Climate Induced Drought Vulnerability in

Bangladesh: An Investigation with Meta-Analysis

Dissertation submitted to the Department of Geography and Environment under

the Faculty of Social Science, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka, in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in
Geography and Environment.

Submitted by:
Md. Fuad Salam
Exam Roll No. 170757
Registration No. 44338
Session: 2016 - 2017

Department of Geography and Environment,

Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka-1342

August,2022
 DEDICATION

This report is dedicated to the drought-affected people of Northwestern part of

Bangladesh who died or suffered for this natural calamity.

I
 CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

This is to certify that the research report titled “Climate Induced Drought
Vulnerability in Bangladesh: An Investigation with Meta-Analysis” has been
submitted by Md. Fuad Salam, bearing Exam Roll no. 170757 (Session: 2016 -
2017), in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of
Science under the Department of Geography and Environment, Faculty of Social
Science, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka-1342.

I further certify that this research report has been carried out my supervision and
I have found this work satisfactory. This report is an authentic and bonafide work
of a student.

--------------------------------------
Professor Dr M Manzurul Hassan
Research Supervisor
Department of Geography and Environment
Jahangirnagar University
Savar, Dhaka 1342

II
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

In the first place, I would like to express my gratitude to Allah for enabling me
to successfully finish my report.

I owe my sincere and deepest gratitude to my supervisor Professor Dr M

Manzurul Hassan, Department of Geography and Environment, Jahangirnagar
University, Savar, Dhaka; whose constant inspiration, proper guidance, devoted
supervision, moral support, honest suggestions and constructive criticism have
directed to me towards the completion of this dissertation.

Finally, I extend my indebtedness to my honorable parents for their

unconditioned love, affection and invaluable guidance throughout my life. I
would like to thank my family specially my mother for their continuous support
and encouragement throughout my studies.

Last but not least, I extend my gratitude to my respectable parents for their
unwavering support, love, and vital counsel throughout my life.

Md. Fuad Salam

III
 Abstract

Drought, One of the main environmental risks that is the outcome of regional climatic

variability. This study focuses on the biophysical, environmental, agricultural and health

concerns in relation to the frequency of drought in Bangladesh. I have read almost 30

literatures and find out the causes, effects, adaptive strategies and records of past drought in

Bangladesh as well as throughout the world which I have presented in this report. Through

these literature review, I have also identify literature gap on drought and thus give an idea of

possible topics of further research in this regard. For literure review I have take the help of

various j ournals, articles, reports, newspaers, etc to fulfill the aim.

IV
 CONTENT
Dedication I
Certificate of II
Approval
Acknowledgment III
Abstract IV
CONTENT V
List of Acronyms VII
List of Bangla Crop VIII
Names
List of Table IX
List of Figure X
Chapter - ONE INTRODUCTION 01
1.1. Background of the Study 02
1.2. Aim 03
1.3. Objectives 03
1.4. Structural Framework 05
Chapter - TWO DATA and METHODOLOGY 06
2.1. Data Sources 07
2.2. List of literature review 08
2.3. Percentage of methods used in the reviewed 09
literatures
2.4. Methodology 10
2.5. Study Area 12
Chapter - THREE HISTORICAL RECORDS of DROUGHT 13
3.1. General Concepts about Drought 14
3.2. History of Drought in World 18
3.3. History of Drought in Bangladesh 24
CAUSES of DROUGHT VULNERABILITY in 28
Chapter - FOUR
BANGLADESH
4.1. Main Causes of Drought Vulnerability in 29
Bangladesh
4.2. Temperature Change 29

V
 4.3. Deforestation and Hydrological Cycle 30
4.4. Inadequate Precipitation 30
4.5. Declining in Groundwater Aquifers 31
4.6. Farakka Bridge 32
4.7. Map of Meteorological Station in Bangladesh 32

Chapter - FIVE IMPACT of DROUGHT in BANGLADESH 33

5.1. In Terms of Agriculture 34

5.2. Impact on Fisheries 38
5.3. Impact on Livestock 38
5.4. Impact on Environment 38
5.5. Social Impact 39
5.6. Impact of Drought in North-western Part during 40
2007-2017
ADAPTIVE STRATEGIES of DROUGHT in 41
Chapter - SIX
BANGLADESH
6.1. Drought Resistant Crop Varieties 42
6.2. Modification of Irrigation Technique 42
6.3. Increased Crop Productivity and Food Security 43
6.4. Rainwater Harvesting and Management 44
6.5. Zero Tillage 44
6.6. Homestead Vegetation 44
6.7. Adaptation Measures Implemented by Farmers 44
6.8. Adaptation Measures Implemented by Barind 45
Multipurpose Development Authority (BMDA)
6.9. Major Challenges to Sustain Adaptive 46
Measures
Chapter - SEVEN FNDINGS and CONCLUSION 47
7.1. Findings 48
7.2. Conclusion 48
References 49

VI
 List of Acronyms

ND No Drought

MD Mild Drought

MOD Moderate Drought

SD Severe Drought

ED Extreme Drought

SPI Standard Precipitation Index

SPEI Standard Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index

BWDB Bangladesh Water Development Board

BMDA Barind Multipurpose Development Authority

BADC Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation

BINA Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture

BARI Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institution

DAE Department of Agricultural Extension

VII
 List of Bangla Crop Names

rice harvest occurring during the early and late monsoon

aus
seasons

b. aus Broadcast aus

kharif I, The first portion of kharif season, which normally lasts from
Pre Kharif March to June

an additional period of the kharif season, usually from July to

kharif II
October

rabi typically from November to February during the dry season.

t. aman transplanted aman rice generally from July to October

t. aman transplanted aman rice generally from July to October

t. aus transplated aus

VIII
 List of Table

No. Title of the Table Page No.

