or other things, with good intentions,
such as ridding a man’s body of demons; or helping a married couple; or stop­
ping a doud from hailing or causing fog so that it does not hurt crops; or for
killing pests that harm grain or vineyards; or any other beneficial reasons like
these, should not be punished; but rather should receive an award.]
68. “Libro VIII, Titulo IV, Ley I: El Rey Don Juan I en Birviesca Ano de M.
CCC. Ixxxyj. Porque muchos hombres en nuestros Reynos, no temiendo 4 Dios,
ni guardando sus consciendas, usando muchas artes malas, que son defendidas,
y reputadas, por nos: asi como es catar en agueros y adivinanzas, y suertes, y
otras muchas manereis de agorerias, y sorterias; de lo qual se han seguido, y si-
guen muchos males. Lo uno peisar el Mandamiento de Dios, y hacer pecado man-
ifiesto. Lo otro, porque por algunos agoreros, y adevinos, y otros que se hacen
astrologos, y se ha seguido a nos deservicio, y fueron ocasion porque algunos
enasen. Por ende ordenamos, y mandamos, que cualquier que de aqui adelante
usare de las dichas artes, 6 de cualquier dellas, que hayan las penas estableddas
por las leyes de las partidas, que fablan en esta razon. Y que el Juez, 6 Alcalde,
donde esto acaedere, pueda facer pesquisa de su ofido: y si le fuere denimdado,
6 lo supiere, y no fidere la dicha pesquisa, que pierda el ofido. Y porque en este
error faUamos que caen asi Clerigos, como Rehgiosos, y Beatos, y Beatas, como
otros: Mandamos a los Perlados, que se informen de aquestos; y los tales que
los castiguen, y procedan contra eUos i aquellas penas que los derechos ponen”
{Ordenanzas re^s de Castilla 1872, 515-16). [Book VIII, Title IV, Law I: King
Juan I in Birviesca Year MCCdxxxyj. Because many men in our kingdom, not
fearing God or abiding their consdence, use many wicked arts that are defined
as such by us: looking at omens and divinations and lot casting, £md other ways
of divination; from which much evil occurs. They disobey God’s Commandment
and sin openly. Some augurers and diviners, and others who are astrologers,
have done a disservice to us because they have made mistakes. Therefore, we
order that anyone who henceforth uses any of the aforementioned arts is subject
to the laws established in the Partidas. And the Judge or Constable, where this
happens, must investigate: and if they are told or if they know emd do not inves­
tigate, they will lose their position. And because we find that clerics, religious
officials, and others fell in this offense, that religious officials cany out sentence
against them according to the law.]
69. Pope Innocent VEH declared witchcraft heretical in 1484.
70. “Mulier que herbolaria uel facticiosa fiierit, conburatur, uel saluet se per
ferrum” (Fuero de Cuenca 1935, 328).
NOTES 223
71. Bonilla does not provide any book titles to support this claim.
72. Thieves roamed the Spanish countryside looting plague victims. The
problem became severe enough to warrant an ordinance prohibiting such be­
havior although the effectiveness of that ordinance is undetermined (Ziegler
1993, 86).
73. The early centuries of Christianity saw women perform the same duties
as men within Church structure. The writings of Augustine and Jerome contrib­
uted much to relegating women to a subordinate position. Later, after Chris­
tianity had firmly established itself, the Cathars in the twelfth century did allow
women to participate in the administration of sacreiments but were subse­
quently labeled heretics and were crushed by the stronger power.
74. During the decentralized hiatus, Pagan Germanic codes contained strict
fines and punishments for crimes committed against women (Fonay Wemple
1992,173,188). The Code ofAlemanni ordered punishment for men who falsely
accused a woman of witchcraft, and in 546 the Ostragothic king Totila forbade
the rape of the Roman women when his troops entered Rome (Fonay Wemple
1992,173).
