Professional Documents
Culture Documents
August 2008
* This is a report on a research work conducted by two teams headed by Dr. A. I. Mahbub Uddin
Ahmed. The first team consisting of Dr. A. I. Mahbub Uddin Ahmed, Ms. Farhida Islam, Ms.
Tabassum Rahman and Mr. Mehdi Hasan of the Department of Sociology was entrusted the
responsibility of Sal and hill forestry. The second team consisting of Dr. M. Nazrul Islam and Md.
Nazrul Islam of Department of Geography and Environment, Jahangirnagar University and A.S.M.
Saifullah of Department of Environmental Science and Resource Management, MBUST was
responsible for Sunderban Mangrove forest.
Table of Contents
Page
Acknowledgements 4
List of Tables 5
List of Map 5
List of Figures 5
List of Photos 5
Executive Summary 6
Introduction 9
Statement of the Problem 9
Objective of the Study 10
Methodology 10
Scope of the Study 11
Chapter 1
Conceptualizing Deforestation and Forest Degradation 12
Chapter 2
Forest in Bangladesh 19
Chapter 3
Research on Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 36
4.1 Industrialization 39
4.2 Irrational Profit-making 39
4.3 Militarization 40
4.4 Consumerism 41
4.5 Forest Management 42
4.6 Agricultural Practice 45
4.7 Over population, Poverty and Unemployment 45
4.8 Development Interventions 46
Chapter 5
Underlying Causes of Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 49
References 54
Annexure
Annex 1- Check List for Key Informant: Owner of Furniture Industries 59
Annex 1- Check List for Key Informant: Owner of Furniture Industries 61
Annex 3- Check List for Key Informant: Official of Forest Department 62
Annex 4- Check List for Key Informant: Consumer 64
Annex 5- Check List for Key Informant: Timber Trader 66
Annex 6- Check List for Focus Group Discussions 68
Annex 7- Check List for Community Workshops 69
Annex 8- Some significant chapters regarding deforestation and forest
degradation in Forest Act 2000 (Amended) 70
List of Tables
Table 2.1- Category of Forest Land 19
Table 2.2- Forest Area Managed by Forest Department 20
List of Map
Map 2.1- Forest Areas in Bangladesh 21
List of Figures
Figure 1.1- Area of Forest Ecosystems 14
Figure 4.1- A Comparative View of Deforestation in Three
Forest Areas of Bangladesh 48
List of Photos
Photo 1- Pile of log beside a highway in Madhupur 40
Photo 2- Unreconstructed decorative wooden furniture in
one of the Sal Forest areas 42
The main objective of this study is to find the underlying causes of deforestation and
forest degradation in Bangladesh. An analytic model is constructed on the assumed
relationship between various socioeconomic variables and deforestation.
For this purpose, mixed qualitative techniques—key informant interviews, focus group
discussion, community workshop, case studies and content analysis from media
reporting-- have been used. Data are collected from three forest types—hill, sal and
mangrove. For monetary and time constraints, few representative areas have been
visited, for examples, for hill forestry, Khagrachari, Rangamati and Bandarban; for sal
forestry, Bhaluka, Modhupur and Rangtia; for mangrove, Karamjol and Khurakhali. Two
teams composed of sociologists; geographers and an environment specialist have
collectively conducted this study. The main findings of underlying causes of
deforestation and forest degradation in three forest areas of Bangladesh are as follows:
Illegal logging is also responsible for the deforestation in the Sundarbans. From the field
it is also found that lack of alternative livelihood approach push the coastal people to
depend on mangrove forest produce. According to them the land is not that much
suitable for paddy cultivation so that they are not getting required amount of food grains
from their cultivable land. Most of the people don’t have agricultural land of their own
also. For livelihood, they are mostly depending on the Sundarbans. Natural disasters are
also accountable for the deforestation in the Sundarbans every year. Another important
reason behind the deforestation in the Sundarbans is the decreasing discharge of fresh
water from the upstream river which is fostered by the Farakka Dam. It is also found that
volatile forest policy is responsible for deforestation in the Sundarbans. According to
them before mid 80s they were allowed to enter into the forest for timber, fire wood and
other resources collection with having permit from the government. But in mid 1980s, the
permit system has been cancelled. In consequence of this cancellation of permit, illegal
logging increased and government losing revenue and in this way deforestation is also
enhancing.
At the outset of this paper it is important to define deforestation to demystify its popular
notion. Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forest land through
cutting, clearing, and removal of rainforest or related ecosystems into less bio-diverse
ecosystems such as pasture, cropland, or plantations, urban use, logged area, or
wasteland (Kricher, 1997). Deforestation results from removal of trees without sufficient
reforestration, and results in declines in habitat and biodiversity, wood for fuel and
industrial use, and quality of life (Nilsson, 1995). In many countries, massive
deforestation is ongoing and is shaping climate and geography. Forest degradation and
deforestation are closely related as both can cause each other. Therefore, in many
cases, there is a common cause, immediate or final, for both variables.
The destruction of forests began from the formation of early civilizations. The Laws of
Manu (samhita) is replete with passages refering to the formation of human habitat by
clearing the jungle. Thus began the antinomy between men and nature, which took a
monstrous proportion in modernity. The 1839 writings of early Engels, Letters from
Wuppertal, is a remarkable documentation of the ruthless destruction of environment
by early industrialization and the misery that befell on modern mankind, especially the
working class (Engels, 1839). The unethical persuasion of profit by industrial capitalism
has led to the global annihilation of forests, and the planet has experienced an
unprecedented high rate of destruction of forests since 1850s (Wilson, 2002).
FAO made a global assessment of 179 countries in1990 and found that forest land
constituted slightly over 3,400 million ha or 27 per cent of the land area. Forests of the
developed regions represented 42 per cent of the total global forest area compared to 58
per cent of the underdeveloped regions (FAO, 1995). The loss of forest area during
1980-90 was estimated to 163 million ha, of which 154 million ha or 94.5 per cent was in
the tropics only (FAO, 1995). The per capita forest area fell globally from an average of
nearly 1.2 ha in the 1960 to 0.6 ha in 1990 and it is projected to be less than 0.2 ha by
2020 (FAO, 1995). Thus, between 1960 and 1990, there was a steep rise in the decadal
rate of deforestation worldwide with Brazil having the highest annual rate. The global
data show that the Atlantic coast of Brazil, the Philippines, Madagascar and Sumatra
have lost between 85 per cent and 95 per cent of their forests due to ruthless corporate
industrial exploitation, whereas heavy bombing has destroyed 70-85 per cent rainforest
of El Salvador during the civil war in 1984-85 and of Afghanistan during the American
invasion in the 1990s.1 Interestingly enough, 94 per cent of Central Africa’s forests are
not protected by law.
The situation of Bangladesh is apocalyptic one. The country has a population of 140
million with an area of 13.02 million ha. The data on forestland is a contested one. One
estimate puts the total forestland as 2.47 million ha area, whereas the FAO estimates
the total natural forest cover as 769,000 ha or 5.9 per cent and the area of plantations as
2.5 per cent of the total land area (FAO, 1993). Bangladesh's natural forests are
1
The effect of landmine on Afghanistan’s deforestation is reported in Habibi (n.d.)
At the backdrop of such an apocalyptic situation for Bangladesh, the main objective of
this paper is to explore the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation in
Bangladesh. An analytic model is constructed on the assumed relationship between
various socioeconomic variables and deforestation.
Methodology
For this purpose, mixed qualitative techniques—key informant interviews, focus group
discussion, community workshop, case studies and content analysis from media
reporting-- have been used. Data are collected from three forest types—hill, sal and
mangrove. For monetary and time constraints, few representative areas have been
visited, for examples, for hill forestry, Khagrachari, Rangamati and Bandarban; for sal
forestry, Bhaluka, Modhupur and Rangtia; for mangrove, Karamjol and Karuakhali. Two
teams composed of sociologists, geographers and an environment specialist have
collectively conducted this study.
2
Apart from acid rain, the conversion of forest land into cash crops agricultural land, especially in Siberia
after the collapse of the Soviet Union is a striking example.
The study is divided into five chapters. Chapter one deals with the conceptualization of
deforestation and forest degradation from the perspective of forestry. In this study,
deforestation has been defined as the loss or continual degradation of forest habitat due
to either natural or human related causes; and forest degradation has been defined as
the changes within the forest, which negatively affect the structure or function of the site,
and thereby lower the capacity to supply products. The chapter also gives an account of
the extent of the problem confronted by the global society. It is found that poverty and
low land/man ratio coupled with consumerism trigger off series of events like logging,
cash crops, illegal felling and etc., which are directly related to deforestation. Apart from
these, mining and bombing due to war, oil and gas extraction due to ruthless motive for
profit can be construed as main causes of global deforestation.
Chapter two which deals with forest in Bangladesh gives background knowledge of the
area and types of forestry; forest laws and forest management. It is found that in
Bangladesh there are three forest areas--the sal forest (0.12 million ha), hill forest (0.67
million ha) and mangrove forest (0.6 million ha).
Chapter three mentions the status of research on underlying causes of deforestation and
forest degradation in Bangladesh. It is interesting to note that hardly any systematic
study has been conducted in this area. Five interrelated causes of deforestation and
forest degradation are being found. They are: forest management, development
interventions, encroachment on forest land, physical and environmental causes and
ruthless profit-making activities.