Chapter TWO
2.1 List of literature review 8
2.2 Percentage of methods used in the reviewed literatures 9
Chapter THREE
3.1 Classification of droughts and its base 14
3.2 Record of Drought in Africa 20
3.3 Record of Drought in Australia 20
3.4 Record of Drought in China 21
3.5 Record of Drought in Europe 21
3.6 Record of Drought in South America 21
3.7 Record of Drought in South Pacific 21
3.8 Record of Drought in USA 22
3.9 Current droughts around the world 23
3.10 Major drought events in Bangladesh and its impact 25
3.11 Common District facing both Agricultural and Meteorological 26
Drought Risk
Chapter FOUR
4.1 Annual (Jan-Dec), pre-monsoon (Mar-May) and monsoon (Jun- 29
Sep) mean temperatures have increased during 1980-2010
compared to 1948-2010
4.2 Drought year vs normal year 30
Chapter FIVE
5.1 Drought affected areas by cropping season 34
5.2 Yield Production Percentage 35
5.3 Characteristics of North Western Region of Bangladesh (2007- 40
2017)
Chapter SIX
6.1 Development of drought tolerant crop varieties by research 42
institution in Bangladesh
6.2 Adaptation practies to reduce the loss during drought 43
6.3 Drought adaptation measures by farmers 45
6.4 Drought adaptation measures by BMDA 45

IX
 List of Figure

No. Title of the Figure Page No.

Chapter 2
2.1 List of literature review 8
2.2 Percentage of methods used in the reviewed literatures 9
2.3 Flow diagram of methodology 10
Drought hazard index in different cropping season (Kharif and 12
2.4
Pre-kharif)
Chapter 3
3.1 Classification of droughts 14
3.2 Causes of drought 15
Sequence of the incidence and effects of the several types of 16
3.3
drought that are widely recognized
3.4 Drought impact to population vs country 17
3.5 Number of deaths due to drought all over the world 18
3.6 Drought vulnerable area in Bangladesh 24
Percentage of affected area in Bangladesh by different drought 26
3.7
risk
District facing both agricultural and meteorological drought 27
3.8
risks in Bangladesh
Chapter 4
4.1 Season wise rainfall 31
4.2 Meteorological stations in the country 32
Chapter 5
Agriculture impact of drought according to production loss of 35
5.1
agriculture crops (%)
5.2 Agricultural productivity in Bangladesh 36
5.3 Drought risk of wheat and potato 36
5.4 Drought risk of Aus and Aman rice 37
5.5 Migration during drought 39
5.6 Affected areas by drought during 2007-2017 40

X
Chapter - One
Introduction

1
1.1. Background of the Study:
Bangladesh, which has a population of close to 165 million and a total area of 147,570 km2,
is a country that is vulnerable to disasters. The country is more vulnerable to various
geohazards and hydro-meteorological calamities due to its geographic location and
meteorological features. Droughts, floods, cyclones, tidal surges, tornadoes, nor'westers,
earthquakes, river erosion, fire, arsenic contamination of ground water, water and soil salinity,
cold wave, etc. are the main calamities that affect the country. (AlimullahMiyan, 2015)
Consequently, natural calamities have a long history in Bangladesh. The country had 219
natural catastrophes between 1980 and 2008. Bangladesh is extremely vulnerable to natural
disasters due to its geographic location, land features, abundance of rivers, and monsoon
climate.
Drought in the context of Bangladesh is defined as an extended, continuous period of dry
weather associated with unusually little rainfall. It mostly happens in the north-western
part of Bangladesh When the amount of evaporation and transpiration exceeds the amount of
precipitation for a sufficient period of time (It is considered as 7 months prolonged period).
Drought in the northwest region results in soil parching, a significant hydrologic (water)
imbalance, water shortages, well drying, groundwater and soil moisture depletion, reduced
stream flow, crop failure, and a lack of cattle feed. (Jahan, Mazumder, Islam, & Adham, 2010)
Communities that rely on rainfall for drinking water, agriculture production, and animal
husbandry are particularly vulnerable to drought.
In Bangladesh, the pre-monsoon (March to May) and post-monsoon (October to November)
seasons are when droughts are most common; however, in certain extreme circumstances, pre-
monsoon droughts can last into the monsoon season due to a delay in the commencement of
monsoon rains. (Shahid, Impact of climate change on irrigation water demand of dry season
Boro rice in northwest Bangladesh, 2010)Additionally, drought risk differs by place.
According to certain studies, precipitation will rise in most parts of Bangladesh in the near
future while falling in the southwest.
In some areas of Bangladesh, there are agricultural droughts, which are defined by extreme
soil moisture stress in the agricultural fields relative to the amount needed for satisfactory crop
development. In comparison to the country's average annual rainfall of 2300 mm, the drought-
prone north-west region receives mean annual rainfall of 1250 to 1750 mm. This rain mostly
falls during the four to five wet months of the year (June to October). It is extremely uncertain
how climate change may affect rainfall patterns, particularly during the dry season. Due to the
cumulative impact of dry days, higher temperatures from March to May, and limited soil
moisture availability, drought occurs from January to May. (Anik & Khan, 2012)However,
sub-humid and dry conditions in the country's highland and middle highland regions cause
drought from June/July to October. Due to the cumulative impact of low soil moisture content,
an increase in dry days, and the occurrence of excessive summer temperatures (typically