Chapter 2. Spanish Intellectual and Medical Treatises
1. “Destos ministros al demonio consagrados y dedicados, mas ay mugeres
que hombres. Lo primero porque Christo las aparto de la administracion de sus
sacramentos, por esto el demonio les da esta autoridad mas a ellas que a ellos
en la administracion de sus execramentos. Lo segundo porque mas ligeramente
son enganadas del demonio, como parece por la primera que fue engafiada, a
quien el demonio primero tuuo recurso que al varon. Lo tercero porque son mas
curiosas en saber y escudrunar las cosas ocultas e dessean ser singulares en el
saber, como su naturaleza se lo niegue. Lo quarto porque son mas parleras que
los hombres e no guardan tanto secreto, e assi se ensenan vnas a otras, lo que
no hazen tanto los hombres. Lo quinto porque son mas subjetas a la yra e mas
vengatiuas, e como tienen menos fuergas para se vengar de algunas personas
contra quien tienen enojo, procuran e piden venganga e favor del demonio. Lo
sesto porque los hechizos que los hombres hazen, atribuyense a alguna sdenda
o arte Uamalos el vulgo nigromanticos e no los llaman bruxos; como eran los
sabios maleficos de Faraon que los dotores lo llaman Magos, los quales con sus
encantaciones hazian parecer y nacer por ministerio diabolico, diuersas ser-
pientes en presenda del rey, contra haziendo a los nulagros verdaderos que
hazia dios por Mqysen” (Castafiega 1994,19-20). [There are more women than
men consecrated and dedicated as ministers of the Devil. In the first place
because Christ excluded them from the administration of his sacraments,
and because of this the Devil gives women more authority than men in the
administration of his execraments. Secondly, because they are more easily de­
ceived by the Devil, as it seems with the first one who was deceived, to whom
the Devil had more appeal than to the man. Thirdly, because they are more curi­
ous about knowing and scrutinizing occult things and they want to be the best
in their knowledge, since their nature denies it. Fourthly, because they are more
talkative than men and do not keep secrets as well, and thus they teach each
224 NOTES
other, something that men do not do. Fifth, because th^ succumb more easily
to anger and are more vengeful, and since they have less strength to avenge
themselves against those with whom they are angry, they seek and ask for ven­
geance and favor from the Devd. Sixthly, because the speUs that men cast are
attributed to a science or art and the people call them necromancers instead of
witches; such as were Pharaoh’s wicked sages that doctors call Magicians, who,
through diabolic speUs, made serpents appear in the king’s presence, in contrast
to the true miracles that Gkid performed through Moses.]
Chapters. “Real” Magical Practitioners
1. “Manichaeism is a Gnostic religion that originated in Babylonia in the
third century AD. Its founder was a Persian of noble descent called Mani (or
Manes) (ca. 216-76). Manichaeism was long treated as a Christian heresy, but
it is more clearly imderstood as an independent religion, drawing on the diverse
resources of Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism. The essence of Mani­
chaeism was the principle of absolute dualism: the primal conflict between God,
represented by Ught emd spirit, and Satan, represented by darkness and the ma­
terial world. Human beings, created by God, were divine in spirit but they car­
ried within them seeds of darkness, sown by Satan, because of their material
bodies. Salvation, as taught by Mani, requires hberating the seed of hght, the
soul, from the material darkness in which it is trapped. This is achieved by strict
celibacy and ascetic practices. Those who would become perfect are to set three
“seals” on their lives: on the mouth, to speak only truth and to abstain from
meat or impure food of any kind; on the hands, to refrain from war, killing, or
injuring Ufe; on the breast, to render impossible the works of the flesh. This
triple seal applies only to the elect or pure; hearers follow a less demanding
code. The imperfect sue destined to continual rebirth in a world of material bod­
ies. Manichaeism, which denied the reality of Christ’s body and rejected the no­
tion of free will, adapted from Christianity baptism, the Eucharist, and a third
sacrament of remission of sins at the time of death. Because of its attitude
toward the material world, Manichaeism regarded evil as a physical rather than
a moral entity. Women were considered forces of darkness, binding men to the
flesh. Manichaeism disappeared in the West in about the 6“* century, although
its doctrines reappeared in the teachings of the Bogomils, Albigenses, and other
sects dvuing the Middle Ages. In the East, Manichaeism survived until the 13*
century” (Grvlier Encyclopedia 1994).