Chapter four deals with the underlying causes of deforestation in Bangladesh as found in
the fieldwork in Sal, Hill and Mangrove forestry. In Sal forest, three main underlying
causes of deforestation--commercial plantation, militarization and illegal possession,
especially through industrialization and social forestry-- are found. Similarly, the hill
forest also exhibits the same causes. In addition, the development intervention in the
form of Karnaphuli hydro-electricity project and Kaptai dam initiated the chain of
events—ethnic conflict, conversion of forest land for the military use, Bangali
encroachment, practice of jhum cultivation by the Bangali settlers, the process of Islamic
form of Bangalicization, and cash crop like ginger and etc. They all contributed to the hill
deforestation.3 In Sunderban mangrove forest area, seven major causes of deforestation
are found. They are: poverty, profit motive, natural disaster, salinity, sedimentation and
ineffective forest management and international intervention in the form of Farakka Dam
constructed by neighboring India. This caused decreasing discharge of fresh water from
the upstream river. Chapter five deals with the underlying causes of forest degradation
in Bangladesh as found in the fieldwork in Sal, Hill and Mangrove forestry. Two main
causes of degradation are found. They are: physical and environmental, and socio-
economic causes.
3
Moreover, in Sylhet region, gas exploration by the multinational corporation contributed to the
indiscriminate and ruthless destruction of forestry and environment.
Very often degradation does not show up so much in decrease of woody vegetation but
rather as a gradual reduction in biomass, changes in species composition and soil
degradation (FAO, 2000).
‘Relevant policies of the Asian development Bank (ADB), including on s and Forestry,
have acknowledged the growing importance of environmental concerns and the needs of
maintaining biological diversity. The ground situation, however, suggests a far stronger
emphasis on plantations at the expense of protection of natural forests and natural
regeneration of degraded forests. Various projects on “community forestry”, “social
forestry” and “participatory forestry” have actually created plantations with narrow
genetic bases, including exotic species that are harmful to biodiversity, such as rubber,
pine and Eucalyptus’ (Roy, 2002).
Originally, almost half of the United States, three-quarters of Canada, almost all of
Europe, the plains of the Levant, and much of the rest of the world were forested. The
forests have been mostly removed for fuel, building materials and to clear land for
farming. The clearing of the forests has been one of the most historic and prodigious
feats of humanity.
Source: Internet
Prehistory
In Grear Britain shade tolerant species such as oak and ash are replaced in the pollen
record by hazels,brambles, grasses and nettles. Removal of the forests led to decreased
transpiration resulting in the formation of upland peat bogs. Widespread decrease in elm
pollen across Europe between 8400-8300 BC and 7200-7000 BC, starting in southern
Europe and gradually moving north to Great Britain, may represent land clearing by fire
at the onset of Neolithic agriculture (Wikipedia, 2008).
Pre-industrial history
In ancient Greece, Tjeered van Andel summarized three regional studies of historic
erosion and alluviation and found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major
phase of erosion follows, by about 500-1000 years the introduction of farming in the
various regions of Greece, ranging from the later Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The
thousand years following the mid-first millennium BCE saw serious, intermittent pulses of
soil erosion in numerous places. The historic silting of ports along the southern coasts of
Asia Minor (e.g. Clarus, and the examples of Ephesus, Priene and Miletus, where
harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in
coastal Syria during the last centuries BC.
A typical progess trap is that cities were often built in a forested area providing wood for
some industry (e.g. construction, shipbuilding, pottery). When deforestation occurs
without proper replanting, local wood supplies become difficult to obtain near enough to
remain competitive, leading to the city's abandonment, as happened repeatedly in
Ancient Asia Minor. The combination of mining and metallurgy often went along this self-
destructive path.
Meanwhile most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependent on) the
agricultural sector, the main pressure in most areas remained land clearing for crop and
cattle farming; fortunately enough wild green was usually left standing (and partially
used, e.g. to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife to remain
viable, and the hunting privileges of the elite (nobility and higher clergy) often protected
significant woodlands.
From 1100 to 1500 AD significant deforestation took place in Western Europe as a result
of the expanding human population. The large-scale building of wooden sailing ships by
European (coastal) naval owners since the 15th century for exploration, colonization,
slave – and other trade on the high seas and (often related) naval warfare (the failed
invasion of England by the Spanish Armada in 1559 and the battle of Lepanto 1571 are
early cases of huge waste of prime timber; each of Nelson's Royal navy war ships at
Trafalgar had required 6000 mature oaks) and piracy meant that whole woody regions
were over-harvested, as in Spain, where this contributed to the paradoxical weakening
of the domestic economy since Columbus' discovery of America made the colonial
activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade) predominant (Wikipedia, 2008).
Deforestation today
Slash-and-burn is a method sometimes used by shifting cultivators to create short term
yields from marginal soils. When practiced repeatedly, or without intervening fallow
periods, the nutrient poor soils may be exhausted or eroded to an unproductive state.
Slash-and-burn techniques are used by native populations of over 200 million people
worldwide. Short-sighted, market-driven forestry practices are often one of the leading
causes of forest degradation. The principal human-related causes of deforestation are
agriculture and livestock grazing, urbansprawl, mining, and petroleum extraction.
Growing worldwide demand for wood to be used for fire wood or in construction, paper
and furniture - as well as clearing land for commercial and industrial development
(including road construction) have combined with growing local populations and their
demands for agricultural expansion and wood fuel to endanger ever larger forest areas.
1. Exposing soil to heat and rain. When forests are cleared, soil cover, which consists
mainly of vegetation, is removed as well. This exposes the bare soil to extreme
conditions produced by the sun's heat and rainwater.
With these activities alternating, the soil quickly compacts. As rainwater flows, it will
wash out the nutrients and other organic materials that make the soil rich and fertile. Add
to that the frequent activities of tilling, cropping and grazing which gradually results to the
degradation of the soil's quality.
These practices are specially a concern in areas where forest zones are drier.
Agriculture practice on top of deforestation can result to the desertification of many
areas. Desertification is also a direct result of the demand for the soil to produce more
(as a consequence of the increase in human population), thereby decreasing to a
significant degree the land's carrying capacity.
2. Flooding. Deforestation can result to watersheds that are no longer able to sustain
and regulate water flows from rivers and streams. Trees are highly effective in absorbing
water quantities, keeping the amount of water in watersheds to a manageable level. The
forest also serves as a cover against erosion. Once they are gone, too much water can
result to downstream flooding, many of which have caused disasters in many parts of
the world.
As fertile topsoil is eroded and flooded into the lower regions, many coastal fisheries and
coral reefs suffer from the sedimentation brought by the flooding. This results to negative
effects in the economic viability of many businesses and fatalities in wildlife population.
3. Non-suitability of deforested areas for conversion. Most of the areas that have
undergone deforestation are actually unsuitable for long-term agricultural use such as
ranching and farming. Once deprived of their forest cover, the lands rapidly degrade in
quality, losing their fertility and arability.
The soil in many deforested areas is also unsuitable for supporting annual crops. Much
of the grassy areas are also not as productive compared to more arable soils and are
therefore not fit for long-term cattle grazing.
4. The displacement of indigenous communities and their traditional way of life. When
governments decide to offer forests for deforestation mainly to open up areas for
'civilized' communities, access to forest resources by s are ignored. In fact, s are hardly
included in economic and political decisions that directly affect their lives. This
encroachment ignores their rights as much as it takes away the resources that their
ancestors have bestowed upon them.
5. The loss in the number of biodiversity. This is probably the most serious consequence
of deforestation. Put simply, it means the destruction and extinction of many plant and
animal species, many of whom remain unknown and whose benefits will be left
undiscovered.
While it's true deforestation has brought with it opportunities to improve our lives, we
have not mastered the right kind of responsibility that goes with having control over our
planet's resources. As a result, we and all the other creatures on this planet suffer
greatly from the consequences of our actions.
1. The Hill Forest mainly situated in the district of Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar, Rangamati,
Khagrachari, Bandarban and Sylhet. The total area of the Hill Forest is 670,000 hectare
which accounts for 44% of total area managed by the Forest Department and 4.54% of
total area of Bangladesh.
As opposed to 3 types of forest land classified by the type of management, there are 4
types of ecological classification:
During the Mughal period (1203-1538), forests were leased out by the local kings.
Systematic management of forests started in the 1860s after the establishment of a
Forest Department in the Province of Bengal. To regulate activities within forests, rules
and regulations have been formulated, amended, modified and improved upon over the
years. These rules and regulations are formulated on the basis of long-existing acts and
policies.
Forest legislation in Bangladesh dates back to 1865, when the first Indian Forest Act
was enacted. It provided for protection of tree, prevention of fires, prohibition of
cultivation, and grazing in forest areas. Until a comprehensive Indian Forest Act was
formulated in 1927, several acts and amendments covering forest administration in
British India were enacted and were as follows: (a) Indian Forest Act, 1873; (b) Forest
Act, 1890; (c) Amending Act, 1891; (d) Indian Forest (Amendment) Act, 1901; (e) Indian
Forest (Amendment) Act, 1911; (f) Repealing and Amending Act, 1914; (g) Indian Forest
Amendment Act, 1918; and (h) Devolution Act, 1920.
The Forest Act of 1927, as amended with its related rules and regulations, is still the
basic law governing forests in Bangladesh. The emphasis of the Act is on the protection
of reserved forest. Some important features of the Act are: (i) Under the purview of the
Forest Act, all rights or claims over forestlands have been settled at the time of the
reservation. The Act prohibits the grant of any new rights of any kind to individuals or
communities; (ii) Any activity within the forest reserves is prohibited, unless permitted by
the Forest Department; (iii) Most of the violations may result in court cases where the
minimum fine is Taka 2,000 and/or two month's rigorous imprisonment; and (iv) The Act
empowers the Forest Department to regulate the use of water-courses within Reserve
Forests.
An amendment of the Forest Act of 1927 was drafted in 1987 and approved in 1989, as
the Forest (Amendment) Ordinance 1989. The Forest Act was further amended in 2000
and renamed as the Forest (Amendment) Act, 2000. Under this amendment some major
changes have been brought in the Act.