2
>40°C), the drought situation worsens from April to May; the dry day period lasts 32 to 48
days.
The Barind and drought-prone areas have been designated as a Hotspot region based on the
geographic distribution of drought-prone areas (Hossain, Bari, & Miah, 2021). The majority
of the Barind Tract is nearly plain and just a few minor rivers cross it. The region is noted for
its inclination for heavy groundwater extraction and some river water diversion for cultivation.
Further complicating matters in this area is the Ganges water shortage brought on by upstream
withdrawal in India during the dry season and insufficient surface water. The rainy season
will be shorter and the dry season will be longer, but only the wet season will see an increase
in river discharge.

3
1.2. Aim:

 Identifying the existing conceptual framework and research gap of drought vulnerability
in Bangladesh.

1.3. Objectives:

 To explore historical analysis in perspective of Bangladesh.

 To find out research gap about drought vulnerability in Bangladesh.

 To identify possible area for further study.

4
1.4. Structural Framework:

 In chapter one, background, aim, objectives and structure of this report are given.
 Chapter two is comprised by the data sources of my data and the methodological
framework which I have followed to do this report.
 In chapter three, I have discussed about general concepts, causes, effects,, record of
droughts around the world as well as in Bangladesh.
 Chapter four consists of the causes of vulnerability of drought in Bangladesh.
 In chapter five, the impact of drought in various sectors are discussed and to show the
impact in-depth I have shown the impact from 2007-2017.
 In chapter six, adaptive strategies are given.

5
 Chapter - Two
Data and Methodology

6
2.1. Data Sources:
As the report is based on ‘literature review’ method so the main data is used here are mainly
secondary data and the sources are published sources:

 Articles
 Journals
 Magazines
 Research papers
 Newspapers
 Web documents
 Reports
 Books
 Electronic source.
 Several maps are created for report by ArcGIS 10.5

7
2.2. List of literature review:
Table 2.1: List of literature review
Topic Number of literatures

Record of droughts 7

Causes and impacts 8

Vulnerability analysis 10

Mapping 7

Adaptive strategies 6

Others 4

Total 42

List of literature review

Causes and impacts

Adaptive strategies

Mapping

Vulnerability Analysis

Record of drought

Others

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Figure 2.1: List of literature review

8
2.3. Percentage of methods used in the reviewed literatures:
Table 2.2: Percentage of methods used in the reviewed literatures
Methodology Percentage (%)
Literature review 28.57%

Statistical analysis 19.05%

Descriptive analysis 21.43%
Survey 14.29%
Models 7.14%
Framework 4.76%
Others 4.76%

Percentage of methods used in the reviewed literatures

30.00%

25.00%

20.00%

15.00%

10.00%

5.00%

0.00%
Literature Statistical Descriptive Survey Models Framework Others
review analysis analysis

Figure 2.2: Percentage of methods used in the reviewed literatures

9
2.4. Methodology:

Research Design and

Philosophy

 ScienceDirect
Published Collection of Relevant  ResearchGate
Sources Literature  Taylor & Francis
 Springer, etc.

Books, Reports,
Documents, Scientific
Articles, www documents
etc.

Around 42 Literature Review Context

Articles Identification

Sorting of Relevant
Literature

Thorough Analysis in
Bangladesh Context

Result

Figure 2.3: Flow diagram of methodology (Prepared by Author)

10
Methodology:

The methodology of this report is explained below:

 Research Design and Philosophy: Firstly, a research design is designed and
philosophy of the report is prepared for further work.
 Collection of Relevant Literature: 120 numbers of relevant literature for this report
is collected study. The sources of these literatures are all published sources and they
are collected from:
ScienceDirect
ResearchGate
Google Scholar
Taylor & Francis
Springer, etc.
 Literature: Books, Reports, Documents, Scientific Articles, www documents,
journals, research papers, etc. are the sources of the collected literatures.
 Literature Review: The context of the report is identified and according to this
literature review has been done.
 Sorting of Relevant Literature: From several numbers of literatures the repeated or
duplicated literatures are rejected. After that only 42 literature are finalized for further
study.
 Thorough Analysis in Bangladesh Context: These lectures has been analyzed
thoroughly in perspective of Bangladesh.
 Result: Finally, outcome of the report (which is about finding out literature gap in
perspective of Bangladesh) has come out.

11
2.5. Study Area:

The varied topography and semi-arid climate of Bangladesh's northwest are its defining
features. Recurrent below-average rainfall in the area has caused groundwater levels in
aquifers to drop, creating a water problem for households, businesses, and agriculture. In order
to adjust to this deteriorating situation that is evolving, agricultural land usage and cropping
patterns are altering throughout time. The region experienced severe drought in 1994, which
is known as driest year in modern times. In addition, farmers improperly extract water without
considering ground sources due to a lack of basic understanding and the absence of
contemporary technologies, which causes the water table to fall in many parts of Bangladesh.
According to the Barind Multipurpose Development Authority (BMDA), the region's ability
to sustainably use water for agriculture has been put at risk by a significant fall in groundwater
(GW) levels during the past ten years. Despite the fact that ground water accounted for 77%
of all irrigated land in 2007–08 (BBS, 2009), its sustainability is under risk in many regions
of Bangladesh, particularly the northwest (Simonovic, 1997; Karim et al., 1990).