2. “I. Si alguno no confiesa que el Padre y el hijo y el Espiritu Santo son
tres personas de ima sustanda, virtud y poder, segun ensena la iglesia catohca
y apostoUca; y por el contrario dijere, que es una soUtaria persona, de manera
que el Padre sea el mismo que el Hijo y que el Espiritu Santo, segun dijeron
SabeUo y Prisdliano, sea anatema.
n. Si alguno fuera de la santa ’Trinidad introduce cualesquiera otros nom-
bres de la divinidad, diciendo que en la misma divinidad hay Trinidad de 'Trini­
dad, como dijeron los Gndsticos y Prisdliano, sea anatema.
m. Si alguno dice, que el Hijo de Dios nuestro Senor no fue antes de nacer
NOTES 225
la Virgen, segiin dijeron Paulo de Samosata, Fotino y Prisdliano, sea anatemati-
zado.
IV. Si alguno no venera como debe la Natividad de Cristo segun la came, sino
que finge honrarla, ayunando en aquel dia, y en el Domingo, porque no creyd
que Cristo nacio con verdadera naturaleza de hombre, como dijeron Cerdon,
Mardon, Manes y Prisdliano, sea anatematizado.
V. Si alguno cree, que las almas de los hombres 6 los Angeles son de la sustan­
da de Dios, como dijeron Manes y Prisdliano, sea anatema.
VI. Si alguno dice que las almas humanas pecaron primeramente en la habi-
tadon celestial, y que por esta causa fueron arrojadas en la tierra, encerrdndolas
en cuerpos humanos, como dijo Pnsciliano, sea anatema.
Vn. Si alguno dice, que el diablo no fue primero angel bueno hecho por Dios,
ni que su naturaleza fue obra de Dios, sino que dice, que salio del caos y de las
tinieblas, que no tuvo ningun autor, sino que es el primer principio y sustancia
de lo male, como dijeron Manes y Prisdliano, sea anatematizado.
VTTT Si alguno cree, que el diablo ha hecho en el mundo algunas criaturas, y
que el de propia autoridad produce los tmenos, relAmpagos, tempestades y
sequedades, como dijo Prisdliano, sea anatema.
EL Si alguno cree, que las almas y los cuerpos humanos estan hgados A las
estreUas fatales, como dijeron los paganos y Priscihano, sea anatematizado.
X. Si alguno cree, que los doce signos de estrellas, que suelen observar los
matemAticos, estan dispuestos para cada uno de los miembros del Animo 6 del
cuerpo, y dicen que estAn arreglados A los nombres de los patriarcas, como dyo
Prisdliano, sea anatematizado.
XI. Si alguno condena los matrimonios humanos, y aborrece la procreadon,
como dijeron Manes y Prisdliano, sea anatematizado.
Xn. Si alguno dice, que la formaddn del cuerpo humano es obra del diablo,
y que las concepciones en el litero matemo redben la figura por obra de los
demonios, y por esto no cree en la resurrecdon de la came, como dijeron Manes
y Priscihano, sea anatematizado.
Xm. Si alguno dice, que la creadon de toda la came no es obra de Dios sino
de los Angeles mahgnos, como dijeron Manes y Priscihano, sea anatematizado.
XIV. Si alguno juzga inmundo el alimento de las cames, que Dios did a los
hombres para su uso, y no se abstiene de eUas por mortiflcadon de su cuerpo,
sino maa bien porque juzga que quedarA inmundo, de modo que ni aun quiere
gustar las verduras coddas con cames, como dijeron Manes y Pnsciliano, sea
anatematizado.
XV. Si algiiTi derigo o monge tiene en su compafiia algunas mugeres, que no
sean su madre, hermana 6 tia, 6 la que tenga vinculo de consanguinidad muy
estrecho, y en vez de estas se sirve de algunas mugeres adoptivas, y cohabita con
ehas, segiin ensenA la secta de Prisdhano, sea anatematizado.
XVI. Si alguno en la feria quinta de pascua, que se Uama Coena Domini, en
la hora legltima, despues de nona, no celebra misas en la iglesia en ayimas, sino
que siguiendo la secta de Prisdhano, dice misas de difimtos despues de la hora
terda de la festividad del mismo dia, quebrantado el a3runo, sea antematizado.