For assuming control of private forests and wastelands by the government in the interest
of conservation, the Bengal Private Forest Act, 1945 was passed; but partition of India in
1947 intervened and the Act could not be put into effect. After partition, in 1949, East
Pakistan reenacted the provisions of the Bengal Private Forest Act. This was passed in
1959 as The East Pakistan Private Forest Ordinance. The private forest and wastelands
taken over by the government were to be managed as a distinct legal category, ie,
vested forests. The ordinance had 64 clauses and detailed provisions for the
management and protection of vested forests. Vested forests were taken over by the
government from their private owners for a period of one hundred years for the purpose
of conservation and afforestation, since they were not being cultivated properly by their
owners (Banglapedia, 2008).
The Forest Act of 1927 as amended in 1989 has its roots in Indian Forest Act, 1878. The
Forest Act grants the government several basic powers, largely for conservation and
protection of government forests, and limited powers for private forests. The 1927
version of the act was amended in 1989 for extending authority over "any [Government-
owned] land suitable for afforestation".
Forest department is the main agency to implement the provisions of the Forest Act. The
Act, however, does not specify any sort of institutional structure for the forest or other
land holding agencies. It also does not set out any specific policy direction for managing
the forests.
Most of the forest lands under the management of forest department are areas declared
to be reserved and protected forests under this act. The act empowers the government
to regulate the felling, extraction, and transport of forest produce in the country. The
process to get permit for felling trees and transporting the material is quite bureaucratic
and time consuming. The level of competent authority increases with the number of
trees in question. Forest department limits the routes for transportation of forest produce,
inspects and marks the material for transportation. The government has made many
rules for this purpose including the following:
The government has promulgated regulations both for some specific category of forests
like Prohibition and Rules affecting Protected Forests in Sundarbans Division (1959),
and for some specific purposes like Rules for the Preservation of Trees and Timbers
belonging to the Government in the District of Chittagong, Sylhet Forest (Protection from
Fire) Rules, 1954, and Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts Reserved Forests Fire
Protection Rules, 1958).
The Private Forest Act of 1959 allows the Government to take over management of
improperly managed private forest lands, any private lands that can be afforested, and
any land lying fallow for more than three years. The Private Forest Ordinance was
originally enacted in 1945, as the Bengal Private Forest Act, and was re-enacted by the
Bangladesh (then East Pakistan) in 1949 before being issued as an Act in 1959. These
government managed lands under this act are called "vested forests". The Forest
Department manages approximately 8,500 hectares in the country as "vested forests".
This area is relatively small, but the area historically affected by this law is much larger.
After finalization and approval of the management plans by the government, the private
owner becomes bound to implement the plan and in case of the default, the government
may take over management of the land as a vested forest. The government can also
impose a "cess", a per hectare fee, to cover its administrative costs for implementing the
management plan. Private owners of such vested forests are entitled to the net profits
from the sale of forest produce from their lands.
2.2.4 Agenda 21
Bangladesh is also implementing “Agenda 21”, which is a non-binding international
statement of goals and principles. It desires countries to take up all activities that are
dear to Bangladesh like alleviation of poverty, improved land use, conservation of
biodiversity, public participation, empowerment of women, respect of indigenous
cultures, working with NGOs, and development of human resources etc.
The National Forest Policy of 1894 provides the basic guidelines for the formulation of
acts and rules for the management of forests in the country. The earliest attempt to
enunciate the need of conserving forest resources was made in 1855 by the government
of British India through the promulgation of the Charter of Indian Forests. Prior to this
charter there were only scanty regulations regarding the felling of trees for revenue. The
first formal Forest Policy that was declared in 1894 included the following features: (1)
State forests are to be administered for public benefit at large, through regulations of
rights and privileges of the people near the forest. (2) Forests were categorized as (a)
Hill forests/Protection forests, (b) Economically important/Production forests, (c) Minor
forests, and (d) Pastureland. (3) Forests situated on hill slopes should be conserved to
protect the cultivated plains situated downstream. (4) Valuable forests should be
managed to yield state revenue. (5) Land suitable for cultivation within the forest should
be made available for cultivation, provided that such conversions did not harm forests
and were permanent in nature. (6) Local population should be allowed to exercise
grazing rights in low yielding forests (Banglapedia, 2008).
After the partition of India in 1947, the policy was not relevant for the new state of
Pakistan which inherited forest cover for less than 2% of its territory. The existing policy
The Forest Policy of 1955 was further revised and the Forest Policy of 1962 was
introduced. The Forest Policy of 1955 and 1962 laid emphasis on the exploitation of
forest produce, particularly from East Pakistan. The policies did not help the
development of forestry in Bangladesh and were not very favourable for all round growth
of forestry.
The policy statement of 1979 is very general and vague. Most of the crucial aspects
such as functional classification and use of forest land, role of forest as the ecological
foundation of sustainable biological productivity, community participation in forestry, etc
did not get any mention in the policy statement. Consequently, the government decided
to amend the Forest Policy of 1979. The amended Forest Policy, known as Forest
Policy, 1994, was approved by the government on 31 May 1995. Following were taken
into consideration while revising the forest policy: the clauses of public utility as
mentioned in the constitution; the role of forests in the socio-economic development of
the country, including the environment; adoption of national policy regarding agriculture,
industry, cottage industry and other sectors; and the treaties, protocols and conventions
related to environment and forests.
In the early 1990s, a 20-year Forestry Sector Master Plan (FSMP, 1993-2012) was
developed, which aims to bring 20% of the country's land area under tree cover. It has
three major investment programs: (a) forest production and management; (b) wood-
based industries; and (c) participatory forestry. Of the two scenarios in the FSMP, the
High Development Scenario envisages an investment of about US $2 billion in the
forestry sector.
The latest Forest Policy (1994) viewed equitable distribution of benefits among the
people, especially those whose livelihood depend on trees and forests; and people's
participation in afforestation programmes and incorporation of people's opinions and
suggestions in the planning and decision-making process. The people-centred
objectives of the policy are: creation of rural employment opportunities and expansion of
forest-based rural development sectors; and prevention of illegal occupation of forest
lands and other forest offences through people's participation. The policy statements
envisage: massive afforestation on marginal public lands through partnerships with local
people and NGOs; afforestation of denuded/encroached reserved forests with an
agroforestry model through participation of people and NGOs; giving ownership of a
certain amount of land to the tribal people through forest settlement processes;
strengthening of the Forest Department and creation of a new Department of Social
Forestry; strengthening of educational, training and research facilities; and amendment
of laws, rules and regulations relating to the forestry sector and if necessary,
promulgation of new laws and rules. Thus, over time the policy has shifted somewhat
from total state control to a management regime involving local communities in specific
categories of forests.
NFP provides a basis for legislation, plans and prescriptions, and a framework to
continuously correct institutional inadequacies for maintaining dynamic growth patterns
of forests. It provides an important means to achieve goals considered essential and
desirable by society. The effectiveness of a policy will however depend on its success in
achieving the defined goals.
Bangladesh has adopted a three dimensional approach to realize the vision of NFP
through development of three major type of programs, (a) People -oriented forestry
programs, (b) Forest Production-directed programs, and (c) Institutional strengthening
programs including development of appropriate legal framework.
Bangladesh has also adopted two other national policies (national policy of economic
growth, and national environment policy) related to the forestry sector. The "policy of
economic growth" within the broad framework of its Twenty Year Perspective Plan
(1990-2010) covers acceleration of economic growth, alleviation of poverty, generation
of employment opportunities, and increased self reliance. The "national environmental
policy" stresses maintenance of the ecological balance, protection against natural
disasters, prevention of pollution and degradation of the environment, environmentally
sound development, and sustainable long term and environmentally congenial utilization
of all resources.
Policy directives from all the three policies favor ecologically sound and biologically
sustainable development of forestry, support economic improvement through
appropriate measures of expansion, conservation, management and utilization of
resources, advocate cross sectoral linkages, and promote people participation at each
stage (Banglapedia, 2008).
The forest management builds and maintains the of forest systems to satisfy social,
political and economic needs of the landscape.The history of forestry in Bangladesh is
one of continuous depletion of forest resources both in terms of area and quality (FMP
1994). Most deforestation in government forests has occurred due to the inadequacy of
the bureaucratic custodian approach to forest management (Khan 1998). Since the early
1980s, forestry in Bangladesh has witnessed a rapid succession of social forestry
programmes in an attempt to redress public alienation and to allow for wider participation
of local people in forest use and management (Mustafa, 2002).
Scientific forest management in this sub-continent was started during British rule by the
appointment of Sir D. Brandis as the Inspector General of Forest in 1865. A separate
forest department was created for Bengal in 1876. Chittagong Forest Division was the
first division created in Bangladesh by British ruler in 1872 and the Sundarban Forest
Division was created in 1879. In those days, forests were managed primarily for revenue
collection under the control of Revenue Department. Only valuable trees were extracted
from the forest to get more revenue,
Keeping in mind the importance of forest, a forest management plan or work plan is
prepared for each forest division. This management plan guides forest manager to
manage forest or to perform day to day work in the forest. This plan spells out where to
cut trees, how much to cut and what to plant to cover up the cleared up forest etc. on
annual basis.
The present forest management is almost totally different from the past one in respect of
its objectives and philosophy. Present forest management objectives are not only to
produce timber only but also to provide clean air, clean water, healthy habitat for wildlife
and to act as a major source of biodiversity and nature-based tourism. The present
philosophy of forest management is to involve people in the management and create an
environment so that people can feel that they have also some stakes on trees growing
on the forestland and to improve living standard of the people residing in the vicinity of
the forests.
Inventories of all major forest formations in the country except the forests in Chittagong
Hill Tracts were carried out. This has provided the necessary database for using
quantitative information for writing more comprehensive management plans for different
forests. Small units of uniform crop have been identified and information on these units
were recorded with the help of computer based Resources Information Management
System (RIMS) unit in FD.