Map 1: Drought hazard index in different cropping season (Kharif and Pre-kharif)
(Prepared by Author)

Figure 2.4: Drought hazard index in different cropping season (Kharif and Pre-kharif)

12
 Chapter - Three
Historical Records of Drought

13
3.1. General Concepts about Drought:

 Classification:
Droughts are categorized as Meteorological, Agricultural, Hydrological and Socio-
economical droughts (Wilhite and Glantz, 1985).

Meteorological
Discusses how to quantify
Agricultural the physical phenomenon of
Types of drought.
Drought
Hydrological Examines supply and
demand in relation to
drought, tracing the impacts
Socio-economic of water shortage as they
spread throughout
socioeconomic systems.

(Prepared by Author)

Figure 3.1: Classification of droughts

Table 3.1: Classification of droughts and its base

No. Drought Types Base
Meteorological It is dependent on the length of the dry spell and the
1. degree of dryness or rainfall deficiency.
Drought
It is based on how rainfall deficiencies affect the water
Hydrological supply, including stream flow, lake and reservoir levels,
2.
Drought and a decline in the ground water table.
It is based on how drought affects agriculture, such as
Agricultural when there is a lack of rainfall, water in the soil,
3.
Drought groundwater levels, or water in irrigation reservoirs.
It is based on how supply and demand for some
Socio-economic economic items, such as fruits, vegetables, cereals, and
4.
Drought meat, are affected by drought circumstances
(meteorological, agricultural, or hydrological drought).

14
 Causes:
Causes of drought are related to:
a) Lack of access to surface water resources
b) Variable climate
One or more of the following may be the direct cause of a lack of rainfall:
a) The atmosphere's vast downward air flow
b) The absence of moisture-rich air, which prevents rain from falling.
Variations in these parameters include changes in the local, national, and worldwide weather.
a) Short-term drought occurrences are linked to characteristics of the global marine and
atmospheric circulation. For instance, the ENSO (El Nino/Southern Oscillation)
phenomenon, which occurs from warm surface water development along the Pacific coast
of South America, affects the amount of rainfall in numerous parts of the world, including
Bangladesh during the monsoon season.
b) Increasing CO2 and other GHG levels have been suggested as the reasons of rainfall
changes that are classified as climate change. Climate change will alter the pattern of
precipitation, which will lead to more frequent droughts..
Here, we can classify the causes of drought in two way:

Causes of Drought

Man-made Cause Natural Cause

Over Population Deficiency of Rainwater

Over Cultivation Soil Erosion

Deforestation Global Warming

Politics El Nino

Over Extraction of Weather (Hot + Dry)

Groundwater

(Prepared by Author)
Figure 3.2: Causes of drought

15
 Sequence and Occurrence:

Natural Climate
Variability

High temperatures, strong winds, Lack of precipitation

low relative humidity, more
Meteorological

(intensity, timing, amount)

sunshine, and fewer clouds
Drought

Increased evaporation, Reduced runoff, ground water

transpiration discharge, infiltration, deep
percolation

---------------------------------------------------------------------

Duration (Time)
Soil water deficiency
Agricultural
Drought

Plant water stress,

reduced biomass, yield

---------------------------------------------------------------------

Reduced streamflow, inflow to

Hydrological
Drought

ponds, lakes; reduced wetlands,

wildlife habitat

---------------------------------------------------------------------

Environmental Economic Social

Impacts Impacts Impacts

(Prepared by Author)
Figure 3.3: Sequence of the incidence and effects of the several types of drought that
are widely recognized

16
 Impacts of Drought:

The severe nationwide droughts afflict Bangladesh every five years. Local droughts, however,
frequently happen and have an impact on crop productivity. The soil moisture shortage-related
agricultural drought affects crops at various phases of growth, development, and reproduction.
Failure of the monsoon season frequently results in famine in the afflicted areas, which
dramatically lowers food production.
Bangladesh's Northwestern regions are particularly vulnerable to droughts. A severe drought
can destroy more than 40% aus.
Every year, it significantly damages the t.aman crop in about 2.32 million acres during the
kharif season and droughts of varying severity affect 1.2 million acres of agricultural land
throughout the rabi season.
In addition to the loss of agricultural production, droughts have a significant impact on
employment, land degradation, health, and cattle population. Bangladesh experienced 19
drought events between 1960 and 1991. Following 1971, the nation experienced severe
droughts in 1975, 1981, 1982, 1984, 1989, 1994, and 2000. Past droughts have naturally had
an impact on 47% of the nation's land and around 53% of the inhabitants. (Selvaraju et al.,
2006).

Impact of Past Droughts in Bangladesh

Impact on Impact on
Country Population
47% 53%

Impact on Population Impact on Country

Figure 3.4: Drought impact to population vs country

The resulting decrease in agricultural yield, fewer work prospects, and asset losses all
increased the level of food insecurity among households. Food consumption decreased along
with a household's ability to sustainably meet its food needs. During the drought, it is difficult
to find some types of legumes and vegetables.
Droughts pose a major threat to household health because the reduced food consumption that
results from them causes a sharp rise in sickness. Additionally, it contributes to an increase in
agricultural workers' chronic energy deficiencies.