XVn. Si alguno lee las Escrituras que Prisdhano vido segiin su error, 6 los
tratados de Dictinio, que este mismo escribid antes de ser convertido, d cuales­
quiera escritos de los hereges con el nombre de los patriarcas, profetas d apds-
226 NOTES
toles, confonnes a su error, y sigue sus delirios impios 6 los defiende, sea
anatematizado” (Concilio I de Braga 1850, 609-10).
[I. ff one does not admit that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are three per­
sona in one, virtue, and power, according to what the Catholic and Apostolic
Church teaches; and if he says the contrary, that it is one person, so that the
Father is the same as the Son and the Holy Spirit, as Sabeho and Prisdhan said
it is anathema.
n. If anyone presents names other than the Holy Trinity for the divinity,
saying that there is a Trinity of Trinity in the divinity, as the Gnostics and Pris^
cUian said, it is anathenm.
HI. If anyone says that the Son of God did not exist before being bom to the
Virgin, as Paul of Samosata, Fotino, and Prisdlian said, it is anathema.
rV. If anyone does not honor the Nativity of Christ as he should by eating
meat, but rather pretends to honor it by facing on that day and on Simday,
because he does not believe that Christ was bom in the tme nature of man, as
Cerdon, Macion, Manes, and Prisdlian said, it is anathema.
V. If anyone says that human souls and angels are of the same substance as
God, as Manes and Prisdlian said, it is anathema.
VI. If anyone says that human souls sinned first in the Celestial DweUing,
and that for this reason they were thrown to Earth, imprisoned in human bod­
ies, as Prisdlian said, it is anathema.
Vn. If anyone says that the Devil was not the first good angel made by God,
nor that his nature is a work of God, but rather says that he emerged from chaos
and darkness, and did not have a maker, but rather that he is the first beginning
and substance of evil, as Manes amd Prisdlian said, it is anathema.
Vin. If anyone believes that the Devil has made some creatures on Earth,
.
.... ......................................
and that he by his own authority causes thunder, lightening, storms and
droughts, as Priscilian said, it is anathema.
IX. If anyone believes souls and human bodies are tied to stars of fate as the
Pagans emd Priscihan said, it is anathema
X. If anyone believes that the twelve star signs, that mathematicians usually
look at, relate to each part of the soul or body, and says that they are arrEmged
by the names of the patriarchs, as Priscilian said, it is anathema.
XI. If anyone condemns human marriage and abhors procreation, as Manes
and Prisdlian said, it is anathema.
.... -
Xn. If anyone says that the formation of the human body is the work of the
Devil, and that conceptions in the mothers’ wombs receive their shape by the
work of demons, and because of that they do not beheve in the resurrection of
the flesh, as Manes and Priscihan said, it is anathema.
Xin. If anyone says that the creation of all flesh is not the work of God, but
rather of evil angels, as Manes and Prisdlian said, it is anathema.
XIV. If anyone judges the food of the flesh filthy, which God gave to men for
their use, and does not abstain from it by mortification of his body, but because
he beheves he will become filthy, so that he does not even want to like vegetables
cooked with meat, as Manes and Priscilian said, it is anathema.
XV. If any cleric has any women in his company, who are not his mother,
sister, or aimt, or someone of close blood relation, and instead makes use of
adopted women and lives with them, as Prisdlian’s sect taught, it is anathema.
NOTES 227
XVI. If anyone on the fifth feast day of Easter, which is called Coena Domini,
at the correct hour, after nona, does not celebrate mass in Church fasting, but
rather, following Prisdlian’s sect, says masses for the dead after the third hour
of the same feast day, breaking his fast, it is anathema.
XVn. If anyone reads the Scriptures that Prisdlian corrupted, or the trea­
tises of Dictinio, which he wrote before being converted, or any writing of the
heretics with the name of the patriarchs, prophets, or apostles, and continues
his impious deliriums or defends them, it is anathema.]