The inventory and associated activities have made long desired information on the
status, growth and yield of forests in the country available. It has been possible to
develop volume and yield functions for all major plantation species and volume functions
for major species in natural forests. This has made possible to regulate yield for long
period of time. A new working plan format has been devised to make it possible for the
use of the available information in future management plans.
An annual plan of operation is included as part of the management plan. This is basically
a detailed plan of operation within the forest division and is prepared by the Divisional
Forest Officer.
In recent years there has been a substantial shift in emphasis in Forestry and Forest
Mnagement from maximizing yield towards maximizing sustainability through increased
participation of local population, conserving biodiversity and maintaining forestry
services.
The present management systems are evolved from the past ones through various
modifications in order to incorporate present objectives of forest management. Some
new forest management systems are also added to address new concept in forest
management such as agroforestry, homestead plantation, strip plantation, participatory
forestry on encroached forest, mangrove afforestation on newly accreted land in the
coastal area, conservation area management to preserve wildlife habitat and
biodiversity.
The forests of Bangladesh have been under planned management for over a hundred
years. The forests of Sitapahar and in Sundarbans were the first to be notified as
reserved forests in 1875 under the Forest Act, Act VII of 1855. The first working plan
came into force in the Sundarbans during 1893. The Forest Department started
plantation activity by planting Teak at Sitapahar in 1871. The greater part of the Hill
Forests was initially on a care and maintenance basis. In plains, the Sal forests came
under management and planning of the forest department during 1950's.
The forest department prepared new working plans after independence of Bangladesh in
1971 to meet the new challenges and opportunities. The forest department adopted
clear felling followed by artificial regeneration as main system of forest management.
The Teak was identified as the main species for plantation with an agroforestry system
“taungya”. The aim was to convert large parts of the high forest to plantations within the
rotation period.
The Hill Forests consists of tropical evergreen and tropical moist-evergreen forests.
These forests are most important watershed areas in the country. Scientific forest
management of these forests began in the 1870s under a system of selection felling and
natural regeneration. In 1930s, the system of management was modified to clear felling
supported by artificial regeneration or plantation, while the system of selection-cum-
improvement felling also continued. The prescriptions for plantations include
establishment of natural regeneration plots of six to tenmeters width around every 40-
hectare plantation.
Hill forests were heavily exploited during the Second World War. Subsequent
management emphasized on raising long and short rotation plantation on a large scale,
and abandoned the natural regeneration plots. Delays in revision/reformulation of
management plans (working plans) including plantations, and the need for ensuring
timber requirements of led to development of "adhoc" treatment. Yield regulation by area
was changed to one of predetermined volume.
This lead to larger felling areas and consequently a larger plantation program. Better and
higher yields motivated for the large scale conversion of Hill forests into plantations. The
sustained principles of forest management were not applied in practice and adequate
information to establish annual allowable cuts does not exist (FMP, 1992).
As regards Bamboo, the contribution of public forests is estimated at about 194 million
culms against 528 million culms from village forests (FMP, 1992). The present system of
annual
auctions and permits does not encourage investment in infrastructure such as roads and
cable ways. As a result, part of the bamboo areas remain inaccessible and the
prescribed cutting rules are not consistently followed, resulting in high waste and
unnecessary damage(FAO, 2000).
Most of the Sal forests originally belonged to feudal landlords and were not under
scientific management for a very long period. The forest department gradually assumed
their responsibility for management after nationalization in 1950s. The silvicultural
The Sundarban forests were declared as a Reserved Forest in 1879, and are managed
under a selection system. Early management consisted of a selection system with fixed
exploitable girth limit for the main species and a felling cycle of 40 years. Subsequent
working plans reduced the felling cycle to 20 years. The forest management intensity
was increased after construction Khulna Newsprint Mills Ltd (KNM) in 1959, and other
Khulna-based forest industries. All age gradations of trees are not available due to
improper marking and inadequate regeneration (FMP, 1992). Ecological changes taking
place in the Sundarbans are evident, apparently from extensive
changes in river flow and increased salt content. Besides Golpatta palm leaves
exploitation takes place on the basis of collection permits. Scarcity of information and
inability to enforce regulations are the two main problems in sustainable management of
Sunderbans (FAO, 2000).
The USF do not have any forest management plans. The district administration controls
the large amount of the 700,000 ha of hill land called Unclassed State Forests (USF).
Most of this land is bare, lacks forest cover, and losing topsoil. Its capacity to sustain
shifting cultivation, the past major land use, is declining. Social, political, tenurial, and
institutional constraints limit the development of such USF lands. Chittagong Hill Tracts
contains one of the largest and most concentrated blocks of these unproductive lands in
the country that have remained undeveloped for decades. Most of these lands are now
only suited for raising forests species. Marketing problem restricts use of some of these
lands for horticulture. Ambiguity about land tenure checks new investment in these lands
(FAO, 2000).
Management plans for the PAs have been developed for the first time in 1997 (Rosario,
1997 a, 1997b). Five National Parks, seven Wildlife Sanctuaries and one Game Reserve
are within public forests in Bangladesh and the Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation
(Amendment) Act of 1974 provides legal protection to these areas. These 13 PAs
occupy an area of 164,660 ha, or about 1.11 percent of the land area of Bangladesh.
This is well below the target of 5 percent established by the Wildlife Task force in 1986
There is no forest management planning for the village forest, which are mostly
homestead forests and extend over 270,000 ha in about 10 million households covering
over 85,650 villages.
The private forests annually supply about 5 million M3 of wood (about one million m3 of
logs and about four million m3 of fuelwood) and 0.53 million Air Dry MT of bamboo. The
homestead forests are the most important source of wood, bamboo and other non wood
forest products in the villages. A national survey (FMP 1992) shows that the average
growing stock has remained almost unchanged since 1980-81 but has much higher
proportion of smaller diameter trees. There are no formal plan or management
guidelines for these forests (FAO, 2000).
Bangladesh government has direct interference in forest based industries sector. For
example, Bangladesh Forest Industries Development Corporation (BFIDC), a
government undertaking, began in 1960, as a state owned company, for developing
timber-based activities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. It is now a semi-autonomous
agency under the MOEF, owning 16 enterprises (two timber extraction units, 11 wood-
based industrial units, and three board manufacturing plants). Many are inoperable or
not profitable. BFIDC employs some 4,000 persons. It also has 11,700 hectares of
rubber plantations spread over 12 estates of which over 5,000 hectares are in
production.
Mainly due to raw material shortage and operating inefficiency the BFIDC is
incurring losses. Government is considering to resolve this problem through
public enterprise reforms encompassing disinvestment, financial restructuring,
institutional improvement, and better pricing (FAO, 2000).
Indigenous people live within and around large expanses of territories in Asia, which are
formally classified as forests. However, their role in using, managing and protecting
forests are seldom looked at in a positive light. Despite provisions supporting the
informed participation of s in ADB-funded interventions (s & Forestry Policies), s have
not been consulted, substantively, or at all, before and during the formulation and
implementation of policies and programs in the forestry sector in many countries of the
Asia-Pacific region, and especially in areas that are categorized as forests. In many
instances, s’ Development Plans – as recommended in the ADB Policy on s – have not
been formulated by the concerned MDC (developing member country) governments.
The aforesaid interventions have led to many adverse consequences for Indigenous
people including (i) dislocation; (ii) deprivation from means of livelihood; (iii) human
A prime factor behind the disadvantaged situation of many s in Asia is the continuing
denial of their traditional land and resource rights in various countries of Asia. A huge
percentage of land is administered by state Forest Departments across Asia such as in
Bangladesh (9%), India (22%), Indonesia (74%), Thailand (40%) and Philippines (55%).
Although some rights of s are partially recognised in various laws, the same laws also
sometimes limit many such rights, at least in the manner they are interpreted by
governments. As in the case of indigenous people, gender issues too have been little
more than cosmetic consideration both by the ADB and by DMCs.
The nations’ forest resources and the authority over them have been centralized under
the government, superseding traditional rights and communal authority (Mustafa, 2002).
Bangladesh Constitution retained ‘The Existing Laws’, some of which recognized the
existence of indigenous people and their rights over their lands and natural resources.
Yet the Government of Bangladesh denies existence of any indigenous people in the
country. With such denial, the government can hardly pass any positive policy for
protection of IP rights in the country. This is especially true in this nation where majority
of the rulers are extreme nationalist and fundamentalist with hostile attitude towards the
indigenous people. Naturally, provisions of existing laws have not been executed in the
interest of indigenous people. As a consequence, IP rights on land and natural
resources have been grossly violated threatening the existence of their ethnic identity.
This as well extremely affected their environment and biodiversity.
In 1995, “The National Forestry Policy of 1994” was announced by the government, the
purpose of which is for forestation of the denuded hills in the district/mouza forests,
being inhabited by Indigenous people. It also aims at increasing the coverage of
protected areas to 10% of the Reserve Forest land by 2010. In 2000 ‘The Forest
(Amendment) Act of 2000’ was passed in the parliament for forestation in CHT and
some other parts of the country with the participation of local communities. Eventually,
the Government drafted ‘The Social Forestry Rule of 2001’. All the local government
institutions with IP representation and local people of CHT and indigenous people of
other parts of the country rejected it because of non-recognition of IP rights and
improper processes. (Chakma, n.d.)
The Government of Bangladesh framed the first Forest Policy in 1979 with an aim to
implement a 20-year master plan. Asian Development Bank and United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) funded the plan. In fact, it was purposely made for the
deforestation of CHT to combat the armed insurgency of indigenous people/Jumma
people. The Forest Industrial Development Corporation and the Forest Department,
initiated massive logging and extraction of bamboos, canes and creepers from the
reserve forests. Simultaneously, the Forest Department in collaboration with the Army
authority deployed soldiers to combat the armed insurgency through the implementation
of the deforestation program, in the guise of forestation program in other forests of the
region.