17
3.2. History of Drought in World:
Famine, which is a widespread condition in which numerous people in a country or region
lack access to adequate food supplies, was caused by the worst drought in recorded history in
northern China in 1876–1879, when it is estimated that between 9 and 13 million people
perished after the rains kept failing for three years in a row. At the same time (1876–1878),
the monsoons failed in a row, resulting in the deaths of almost 5 million Indians.
The following graph displays the total number of people who died from drought-related causes
worldwide between 1900 and 2016:

Total Number of Deaths due to Drought (1900-2016)

China (1928)
Bangledesh (1943)
India (1942)
India (1965)
India (1900)
Soviet Union (1921)
China (1920)
Ethiopia (May 1983)
Sudan (April 1983)
Ethiopia (Dec 1973)

0 500000 1000000 1500000 2000000 2500000 3000000 3500000

Ethiopia (Dec 1973) Sudan (April 1983) Ethiopia (May 1983) China (1920)
Soviet Union (1921) India (1900) India (1965) India (1942)
Bangledesh (1943) China (1928)

Figure 3.5: Number of deaths due to drought all over the world

18
 Five Deadliest Drought in the History of World:

1. China’s most devastating drought: The 1928–1930 drought, which some experts have
referred to as "the most terrible occurrence in China in the 20th century," may have had the
greatest impact of all the severe droughts that China has faced throughout its history. The
severe famine brought on by the drought killed between three and ten million people.
Very recently, in the midst of 2017, Chinese authorities claimed that the north of the country
has experienced the worst drought on record in a significant chunk of the area. They attributed
the country's extensive extreme weather patterns to climate change.

2. The drought promoted spread of humanity: According to a DNA analysis, the

beginnings of human migrations out of Africa may have been prompted by a sequence of
mega droughts that occurred around 135,000 and 75,000 years ago.
Scientists claim that as a result of region's variable climate, some portions of Africa's terrain
are frequently unfit for human habitation. Droughts may make it difficult to access basic
resources, forcing people to flee the continent in search of sustenance and water.
3. The drought that change ancient Egypt: Researchers found evidence of a drought that
afflicted the Middle East and portions of Europe approximately 4,500 years ago in the royal
tombs of the Old Kingdom of Egypt.
4. The drought that causes widespread diseases: A severe drought and a failure to use
dryland agricultural methods to stop the aeolian processes caused the phenomena known as
the Dust Bowl, a period of extreme dust storms which occurred in the 1930s and
substantially affected the environment and farming of the American and Canadian
grasslands.
It was not known at the time that the dirt was a source of diseases, flu, and Valley Flu, a
lung condition linked to a fungus. When people were already malnourished as well as
fragile, these ailments commonly resulted in death.
5. The drought that destroyed the Malayans: The Mayan civilization of Mesoamerica
experienced drought when it was the most susceptible.
1,200 years ago, the Mayan civilization collapsed as a result of fast population growth and a
half of the annual rainfall causing failed crops and conflicts with neighbors over dwindling
water supplies.

19
 List of Drought throughout the World:
Table 3.2: Record of Drought in Africa
No. Region Year Name Effect
1383  Famine in Ethiopia
1. Africa - -  7.75 million people were affected
1985  Approximately 300,000 – 1.2 million deaths
 Food Emergence
2. Malawi 2002 -
 Famine with deaths from 300 - 3000
2008
Kenya  Huge number of deaths to livestock
3. Kenya -
Drought  10 million people were at risk of hunger
2010
Sahel region and
4. neighboring 2010 -  Food Crisis
Senegal river area
 Severe food crisis across Kenya, Somalia,
East Africa Ethiopia, Djibouti
5. East Africa 2011
Drought  Refugees from southern Somalia migrated to
neighboring Kenya and Ethiopia
 Unfavorable condition for agriculture
Semi-arid region Sahel  Reduced meager water supply
6. 2012
of Africa Drought  Stress the economies of developing countries of
that region
2018 Southern
 Negatively affected food security
7. Southern Africa - African
 Disruption in agricultural work
2021 Drought

Table 3.3: Record of Drought in Australia

No. Region Year Name Effect
Federation
1. Australia 1901  Very dry spells interspersed with wetter weather
Drought
1911
Australian
2. Australia -  Prolonged period of dry weather
Drought
1916
 Severe food crisis across Kenya, Somalia,
1979 Eastern
Eastern Part of Ethiopia, Djibouti
3. - Australian
Australia  Refugees from southern Somalia migrated to
1983 Drought
neighboring Kenya and Ethiopia
Southern Millennium  Extreme pressure on urban water supply
4. 2000
Australia Drought  Extreme pressure on agricultural production

20
 Table 3.4: Record of Drought in China
No. Region Year Name Effect
 Crop Failure
1. Northern China 1875 -  Approximately 9.5 to 13 million deaths
 Severe scarcity of food
South-western China
2. 2010  Dust storms
China Drought
2010  Destroyed wheat crops
China
3. Northern China -  Water shortage for 2.31 million people
Drought
2011  Water shortage for 2.57 million livestock.