3. Los does trabajos de H6rcules, Tratado de la lepra, Arte cisoria, Tratado
de consolaciSn, Exposicidn del salmo “Quoniam Videbo,” Tratado de fascina-
cidn o de aojamiento, Epistola a Suero de Quinones, Arte de trovar, Exposicidn
del soneto de Petrarca, Tratado de astrologia.
4. “De fisicis ligaturis del Fisidlogo” (Vfllena 1994, 332).
Chapter 4. Magic in Medieval Spanish LirERA'niRE
1. The sea fairies smd their gifts were taken from the Roman d’Alexandre
while the Classical god Vulcan was most likely the poet’s own addition out of an
interest in induding Classical material (Willis 1935,15-17).
2. This was most likely inspired by a mention of Homer in the Alexandreis
(Willis 1934, 50).
3. It was translated from an undetermined manuscript of the French Vie
Sainte Marie I’Egyptienne (Alvar 1970, 26). The earliest known version was
written in Greek by Sophronius, Bishop of Jerusalem (634-39).
4. The first part of the poem was taken from the Vita Beati Emiliani (early.
VH) written by Saint Braulio of Zaragoza (590-651), while Berceo based the last
section (c. 361—481) on a Latin story about Feman Gonzdlez (890-969) (Dutton
1992,121). Berceo follows the Latin texts fairly dosely except for a miracle that
occurs during Feman Gonzalez’s battle (Dutton 1992,122).
5. Teiken from the Vita Dominici Silensis (XD by Grimaldus.
6. Adapt^fromMunio’sVito.
7. Berceo’s source was an eighth-century Latin version of TheophUus’s
story, which he dosely follows. He does, nevertheless, perpetuate the story by
adapting it into Spanish in his own poetic style with a few changes.
8. The Latin version dedares that the Jew “erat denique in eadem dvitate
hebreus quidam nefandissimus et diabloice artis operator nequissimus, qui iam
multos in infidelitatis argumentum et in foveam perdiciones immerserat” (Ber­
ceo 1990, 254).
9. This is also found in the Latin version (Berceo 1990, 255).
10. Adapted from the Historia Apollonii Regis Tyri, the Gesta Apollonii and
the Gesta RoTnanorum.
11. The Gran Conquista de Ultramar was largely taken from the Historia
rerum in partibus transmarinis by Wilhsun of Tyre around 1184. The Spanish
writer also used La Chanson d’Antioche, Les Chetifs, La Conquete de Jerusalem,
Hilias o La Chanson du Chevalier au Cygne y Enfances de ^defroid de Bouil­
lon and Berta y Sainete.
228 NOTES NOTES 229

12. “Estonge fizieron sus posturas en uno et el omne fue su VEtsallo” Qilaiiuel jnflgifal signs that many times accompamed such “lists” that were papers or
1969, 235) [Aad then they made their goals one and the man was his vassal], parchments on which were written names, formulas, and prayers].
13. “Et el omne enderego a casa de un mercadero, de noche oscura: ca los que 23. “Con la sangre de viboras o del basdisco se hacia, pues, este ‘azeyte, tm
mal qtderen fazer siempre aborrecen la lumbre. Et luego que lego a la puerta, el alabado de los magos y del cual tenia Celestina un buen “bote’ ” (Laza P^aos
diablo aviiogela.... Et luego que lo prendieron llamd a don Martin [el dieiblo] 1958, 103) [With the blood of snakes or a basilisk it was made, to “oil” was
que lo acorriesse; et don Martin llego muy apriessa et librolo de la prisidn” highly praised by magiciems and Celestina had a big container of it].
(Manuel 1969, 236) [And the man approached the house of a merchant, on a 24. Sempronio refers to Celestina as an hechizera [sorceress] (^jas 1991,
dark night: since those who want to do evil always abhor the light. And when 234); Lucrecia informs Alisa that Celestina was punished as an hechicera (Rojas
he arrived at the door, the Devil opened it for him. And later when they arrested 1991, 303) ; Melibea calls Celestina an alcahueta falsa and hechizera (Rojas
him he called upon Don Martin [the Devd] to rescue him; and Don Martin ar­ 1991, 315) [lying go-between and sorceress]; Lucrecia refers to Celestina’s activ­
rived quickly and freed him from the prison]. ities as hechizos (Rojas 1991, 423) [spells] and calls her afechizera (Rojas 1991,
14. Sneezes were often interpreted ats omens. 432) [sorceress]. Only Claudina is credited with being a bruxa (367) [witch].