Every year, the army soldiers burned down forests of the hills and mountains in the
region. It was accelerated with the settlement of half a million political migrants/non-
indigenous people from other districts to CHT between 1979 and 1985 under the
government plan to outnumber the indigenous people. The non-indigenous people
During the British period until 1947, Modhupur Hills and adjacent areas of Netrakona
District (the then Mymensingh District) has been safe home for the Garo and the Koch
people, indigenous people in the area. A part of the Modhupur hills was declared
Reserved Forest for the production of industrial wood. The other forests and lands were
under the management of the Garo people and the Koch people. The indigenous people
had been living in the Modhupur Forest for centuries as evidenced by individual legal
land titles.
In 1962, the government established an agricultural farm over 500 acres of lands in
Modhupur forests where non-indigenous people from other parts of Bangladesh were
gradually resettled. In the same time, the government established a national park over
40 acres of land in the same Forests and resettled non-indigenous people there. In
1982, the government declared the other part of the Modhupur forest as national park
without any consultation and consent from the indigenous people. As a result, the Garo
and the Koch people did not only lost their territory but also have become absolute
minority in their own homeland. The project proposal includes among others the
following; 10 picnic spots; 3 cottages; 9 lakes; 6 roads; 2 watch towers; 6 rest houses;
several water tanks; 61,000 running feet boundary wall; and 6 staff quarters for the park.
The estimated expenditure for the project is Taka 973 million.
The national park covers 20,244.23 acres of land of Modhupur Forest areas,
continuation of which means lost of the villages, homes, and cultivated lands of the
Garo people. The government has presently declared 3,000 acres of land as Core area
and boundary wall is being made around it.
Once this project is implemented, the Garo people will be evicted from their paradise in
Modhupur forest areas. Their land rights whether acquired through customs or by virtue
of legal documents will be denied by Forest Department. In year 2000, the Forest
Department announced the establishment of a new national eco-park over the Modhupur
forests inhabited by Garo, which was implemented in 2003. It modified the name from
eco-park to Modhupur National park Development Project. The Garo people protested
against the project and sent representation to the government
On January 3, 2004 thousands of Garo people held a peaceful rally against the eco-park
project. Reacting violently, the police along with the Forest Department armed guard
Reacting to this incident and protests, the Minister of Environment and Forest stated in a
press conference on 26 January 2004 that the Garo people were unruly mob and the
Park project would be implemented. More than 20 false cases were filed against the s in
Modhupur forest. Policemen arrested the leaders and placed them in jail for several days
(Chakma, n.d.).
Jyotirindra Bodhipriya Larma, President of the PCJSS, and Chairman of the Bangladesh
s Forum, visited the area and held public meetings in 2003. He took up the matter with
the government.8 The government postponed the project. However, there is no
assurance that the government will not continue it (Chakma, n.d.).
More than 300,000 Bengalis co-exist with one million in the three CHT hill districts of
Rangamati, Khagrachhari and Bandarban that cover a total area of 5,093 square miles.
Reingkhyong Reserve Forests is one of the six forest reserves in CHT. It is situated in
the Belaichari and Kaptai Upazillas of Rangamati Hill District. In 1960 a big dam to
produce hydro-electricity, affecting 256 sq. miles area was constructed over Karnaphuli,
the biggest river of CHT located in Kaptai. The main granary of the region with 40,000
acres of cultivated flat lands was inundated in the Kaptai Lake. 100, 000 indigenous
people were affected, and never received compensation nor rehabilitation. A number of
families of them took shelter in the adjacent areas of the Reserve Forests. The Forest
Department engaged them in growing trees and bamboos. Later many other families of
Forestry Research in Bangladesh has been started during the British rule (1757-1947)
from prior to 1906. The research was confined mainly to botany, wood anatomy and
utilization of timber and minor forest produced. First scientific forest research began in
1878 with the start of forest school of Dehradun. During post-partition period (1947-
1971), Pakistan started its forest college and research institute.
In Bangladesh period (1971- present), initial forest research was started with the
research of forest management. Some initial activities were like nursery techniques, pilot
plantation and cash crops. In this phase many research regarding the forest products
had also been conducted. Current phase of forest research had been started from 1990.
The Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI) is chiefly responsible for all forestry
research in Bangladesh. But these researches are basically conducted on either forest
product utilization technologies or forest product utilization information.
Apart from BFRI, other disciplines like, botany, agriculture, zoology and geography are
also doing the forest research. But these researches are not purely forest researches;
they are partly a source of basic information (Lahiry, 2002)
Now a days, social sciences like economics, anthropology and sociology are also
conducting researches regarding forestry. This is important to note that, these types of
research have opened new possibilities and dimensions of forest research in
Bangladesh.
Haque (2000) says that the main causes of depletion of hill forest are due to shifting
cultivation and over-exploitation. Clear felling followed by artificial regeneration system
has been practised in the hill forest for long period. Ironically the fact is that these areas
were not replanted with proper management and silvicultural practices. He also shows
that the main reasons of the depletion of mangrove forest are due to the corruption and
negligence of the some Forest Department staffs, illegal traders, local influential leaders,
some government officials concerned, section of police-man, section of local journalists
etc. Often the local poor people are used to destroy the forests taking tolls (many times
higher than government rate) from them illegally. Other reasons are improper and poor
management, over exploitation and also ecological reasons to some extent.
Gain (1993) elucidates how various plantation programs undertaken by the governments
and sponsored by donor agencies deforested and degraded forests of Bangladesh.
Rubber plantation, if practiced as monoculture, is ecologically sensitive. Biological
diversity in the Sal forest is unprecedented and unique. Such biological resources have
been severely damaged with deliberate and accelerated rate of deforestation for
commercial plantation. Since 1985 when rubber plantation began in this area sal
coppices which could have regenerated natural forest were clear cut in many places. Not
only coppices were cut, the stumps were uprooted to be sent to brickfields. It thus
destroyed the possibility of regeneration of sal forest totally. Alienation of the forest
peoole and local people from the rubber plantation and destruction of natural patches
has jeopardized the intimate relation of the forest people with forest. The local people
have been very much antagonized through rubber plantation n the Madhupur forest.
According to Haque (2000), the construction of the Farraka barrage over the upstream of
the Ganges by India in West Bengal reduced the water flow significantly during dry
season which increased the salt intrusion from the sea water and
disturbed/changed/altered/modified the ecosystem.
In his research, Ahmed (2002) shows that conversion of natural forest into plantations is
an important cause of deforestation and forest degradation in Dhaka, Sylhet, Bandarban,
Rajshahi, Mymensingh and Tangail district.
3.3 Encroachment
Iftekhar and Hoque (2003) say that encroachment is an important cause of deforestation
and forest degradation in Bangladesh. The forests are depleting mainly due to illegal
logging and conversion to non-forestry uses. In their writing, limited land availability and
unemployment have been identified as the major proximate causes of encroachment
and, They also predicts that if no measures are adopted within next three decades the
existing natural forests might be encroached.
Haque (2000) shows that the illicit felling is done by the poor villagers, who usually work
for the illegal traders, local influential leaders and forest land encroachers. The main
cause of depletion of sal forest was due to the land clearance for agriculture and forest
land encroachment. The almost half of the total Sal forest has been already depleted.
The remaining patches are in poor condition, degraded and in the process of depletion.
Ahmed (2002) also finds that illicit felling, theft and encroachment are very significant
causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Dhaka, Sylhet, Bandarban, Rajshahi,
Mymensingh and Tangail district.
Gain (2003) finds heavy rainfall during rainy season is one of the main causes of severe
erosion of topsoil and siltation in the Kaptai Lake. This leads to forest degradation in the
hill forest areas of Bangladesh.
Ahmed (2002) identifies ruthless profit-making as the main cause for the depletion of
forest resources. Due to unethical profit motive, forest cover, timber, fuel wood, forest
food, medicinal plants and wildlife are decreasing gradually. He also showed that some
specific plant species like blackberry, tamarind, wild apple, sal, gojari, gorjon, boyar etc
are becoming rare day by day.
4.1 Industrialization
Much of the degradation is reportedly caused by industrialization in the Sal forest areas.
Vast land area has taken by industries. Land area is decreasing due to industrialization
as it requires vast area of land. Forest land is being cleared for industrial use. Local
people are selling their land to outsiders who are taking over. Thus land becomes even
more valuable and its demand causes deforestation. Infrastructural development for
industrialization like building of industrial plants is another reason for creating demand
for land, which leads to destroy forest cover. This phenomenon is absent in Hill and
Mangrove forest areas. Thus industrialization has caused deforestation and forest
degradation in Bangladesh through encroachment of land, land grabbing and demand
for land, displace of .
Displacement of in sal and hill forest areas is a significant event which has been
occurred for the encroachment and land grabbing also.
Irrational profit making has caused deforestation and forest degradation in Bangladesh
through encouraging the illegal logging, introducing cash crop, exotic varieties which
were unfriendly to the forest ecology and brokerage system.
Illegal logging
Illegal logging is responsible for deforestation to a significant extent in Sal forest areas.
In Hill forest areas, Dr. M. Al-Amin, Professor and Director, Institute of Forestry and
Environmental Science, University of Chittagong said that there are certain groups doing
business of timber in certain forests.
Cash crop:
Plantation of cash crops like rubber, banana, arum etc. is held responsible for
deforestation in Sal forest areas to a large extent. Plantation is also destroying natural
forest in these areas through govt.’s Social Forestry Programme where usually fast
growing alien species which give a quick harvest and good profit in a short term
investment are planned clearing off Sal forest. Thus macro economic policy destroys
forest. Similarly, in Hill forest areas pine apple is cultivated, teak is an alien species that
Influence of brokers:
In Sal forest areas there are people who are brokers. They influence others to cut down
trees, matured or not, for their own business. Such cause in absent in other two forest
areas.