Table 3.5: Record of Drought in Europe

No. Region Year Name Effect
 Forest fire
European
1. Europe 1540  Water scarcity
Drought
 Starvation of people
Drought of
2. Europe 1976  Hot and dry summer
1976

Table 3.6: Record of Drought in South America

No. Region Year Name Effect
1877
 Deaths of between 400,000 and 500,000 people
1. South America - Grande Seca
 Migration of 188,000 people
1878
2010
Chile
2. South America -  Chilean water crisis
Drought
2022
Northeastern
3. South America - Brazil  High temperatures
Drought

Table 3.7: Record of Drought in South Pacific

No. Region Year Name Effect
Tuvalu
1. South Pacific 2011  Fresh water Crisis
Drought

21
 Table 3.8: Record of Drought in USA
No. Region Year Name Effect
1934 North  Extreme heat
1. USA - American  Dryness
1935 Drought  Dust storm
1983 North
 Heat wave
2. USA - American
 Extreme dry condition
1985 Drought
1988 North  60 billion in damage ($137 billion 2022 USD)
3. USA - American  Dust bowl
1990 Drought  Two record setting heat waves
North
4. USA 2002 American  Water shortage
Drought
Southern
 Burnt of drought
2010 United
 Dry spell
5. USA - States and
 Damage of $7.62 billion in crop and livestock
2013 Mexico
losses
drought
2011
California
6. USA -  Wiped out of 102 million trees
Drought
2017
2012 North
7. USA - American  Record breaking Heat wave
2013 Drought
New York
8. USA 2016  Abnormally dry condition
Drought
2020 North
9. USA - American  Abnormally dry condition
2022 Drought

22
 Current Droughts around the World:
Current droughts are depicted in this table for the entire world (as of the end of December
2021):

Table 3.9: Current droughts around the world

Continent Region

Northern Ontario and the Prairie Provinces in Canada; California (2011–

North America
present)

South America Central and southern South America (2008–present)

Northern Africa and Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and South

Africa
Africa

Asia Central Asia

Europe Central and southern Europe

23
3.3. History of Drought in Bangladesh:
Typically, the country's northwest experiences more droughts than the other sections of the
nation. Drought conditions have existed in Bangladesh's Barind (northwestern highland) for
the past two to three decades. This region is listed as one of the worst drought-prone regions.
This area includes the Barind Tract, the Punarbhava Floodplain, and the Ganges River Flood
Plain. The majority of the larger Dinajpur, Rangpur, Pabna, Rajshahi, Chapai Nawabganj,
Bogra, Joypurhat, and Naogaon district is included in this drought-prone area. Following the
severely impacted Northwestern region, the Southwestern portion of Bangladesh is now
experiencing the effects of the drought. But this area is only experiencing a little drought.
During the dry season, the South Western region's Jhenaidah, Jessore, and Satkhira districts
are particularly affected by drought (Habiba et al., 2011).

(Prepared by Author)
Figure 3.6: Drought vulnerable area in Bangladesh

24
 Drought Events in Bangladesh:
Despite the fact that droughts weren't constant, droughts did have an impact on the country's
low-rainfall regions. Droughts are characterized by sporadic dry spells and the delayed or
early departure of the monsoon rains. There were 24 droughts in Bangladesh between 1949
and 1991. In 1951, 1957, 1958, 1961, 1972, 1975, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1984, 1989, 1994, and
2000, as well as in 2006 and 2009, the nation experienced extremely severe droughts.
Historically, 53% of the people and 47% of the country's land have been affected by droughts
(Selvaraju et al., 2006). Major nationwide droughts afflict Bangladesh every five to ten years.
The agricultural crops, livelihoods, health, fisheries, etc. that are closely tied to the nation's
food security suffer enormous losses as a result.

Table 3.10: Major drought events in Bangladesh and its impact

Year Impact

One of the worst famines in Bangladesh's history occurred in the north in 1974 due
1973
to drought.

1975 More than half of the people and 47% of the country were impacted.

Crop damage that was widespread had an impact on 42% of the cultivable land,
1978-79
44% of the population, and around 2 million tons of production.

1981 Crop production was negatively impacted by a severe drought.

1982 53000 tons of rice output were lost as a result.

In northwest part of Bangladesh, the majority of rivers dried up due to drought,

1989
and several districts experienced dust storms.

The most severe and prolonged drought significantly harmed several crops,
1994-95 particularly rice and jute (the primary crops in Northwest Bangladesh), as well as
clumps of bamboo (a leading cash crop)

1995-96 Northwestern area crops are impacted.

2006 Approximately 25%–30% of the Amon crop was lost in the northwestern part.

2009 severe agricultural devastation in the northwest.

25
 Common District Facing both Agricultural and Meteorological Drought
Risk:

Table 3.11: Common District facing both Agricultural and Meteorological Drought
Risk
No. of
Drought risk Name of districts Area % of area
districts
No risk 2 Sirajganj, Naogaon 5437.34 km2 16.86%

Kurigram, Nawabgong,
Slight risk 4 7322.45 km2 22.71%
Bogra, Joypurhat

Rangpur, Rajshahi,
Moderate risk 5 Pabna, Natore, 9581.58 km2 29.72%
Lalmonirhat
Dinajpur, Nilphamari,
Severe risk 3 6867.32 km2 21.29%
Gaibandha
Very severe risk 2 Pancagarh, Thakurgaon 3036.31 km2 9.42%
Total 16 100%
(Murad & Islam, 2011)

Percentage of Area affected by various drought risk

Very severe risk 9.42%

Severe risk 21.29%

Moderate risk 29.72%

Slight risk 22.71%

No risk 16.86%

0.00% 5.00% 10.00% 15.00% 20.00% 25.00% 30.00% 35.00%

Figure 3.7: Percentage of affected area in Bangladesh by different drought risk

26
 (Prepared by Author)
Figure 3.8: District facing both agricultural and meteorological drought risks in
Bangladesh