25. “Y aun k una le levantaron que era bruxa, porque k hallaron de noche
15. “Contra esto pequd, Sefior, de cada dia, / creyendo en agderos con grant
con imas candeliUas, cogendo tierra de una encruzijada, y k tovieron medio dia
matigia mia, / en suehos e estomudos e otra estrelleria, / ca todo es vanidad, /
en una escalera en la pkga, puesto uno como rocadero pintado en k cabega
locura e foUia” (Ayala 1993, c. 22) [Against this /1 sinned. Lord, everyday / be­
(Rojas 1991, 367) [And they considered her a witch, because they found her at
lieving in omens in my evilness / in demons and sneezes and other star gazing /
night with some candles, gathering soil firom a crossroads, and they put her in
but all is in vain / insanity and error].
a stockade in the plaza for half a day, with a painted hat on her head].
16. “Tii eres solo Dios, e yo tu servidor, / en otro adorar seria grant error”
26. “iOh, que bravo efecto hicieron / los hechizos y conjuros! / La victoria me
(Ayala 1993, c. 23) [You are one God, and /1 am your servant / to worship an­ prometo” (Vega 1980,197) [Oh what a wonderful effect they had / the speUs and
other would be a great error].
conjurations! /1 promise myself victory].
17. Isidore of Seville claims in his Etimologias that magical practice began 27. “Si no vas, tengo de hacer que el propio vengabuscarte” (Vega 1980,193)
with Zoroaster (Isidore de Sevilla 1982, 717).
[If you do not go, I will have him come get you].
18. “Si toUere totas / Temptasset campis acies et reddere beUo, / Cessissent
leges Erebi, monstroque potenti / Extractus Stygio populus pugnasset Avemo”
(Lucan 1957, 634).
19. “e los matemdticos que malamente / tientan objectos a nos devedados”
(Mena 1997, v. 1031-32).
20. “mil vezes por dos comados / sus ahnas a los demonios; / comportar de
ser terrero / a las invidias de todos, / me haze creer, logrero, / que tu dies es el
dinero, / aunque traes christianos modes” (Mendoza 1968, c. 345) [a thousand
times / by two horns / their souls to demons / behaving as if earthly / to the envy
of aU / it makes me believe, seeker / that your god is money / althou^ you bring
Christian ways].
21. Andreas Capellanus describes a proper meeting between a man and
woman according to the rules of courtly love in his book The Art of Courtly Love
(Deyermond 1961, 218). “First he should greet her in his usual way: this, how­
ever, should always be done, and aU lovers must realize that after the salutation
they should not immediately begin talking about love, for it is only with their
concubines that men begin this way. On the contrary, after the man has greeted
the woman, he ought to let a tittle time elapse, so that she may, if she wishes,
speak first. If she does begin the conversation, you have good reason to rejoice,
unless you are a fluent talker, because her remark will give you plenty to talk
about. . . . First you should say things that have nothing to do with your sub­
ject—make her laugh at something, or else praise her home, or her family, or
herself” (Capellanus 1960, 36-37).
22. “debia tratarse de ‘nominas’ o signos magicos que muchas veces acompa-
naban a las tales ‘nominas’ que eran papeles o pergaminos donde se escribian
nombres, formulas y oraciones” (Laza Palacios 1958, 102) [it was for “lists” or
 Perceptions of Mag:
in Medieval Spanis'
Literature

Jennifer M. Corry

Lehigh
Universitii
Press

Bethlehem: Lehigh University Press

 Contents

Introduction n

1. Magic 14

2. Spanish Intellectual and Medical Treatises 99

3. “Real” Magical Practitioners in Spain 111
4. Magic in Medieval Spanish Literature 128
Conclusion 202

Notes 206
List of References 230
Index 243