4.3 Militarization
Militarization:
This phenomenon is present in Chittagong hill forest areas. The militarization in the hill
tracts is also responsible for the deforestation of those areas. Participants from FGDs
and interviews reported that, huge amount of forest had been cleared by the military for
making of their camp, training centre and infrastructural development. It is found from
the filed that, firing range which is built by the military is another reason for deforestation.
Bengali expansionism:
Bengali expansionism is another cause of deforestation in the study areas. This problem
is more acute for the Chittagong hill forest areas. It is notified that in many cases,
Bengali settlers are responsible for the deforestation and forest degradation. They do not
know how to cultivate crop in the hill areas and they follow the same technique of
cultivation which they are used to do in the plain lands. As a result, soil of the hills
become slack and this is how tress can not grow properly in those areas. Not only that,
some informed that, as the Bengali settlers do not know how to “jhum”, so most of the
times they burn many important trees.
There is also another dreadful side of Bengali expansionism in the hill forest areas. The
forest department dereserved many forest areas to meet the need of the land for the
Bengalis. In doing so, level of deforestation becomes high in the particular area.
4.4 Consumerism
Illegal logging
Demand for timber is another cause for deforestation. This demand leads to the illegal
logging and cutting down of immature trees in the forest areas.
Consumerism
Consumerism is found to be responsible for deforestation in both Sal and Hill forest
areas. Demand for timber has reportedly been increased especially for furniture making
and ornamentation of households. Heavy and decorative wooden furniture, and doors
and windows of houses are symbol of status and class. A significant change in life style
has also been reported. Consumption of timber and other forest products has increased
to a large extent, hence the demand for timber. Essentially this is a part of the global
capitalism where the demand for consumer goods is ever increasing. It is reported in the
interviews that even people who have limited income wants to have wooden furniture
like they see on television or in the catalog of big furniture companies. Govt. policy is
also responsible in this regard. Bangladesh Forest Development Industries Corporation
clears off a large portion of forest every year have steady supply of raw materials for
forest based industries.
Corruption of Administration/State:
Some respondents from Sal forest areas notified that they experienced the corruption of
the administration there. It is reported that, most of the DCs and ADCs have forest areas
in their name illegally.
False cases:
It is found that, poor people of the study areas (Sal and Ctg) are being convicted by the
forest officials or the local elites for the thievery of the trees. There are lots of false cases
regarding the thievery. It is informed by one of the respondents of Rangamati that,
approximately there are around 2000 forest cases there and most of them are against
the poor people who are not responsible for the thievery. People then sometimes are
being impelled to pilfer the trees for the maintenance of the cases.
Insufficient law:
Forest laws are still not updated. It is evident from the field that, many participants think
that forest laws are obsolete. They also informed that, the proper land demarcation is
absent in the study areas. That is why, they become confused which forest is state forest
and which is not. They have vague perception about the forest areas. As a result,
sometimes, some people cut down trees and then victimize by the forest department,
because if the forest department has any intention to charge false case against local
people they may say that, the trees which have been cut down, were from the state
forest areas.
Such discriminations can also be found in Sal forest areas where ’s right over land are
not recognized. Social Forestry Programme of the government was seriously criticized
by the participants from ethnic communities in the community workshop in Madhupur,
Inappropriate Jhumming:
This is one of the most frequently, purposefully, and politically referred causes of
deforestation in Hill forest areas. are almost always held responsible destroying forest
as they jhum (which is their own process of cultivation). It is argued that the slash and
burn required for jhumming prevents the trees to grow again on hills where jhum in done.
One of the respondents from Rangamati, says that jhumming done by the is does not
do harm to forests; rather the jhumming adapted by the settlers which they do with
spade makes the soil loose. This eventually cause land slide and soil erosion.
Growing population, poverty and unemployment are also accountable for the quick
depletion of forest resources in the three forest areas of Bangladesh.
Population Growth
According to the population census in 2001, there are about 6.85 million households in
the coastal zone which represent about 28 percent of total population of Bangladesh.
Mangrove area is believed to more productive area of coastal region and for this reason
density of population is high here.
It is revealed from the literature that about half a million people are directly depending on
the Sundarbans mangrove forest for their livelihood and more than a million of people
are indirectly depending on the Sundarbans mangrove forest for various purposes. Most
of the participants of FGD opined that in the last two decades the population of the forest
adjacent areas has been doubled and majority of the population of that area depend on
forest for their livelihood as fishing, honey collection, fuel wood collection.
In sal and hill forest areas, some respondents reported that, population growth is one of
the causes of deforestation.
Two main development interventions are very significant to understand the underlying
causes of deforestation in hill and mangrove forest of Bangladesh. One is the Karnaphuli
Hydro-electric project which is responsible for the critical impacts on the hill forest area
and other is the Farakka Barrage which is accountable for incresead salinity in
mangrove forest areas and thus creating deforestation in those areas.
Farakka Dam
The Farakka Barrage is a dam on the Ganges River located in the Indian state ofWest
Bengal, roughly 10 kilometeres (km) from the border with Bangladesh. It is completed in
1974-75. The dam was built to divert the Ganges River water into the Hooghly River
during the dry season, from January to June, in order to flush out the accumulating silt
which in the 1950s and 1960s was a problem at the major port of Kolkata on the
Hooghly River. Bangladesh and India have had many debates about how the Farakka
Barrage cuts off Bangladesh's water supply. In Bangladesh, the diversion has raised
salinity levels, contaminated fisheries, hindered navigation, and posed a threat to water
quality and public health. Farakka baraage is one of the important reason behind the
forest degradation and deforeation in Sunderban mangrove forest areas.
Figure 4.1, which gives a comparative view of deforestation in three forest areas of
Bangladesh, shows that there are few common factors in all three areas and few specific
factors related to type of forestry. In the sal forest, six factors—industrialization, profit
motive, consumerism, ineffective forest management, militarization and overpopulation,
poverty and unemployment—are found to be major underlying causes of deforestation.
All these causes are also found in the hill forest. In addition two specific factors like jhum
cultivation and development interventions are also found. No additional cause is found in
mangrove forestry, where three major factors like ineffective forest management,
overpopulation, poverty and unemployment, and development interventions are held to
be responsible for deforestation.
Increased Salinity
Water salinity in Sundarbans varies between 5 ppt in the east and 30ppt in the west
during the dry season (Siddiqi, 2001). But it is reported from the people’s perception that
salinity of water in the Sundarbans area is increasing. Motia Howlader (60) at Southkhali
who has been collecting Golpata (Nypa fruticans) for 15 years said that water of the
rivers inside Sundarbans is becoming Koda (Bitter, saline). Discharge of fresh water
from the upstream river is decreasing. Fresh water flow has been diverged upstream in
the Indian Bengal since early 1970s, where dam was built at Farakka to impound
Ganges river water. It is well reported that this resulted increase in salinity level of the
waters of the Sundarbans forest. Naturally, any change in the level of salinity affects the
standing vegetation, the distribution and productivity of the forest and the entire
ecosystem. Participants of PRA at Karamjal and Khurakhali also agreed that the salinity
of water in the Sundarbans area is increasing gradually. Mangroves grow well in low and
moderate saline zone. As salinity is increasing, the low tolerant and moderate tolerant
mangrove species cannot survive the changed condition and becoming destroyed.
According to an expert forest conservator at Karamjal, top dying disease which is
causing vast degradation of Sundari trees is also caused by high salinity.
Sedimentation
Since prehistoric times Bangladesh has been one of the areas of most active
sedimentation in the world. Denudation of the Himalayas resulted the formation of
world’s largest delta, which is still active. A huge amount of sediments is being carried
down to the sea each year by the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna river system. The
forest species is under stressed condition due to sedimentation. Mr. Abdur Rab, Deputy
Ranger, wildlife breeding center at Karamjal said that huge amount of sediments coming
from the upstream of the rivers cover pneumatophores of mangroves which hindrance
the growth and regeneration process of the mangroves. Motia Howlader (60), a Golpata
( N. fruticans) collector at Southkhali, said that new chars (islands) are forming at the
mouth of the rivers. This causes hindrance to the growth of seedlings.
It is found from the field that soil erosion has become one of the important causes of
forest degradation in sal and hill forest areas.
Oil Spills
Oil spill is another important physical cause of the deforestation and degradation in
Sundarbans. The Mongla is the second largest sea port of Bangladesh. The port is
capable of handling 30-40 shindigenous people at a time. Moreover, numerous
mechanized boats ply inside the mangrove forests for different purposes. Discharge of
crude oil from water vessels is continuously polluting river water, and ultimately, causing
forest degradation.
Due to the global warming there is a change in spatial and temporal distribution of
temperature and precipitation in Bangladesh. Mizanur Rahman (42), a boat man at
Khurakhali, Bogi, said from his own experience that temperature is increasing day by
day and frequency of cyclone has also increased within a decade. So, each and every
year, the Sundarbans is affected by cyclonic storms which cause damage to the trees of
the Sundarbans. It is revealed from the literature that about 11 percent of the strongest
cyclones of the world are originated from the Indian Ocean and they have impact on
Coast of Bangladesh.
It is found that natural calamities are the causes for forest degradation in sal and hill
forest areas.
Wild Elephants
In sal forest areas, respondents informed that, wild elephants often destroy many trees.
They identified this as an important cause of forest degradation in the sal forest areas.
Socio-Economic causes like the establishment of brick fields and stone extraction are
significantly responsible for the forest degradation in sal forest areas.
In sal forest and hill forest areas, brick field has been identified as one of the important
causes of forest degradation. It is notified by the respondents that, brick field is harmful
for the environment. Many trees can not grow properly or die for the degradation caused
by the brick fields. Many people are engaged in irrational profit-making here that is why
they are used to clear the forest and set up the brick fields. In doing this they are
clearing the forest cover as well as affecting the tender trees.