27
 Chapter - Four
Causes of Drought Vulnerability in Bangladesh

28
4.1. Main Causes of Drought Vulnerability in Bangladesh
 Temperature change
 Deforestation and hydrological cycle
 Inadequate precipitation
 Declining of groundwater aquifers
 Farakka bridge
4.2. Temperature Change
Crops and soil properties are badly affected by extreme temperatures. High temperatures are
a major contributor to the emergence of new pests and/or the shrinkage of crops. As a result,
there would be an increase in the emergence of new varieties of bacteria, algae, and virus-
borne illnesses. Additionally, crop production would decline, resulting in economic losses for
both the impacted areas and the entire nation. The predicted 2°C rise in global temperature by
2100 would affect urban food insecurity and rural poverty.

Table 4.1: Annual (Jan-Dec), pre-monsoon (Mar-May) and monsoon (Jun-Sep) mean
temperatures have increased during 1980-2010 compared to 1948-2010

Trend in mean temperature

Season
1948 - 2010 1980 - 2010

Winter +1.2 +1.2

Pre-monsoon +0.1 +3.2
Monsoon +1.2 +2.7
Post-monsoom +2 +1.5
Annual +1.2 +2.4

Since the 1970s or 1980s, the highest temperature has been climbing. Since 1948, the trend
has increased by 0.82 0C, and since 1980, it has increased by 2.84 0C. Consequently, the
historical trend since 1948 is substantially lower than the current development since 1980.
(Figure 7). Drought has become a significant issue for agriculture and, as a result, a threat to
food security as a result of the trend toward higher mean maximum temperatures (Source:
Mondal et al., 2012)
Another study found that climate variables like temperature, precipitation, sunshine duration,
and solar radiation fluctuate throughout time. Compared to a typical year, the average
maximum temperature has increased while total rainfall has decreased. So output of food crop
is substantially affected.

29
 Table 4.2: Drought year vs normal year

Solar radiation
Average maximum Total Monthly average
Years (gm-
temperature (in 0c) rainfall(mm) Sunshine hours
cal/cm2/day)

Normal Year
(3 years 32.04 1699.15 83.67 4323.5
average )

Drought Year
33.51 1163.32 89.22 4481.0
(1994)

4.3. Deforestation and Hydrological Cycle

One of the most crucial stabilizers of climatic variables, including temperature, precipitation,
and carbon sequestration, is vegetation. Therefore, when it is being chopped and cleared for
fuel, farms, plantations, and settlements, deforestation destabilizes climatic elements. With a
growing population, Bangladesh's deforestation is becoming more severe. For instance, in
northern Bangladesh, areas with more people live in less vegetation covering than places with
more people. Habitat loss, biodiversity decline, and river bank erosion brought on by
deforestation all contribute to drought. Extreme temperatures and little precipitation might
also result from it (Nelson, 2009). According to the literature, the average temperature is rising
daily as a result of less vegetation and rising greenhouse gases.

4.4. Inadequate Precipitation

A study was carried out in the northwest of Bangladesh, encompassing 14 upazilla and two
severely drought-prone districts, Rajshahi and Chapai-Nawabganj. According to the climate,
this area is in the dry humid zone, with an average annual rainfall of 1,400 to 1,900 mm
(Shahid & Hazarika, Groundwater Drought in the Northwestern Districts of Bangladesh,
2010). The amount of rain varies greatly from year to year and location to location. For
instance, the area experienced 1,690 mm of annual rainfall in 2000, but just 793 mm in 2010.
On the other hand, Bangladesh received 2,178mm of total annual rainfall in 2006,
compared to 1,193mm in areas that frequently experience drought (Habiba, Shaw, &
Takeuchi, Drought risk reduction through a Socio-economic, Institutional and Physical
approach in the northwestern region of Bangladesh, 2011) . In the research area, there
are different distributions of monthly mean rainfall. From 62% in March to 87% in
30
July, the average monthly humidity ranges, with a mean annual of 78%. (Jahan,
Mazumder, Islam, & Adham, 2010). The area's yearly evapotranspiration varies
between 370 and 1,120 mm, according to the Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB). It has been established in the research area that evapotranspiration is greater
during the dry season than during the rainy season by more than 0.5 times, increasing
agricultural dryness and compromising food security.

Season wise rainfall in Bangladesh

80%
71%
70%

60%

50%

40%

30%
19%
20%
8%
10%
2%
0%
Monsoon Pre monsoon Post monsoon Winter

Figure 4.1: Season wise rainfall

The regions' average monthly rainfall varies. The uni-model rainfall pattern has a peak in July.
In the monsoon months (June to September), rainfall is greater than the potential
evapotranspiration, while it is less in the other months (Figure 5). April has the highest
maximum temperature, and June and July have the highest minimum temperatures (Selvaraju
et al., 2006).

4.5. Declining in Groundwater Aquifers

According to a research, the northwest region's groundwater supplies provide around 75% of
the irrigation water (Shahid and Hazarika, 2010). However, overusing groundwater for home
and agricultural purposes causes the groundwater table to trend toward depletion (Habiba et
al., 2012). Due to overdrawn aquifers, decreasing water tables, and decreased stream flow,
this poses a serious threat to the irrigation system for agriculture. In Nachole, Chapai
Nawabganj, the ground water table has decreased more in 2009 than it did in 2005. In
every instance, it is lower in 2009 than it was in 2005.