It is found that stone extraction is another reason behind the forest degradation in sal
forest areas. Many people of sal forest areas are engaged in stone extraction and doing
this, the soil has become loose. It causes soil erosion on one hand and on the other
hand sand sedimentation during flash flood. For this reason, many trees can not grow
properly.
Figure 5.1- A Comparative view of Forest Degradation in Three Forest Areas of Bangladesh
Thus it can be concluded that industrialization and militarization of the forest land have
been identified as the main causes of Bangladesh deforestation. The effective
implementation of forest laws and effective forest management are recommended as
remedial measures of deforestation and degradation.
Ahmed, I.U
2003 Forest Management: Bangladesh Perspective. Vol-11. (Dhaka)
Anon
1954 Cox’s Bazar working plan for the period from 1950-51 to 1969-70. (Dacca:East
Bengal Government Press)
1992 Forestry Master Plan. Asian Development Bank (UNDP/FAO BGD 88/025).
Government of Bangladesh.(Dhaka: Ministry of Environment and Forest)
2003 Participatory Forestry Newsletter. A quarter newsletter of forest department’s
ongoing forestry sector project. Bulletin-1.
Bangladesh, Government of
1993a Forestry Master Plan: Executive Summary. ADB. UNDP/FAO (BGD/88/025).
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1993b Statistical Pocketbook of Bangladesh. (Dhaka: Ministry of Planning, Bureau of
Statistics)
1994 Forestry Master Plan (FMP) 1994. (Dhaka: Ministry of Environment and Forest)
BCAS
1997 Reedland Afforestation Project in Sylhet Forest Division: Socio-Economic Survey
in Reedland Forest Areas, Final Report (Main Report, Volume-1). (Dhaka: Forest
Department- Government of Bangladesh)
Canonizado, J
1998 Integrated Forest Management plan for Sylhet Forest division.. (Dhaka: Forest
Department)
Chowdhury, J.A
2006 Towards Better Forest Management. (Dhaka: Oittijjhya Prokashoni)
Chowdhury, R. A. et al.
1994 “History and Importance of Sal Forests and Current Management Status.” in R. A
Chowdhury, A. A. Bhuiyan, S. M. Amin, A. K. M. Hque, S. K. Bose and M. I. M.
Das, D. K
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6, Plant taxonomy series. (Chittagong: Bangladesh Forest Research Institute)
Engels, Frederick
1839 Letters from Wuppertal. Telegraph für Deutschland. Nos. 49, 50, 51 (March)
Farooque, Mohiuddin
1997 Law and Custom on Forests in Banlgadesh: Issues and Remedies. (Dhaka:
BELA)
Gain, Philip
1993a Forest and Forest Land of Bangladesh. In: Gain, Philip eds. Bangladesh Land,
Forest and Forest People. (Dhaka: SEHD)
2003b Modhupur: A Stolen Forest, Robbed Adivasis. Dhaka Courier. 26 September.
(Dhaka)
2000 Environment facing the 21st Century. (Dhaka: SEHD)
Habibi, Hukumkhan
n.d. Environmental Problems of Afghanistan and their Solutions. (Jalalabad:
Horticulture and Forestry Department, Nangarhar University)
Haque, M. N
1995 Raising Plantations on Barren Hills. The Bangladesh Observer. (Dhaka)
Hossain. M. K
2005 Plant Diversity and the strategy of Conservation in Bangladesh.
(Chittagong: IFES, University of Chittagong)
Khattak, G. H
1979 “History of Forest Management in Bangladesh.” Pakistan Journal of Forestry 29
(3)
Lahiry A.K.
2002. The Green Earth and Her Forestry Practices and Laws: National and Global.
(Dhaka: Magnum Opus)
Nilsson, Sten.
1995 “Do we have enough forests?”. Paper presented in IUFRO World Congress on
August 7, 1995 in Tampere, Finland. Updated in IUFRO Occasional Paper No.5
(March 2001)
Prain, D
1903 “Flora of the Sundarbans.” Records of the Botanical Survey of India. Periodical
expert book agency (reprinted in 1979). (Delhi)
Rosario. E.A.
1997a The Conservation Management Plan of the Wildlife Sanctuaries in the
Sundarban Forests. (Dhaka:Mandala Agricultural Development Corporation)
Rosario. A.
1997b The Conservation Management Plan of the Protected Areas other than those in
the Sundarban Forests in Bangladesh. (Dhaka: Mandala Agricultural
Development)
Roy. M. K.
2004 Designing a Co-management Model for Protected Areas in Bangladesh.
International seminar on Protected Area Management, University of Montana,
(USA).
Sattar, M. A
Siddiqi, N.A.
2001 Mangrove forests in Bangladesh. Institute of Forestry and Environmental
Sciences, University of Chittagong. (Chittagong)
Wilson, Edward O
2002 The Future of Life. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf)
Internet Sources
Banglapedia
2008 Forest and forestry in Bangladesh
(http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/F_0158.htm)
Fiset, Nathalie
2008 Positive and Negative Consequences of Deforestation
(http://ezinearticles.com/?The-Positive-and-Negative-Consequences-of-
Deforestation&id=525336)
Kuroda, Yoichi
n. d. Addressing Underlying Causes Of Deforestation And Forest Degradation, NGOs'
Process And IGEs Initiative: An Introduction. IGES International Workshop.(
http://www.iges.or.jp/en/fc/phase1/1ws-5-kuroda.pdf)
Lanly, Jean-Paul
2003 Deforestation and Forest Degradation Factors. Original unedited version of a
paper submitted to the XII World Forestry Congress, 2003. (Québec City: World
Forestry Congress) (www.fao.org/DOCREP/ARTICLE/WFC/XII/MS12A-E.HTM)
Mustafa, M.M
University of Michigan
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2008 Deforestation
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation)
1. Stakeholder ID
2. Background Information
• Age
• Occupation
• Education
• Income (monthly)
• Marital Status
4. Where the trees are coming from? (Are the trees coming from the adjacent areas? Or
Any other place?)
5. What are the types of the trees which come to the furniture company? (Ex. sal, segun,
gamari, etc)
6. What types of trees are more important for the furniture industry? (Ex. chair, table,
sofa, bed, etc)
7. Which types of trees are suitable for specific furniture, like chair, bed, bookshelf, table
and others?
10. Is there any alternative of wood existing in the furniture market? (Ex, synthetic wood,
plywood etc)
1. Stakeholder ID
2. Background Information
• Age
• Occupation
• Education
• Income (monthly)
• Marital Status
7. Does he buy timber from the Bit officer or any official of the FD?
1. Stakeholder ID
2. Background Information
• Age
• Occupation
• Education
• Income (monthly)
• Marital Status
3. Designation
11. Is there any political pressure existing regarding the cutting of the trees?
12. Does he know about any development project of GO/NGO/INGO which has fostered
the deforestation in this area?
14. Which types of trees are suitable for specific furniture, like chair, bed, bookshelf,
table and others?
1. Stakeholder ID
2. Background Information
• Age
• Sex
• Occupation
• Education
• Income (monthly)
• Marital Status
7. Which types of trees are suitable for specific furniture, like chair, bed, bookshelf, table
and others?
8. Does he/she think that wooden furniture could be the gift for wedding or any other
occasion?
1. Stakeholder ID
2. Background Information
• Age
• Occupation
• Education
• Income (monthly)
• Marital Status
An Act to consolidate the law relating to forests, the transit of forest produce and
the duty leviable on timber and other forest-produce.
CHAPTER II
OF RESERVED FORESTS
Explanation. - For the purpose of clause (b), it shall be sufficient to describe the limits of
the forest by roads, rivers, ridges or other well known or readily intelligible boundaries.
(2) The officer appointed under clause"(c) 'of sub-section (J) shall ordinarily be a person
not holding any forest-office except that of Forest Settlement-officer. (3) Nothing in this
section shall prevent the [Government] from appointing any number of officers not
exceeding three, not more than one of when shall be a person holding any forest-office
except as aforesaid, to perform the duties of a Forest Settlement- officer under this Act.
8. Powers of Forest Settlement-officer. -For the purpose of such inquiry, the Forest
Settlement-officer may exercise the following powers, that is to say: - (a) power to enter,
by himself or any officer authorized by him for the purpose, upon any land and to survey,
demarcate and make a map of the same; and (b) the powers of a Civil Court in the trial
of suit.
9. Extinction of rights. -Rights in respect of which no claim has been preferred under
section 6, and of the existence of which no knowledge has been acquired by inquiry
under section 7, shall be extinguished, unless, before the notification under section 20 is
published, the person claiming them satisfies the Forest Settlement-officer that he had
sufficient cause for not preferring such claim within the period fixed under section 6.
10. Treatment of claims relating to practice of shifting cultivation.- (1) In the case of
a claim relating to the practice of shifting cultivation, the Forest Settlement-officer shall
record a statement setting forth the particulars of the claim and of any local rule or order
under which the practice is allowed or regulated, and submit the statement to the I
[Government], together with his opinion as to whether the practice should be permitted
or prohibited wholly or in part. (2) If such claim is admitted in whole or in part, the Forest
Settlementofficer shall either-
(i) exclude such land from the limits of the proposed forest; or, (ii) come to an agreement
with the owner thereof for the surrender of his rights; or (iii) proceed to acquire such land
in the manner provided by the I [Acquisition and Requisition or Immovable Property
Ordinance, 1982 (II of 1982). (3) For the purpose of so acquiring such land- (a) the
Forest Settlement-officer shall be deemed to be a Collector proceeding under the
2[Acquisition and Requisition of Immovable Property Ordinance 1982 (II of 1982). (b)
the claimant shall be deemed to be a person interested and appearing before him in
pursuance of a notice given under section 9 of that Act; (c) the provisions of the
preceding sections of that Act shall be deemed to have been complied with; and (d) the
Collector, with the consent of the claimant, or the Court, with the consent of both parties,
may award compensation in land, or partly in land and partly in money [, or wholly in
money).
14. Record where he admits claim. -If the Forest Settlement-officer admits in whole or
in part any claim under section 12, he shall also record the extent to which the claim is
so admitted, specifying the number and description of the cattle which the claimant is
from time to time entitled to graze in the forest, the season during which such pasture is
permitted, the quantity of timber and other forest-produce which he is from time to time
authorized to take or receive, and such other particulars as the case may require. He
shall also record whether timber or other forest-produce obtained by the exercise of the
rights claimed may be sold or bartered.
15. Exercise of rights admitted. - (J) After making such record the Forest Settlement-
officer shall, to the best of his ability, and having due regard to the maintenance of the
reserved forest in respect of which the claim is made, pass such orders as will ensure
the continued exercise of rights so admitted. (2) For this purpose the Forest Settlement-
officer may- (a) set out some other forest-tract of sufficient extent and in a locality
reasonably convenient, for the purposes of such claimants, and record an order
conferring upon them a right of pasture or to forest-produce (as the case may be) to the
extent so admitted; or 15 (b) so alter the limits of the proposed forest as to exclude
forest-land of sufficient extent, and a locality reasonably convenient, for the purposes of
the claimants; or (c) record an order, continuing to such claimants a right of pasture or to
forest-produce, as the case may be, to the extent so admitted, at such seasons, within
such portions of the proposed forest, and under such rules, as may be made in this
behalf by the 1 [Government].
16. Commutation of rights. - In case the Forest Settlement- officer finds it impossible,
having due regard to the maintenance of the reserved forest, to make such settlement
under section 15 as shall ensure the continued exercise of the said rights to the extent
so admitted, he shall, subject to such rules as the [Government] may make in this behalf,
commute such rights, by the payment to such persons of a sum of money in lieu thereof,
or by the grant of land, or in such other manner as he thinks fit.
16A. Time limit for resolution of claims. - (1) Within 12 months after the period fixed
under section 6 has elapsed, or within 12 months after the enactment of this section,
whichever is later, the Forest Settlement Officer shall do one of the following: - (i)
dispose of all claims made under sections 6 and 9; or (ii) obtain an extension of this 12
months deadline under sub-section (2). (2) Upon application of a Forest Settlement
Officer, the Deputy Commissioner may grant a single 2 months extension of the deadline
in sub-section (1), making the deadline 14 months, Commissioner may grant additional 4
months extensions.]
18. Appeal under section 17. -[(2) (a) An appeal shall be heard by the Divisional
Commissioner in the manner prescribed for the time being for the, hearing of appeals in
matters relating to land-development tax and the appeal shall be disposed of within 6
months from the date of presenting it under section 17. (b) The Divisional Commissioner
shall report to the Government the particulars of the cases which could not be disposed
of by him within the time prescribed in clause (a), whereupon the Government may
extend time as deemed necessary.] (3) The order passed on the appeal by the
Divisional Commissioner shall, subject only to revision by the Government, be final].
19. Pleaders. -The 4[Government], or any person who has made a claim under this Act,
may appoint any person to appear, plead and act on its or his behalf before the Forest
Settlementofficer, or '[the Divisional Commissioner] in the course of any inquiry or appeal
under this Act.
20. Notification declaring forest reserved. - (1) When the following events have
occurred, namely: - (a) the period fixed under section 6 for preferring claims has elapsed
and all claims, if any, made under that section or section 9 have been disposed of by the
Forest Settlement- officer; (b) It any Such claims have been made, the period limited by
section 17 for appealing from the orders passed on such claims has elapsed, and all
appeals (if any) presented within such period have been disposed of by 2[the Divisional
Commissioner]; and (c) all lands (if any) to be included in the proposed forest, which the
Forest Settlement-officer has, under section 11, elected to acquire under the
3[Acquisition and Requisition of Immovable Property Ordinance, 1982 (II of 1982), have
become vested in the Government under section 11 of that Ordinance], the
4[Government] shall publish a notification in the 5[official Gazette], specifying definitely,
according to boundary-marks erected or otherwise, the limits of the forest which is to be
reserved, and declaring the same to be reserved from a date fixed by the notification. (2)
From the date so fixed such forest shall be deemed to be a reserved forest.
25. Power to stop ways and water-courses in reserved forests. –The Forest-officer
may, with the previous sanction of the [Government] or of any officer duly authorised by
it in this behalf, stop ….. public or private way or water-course in a reserved forest,
provided that a substitute for the way or water- course so stopped, which the 3
[Government] deems to be reasonably convenient already exits, or has been provided or
constructed by the Forest-officer in lieu thereof.
26. Acts prohibited in such forests. - (1) Any person who, in a reserved forest- (a)
kindles, keeps or carries any fire except at such seasons as the Forest- Officer may
notify in this behalf; (b) trespasses or pastures cattle, or permits cattle to trespass; (c)
causes any damage by negligence in felling any tree or cutting or dragging any timber;
(d) quarries stone, burns lime or charcoal, or collects, subjects to any manufacturing
process, or removes any forest produce other than timber; or who enters a reserved
forest with firearms without prior permission from the Divisional Forest Officer
concerned, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six
months and shall also be liable to fine which may extend to two thousand taka, in
addition to such compensation for damage done to the forest as the convicting Court
may direct to be paid.
(1 A) Any person who-- (a) makes any fresh clearing prohibited by section 5 ; or (b)
removes any timber from a reserved forest; or (c) sets fire to a reserved forest, or, in
contravention of any rules made by the Government in this behalf, kindles any fire, or
leaves any fire burning, in such manner as to endanger such a forest; or who, in a
reserved forest (d) fells, girdles, lops, taps or burns any tree or strindigenous people off
the bark or
leaves from, or otherwise damages the same; (e) clears or breaks up any land for
cultivation or any other purpose [or cultivates or attempts to cultivate any land in any
other manner] ; (f) in contravention of any rules made in this behalf by the Government,
hunts, shoots, fishes, poisons water or sets traps or snares; or (g) establishes saw-pits
or saw-benches or converts trees into timber without lawful authority, shall be punishable
with imprisonment for a term which may extend to five years and shall not be less than
six months, and shall also be liable to fine which may extend to fifty thousand taka and
shall not be less than five thousand taka, in addition to such compensation for damage
done to the forest as the convicting Court may direct to be paid.] (2) Nothing in this
section shall be deemed to prohibit- (a) any act done by permission in writing of the
Forest- officer, or under any rule made by the I [Government] ; or (b) the exercise of any
27. Power to declare forest no longer reserved. - (1) The [Government] may, by
notification in the 6[official Gazette], direct that, from a date fixed by such notification,
any forest or any portion thereof reserved under this Act shall cease to be a reserved
forest. (2) From the date so fixed, such forest or portion shall cease to be reserved; but
the rights (if any) which have been extinguished therein shall not revive in consequence
of such cessation.
CHAPTER V
OF THE CONTROL OVER FORESTS AND LAND NOT BEING
THE PROPERTY OF GOVERNMENT
35. [Protection of forests for special purposes] Repealed by the Private Forest
Ordinance. /959 (E.P. Ord. No. XXXIV of /959), s.63
37. [Expropriation of forests in certain cases] Repealed by the Private Forest Ordinance.
/959 (E.P. Ord. No. XXXIV of /959), s.63
38B. Notice of forest management activities. - (1) The Government may make rules
for the purpose of issuing notice to owners or occupiers of neighboring lands at least 30
days before undertaking specified forest management activities that may pose a threat
of harm to the environment or private or Government property, or that the Government
may wish to track for statistical purposes. (2) Within 20 days after receiving notice of a
proposed activity under this section, upon finding that the proposed activity is likely to
cause unreasonable damage to the environment or private or Government property, the
Government may issue a written order to the owner or occupier of a land to alter or
refrain from the proposed activity to prevent or minimise such damage.
38C. Restricted activities. - (1) The Government may make rules to prohibit, restrict or
require a permit for land clearing, use of pesticides, harvest on steep slopes, or other
38D. Abatement of forest nuisances. - (1) Upon a finding that conditions on a land
pose a risk of disease, insect outbreak, fire or other harm to nearby renewable natural
resources, the Government may issue a written order to the owner or occupier of the
land to abate such a nuisance within 30 days, or sooner as may be specified in the
notice, if the protection of renewable natural resources demands. (2) To be effective, an
order under sub-section (1) must be delivered personally to the owner or occupier of the
land c;>r sent to him by registered post with acknowledgement receipt due, or if the
address of the person is unknown, affixed conspicuously at least two locations on the
property. (3) If the owner or occupier fails to comply with an order under this section, the
Government may enter the land, remove the nuisance and realise compensation as a
public demand.]
CHAPTER VI
OF THE DUTY ON TIMBER AND OTHER FOREST-PRODUCE
39. Power to impose duty on timber and other forest- produce.- (1) The
[Government] may levy a duty in such manner, at such places and at such rates as it
may declare by notification in the [official Gazette] on all timber or other forest- produce -
(a) which is produced in J[Bangladesh], and in respect of which I [ the Government] has
any right; (b) which is brought from any place outside 3[Bangladesh] [or is transported
from or to any place within 3[Bangladesh] : 3 (2) In every case in which such duty is
directed to levied ad valorem, the I [Government] may fix by like notification the value on
which such duty shall be assessed.
40. Limit not to apply to purchase money or royalty. - Nothing in this Chapter shall
be deemed to limit the amount, if any, chargeable as purchase-money or royalty or any
timber or other forest-produce, although the same is levied on such timber or produce
while in transit, in the same manner as duty is levied.