31
4.6. Farakka Barrage:
Bangladesh is currently dealing with a significant issue as a result of India's "Farakka barrage"
across the Ganges. When the Ganges overflows, it floods Bangladesh, and when it underflows,
it produces a severe drought that leads to starvation. Both of these are undermining
Bangladesh's economic foundation and its ecological equilibrium (Afroz & Rahman, 2013).

4.7. Map of Meteorological Station in Bangladesh

There are 34 meteorological stations at seven regions around the country.

(Prepared by Author)
Figure 4.2: Meteorological stations in the country

32
 Chapter - Five
Impact of Drought in Bangladesh

33
5.1. In Terms of Agriculture:
Despite being Bangladesh's main industry, agriculture is frequently impacted by various
natural disasters, such as drought. According to historical data, Bangladesh experiences severe
drought occurrences every five to 10 years. Nevertheless, localized droughts frequently
happen and have an impact on crop productivity. Drought usually has an impact on agriculture
initially before moving on to food production, water resources, and farmer's quality of life
(Habiba et al., 2012). It ultimately has an impact on the nation's food security. Droughts in
Bangladesh are primarily caused by insufficient pre-monsoon rainfall, a delay in the start of
the rainy season, or an early end to the monsoon (Shafie et al., 2009). Failure of the monsoon
typically results in famine in the afflicted areas, which has a significant negative impact on
food productivity. Every year, droughts of varying severity damage 3 to 4 million hectares of
land. Droughts can last up to three cropping seasons, which is particularly problematic for
agricultural activity in Bangladesh's Northwestern regions.
Every year, it significantly damages the T. aman crop during the kharif season, which affects
2.32 million acres. Around 1.2 million acres of agricultural area experience droughts of
varying severity throughout the Rabi season. Rabi and Pre-Kharif drought refers to the pre-
monsoon drought that affects both the Rabi and Pre-Kharif crops. Wheat, legumes, sugarcane,
potatoes, HYV Boro, and Aus are some of the important crops that are frequently impacted.
Where there are little irrigation opportunities, significant damage can happen. Due to its
impact on Kharif crops, the post-monsoon drought is also known as the "Kharif drought." The
Kharif crop most frequently impacted by the post-monsoon drought is aman rice because its
reproductive stage is severely limited by a lack of moisture.

Table 5.1: Drought affected areas by cropping season

Area under various drought severity class (in million ha)

Crop season
Very
Severe Moderate Slight Unaffected
severe

Pre-kharif 0.403 1.15 4.76 4.09 2.09

Kharif 0.344 0.74 3.17 2.90 0.68
Rabi 0.446 1.71 2.95 4.21 3.17

34
Aman rice typically suffers during the kharif season owing to drought. As a result, there has
been a considerable yield loss (Dey et al., 2012). Droughts generate yearly damages to crop
production of 2.32 million hectares and have a negative impact on crop production (Habiba et
al., 2011). Crop production is constrained by water scarcity, and irrigation coverage is barely
56%. (Cell, 2006). Rice crop in Bangladesh suffers the greatest losses from drought since it is
so reliant on water availability. In times of drought, rice production suffers from a lack of
water. Furthermore, drought also has an impact on the production of other important crops.

Table 5.2: Yield Production Percentage

% of Yield Production
Crops
Slight Moderate Severe Very Severe
T. Aman
0 – 20 20 – 35 35 – 45 45 – 100
B. Aus 0 – 10 10 – 30 30 – 40 40 – 100
Wheat 0 – 40 40 – 50 50 - 59 59 – 100
Mustard 0 – 30 30 – 40 40 – 50 50 – 100
Potato 0 - 60 60 - 70 70 – 80 70 – 100
The production of potato, jute, onion, and bean declined 13.33%, 26.66%, 6.66%, and 4%,
respectively, due to drought, while the production of rice was considerably reduced by roughly
53.33% (Habiba, Shaw, & Takeuchi, Drought risk reduction through a Socio-economic,
Institutional and Physical approach in the northwestern region of Bangladesh, 2011) in the
northwest region of Bangladesh.

Decline in the production of crops

Jute
26%

Rice
51%
Potato
13%

Onion
Bean 6%
4%

Figure 5.1: Agriculture impact of drought according to production loss of agriculture

crops (%)

35
 Figure 5.2: Agricultural productivity in Bangladesh (Prepared by Author)

Figure 5.3: Drought risk of wheat and potato (Prepared by Author)

36
Figure 5.4: Drought risk of Aus and Aman rice (Prepared by Author)

37
5.2. Impact on Fisheries:
Extreme droughts are more common, which will likely lead to an increase in disease incidence
and a negative impact on fish habitat and populations. Surface water bodies, such as canals,
ponds, beels, and rivers, among others, dry up due to drought. Additionally, it interferes with
fishing operations and makes it difficult for people who rely on fishing for a living. According
to Haque (2007), seasonal fluctuations in temperature and rainfall have a variety of effects on
fishing, fish hatchery operations, fish production, and the lives of a wide range of people
working in fisheries and aquaculture both directly and indirectly. Additionally, drought
contributes to the extinction of some fish species and the loss of biodiversity. Fish growth
rate, fish fertility, and fish hatching are all impacted by drought.

5.3. Impact on Livestock:

Drought has impact on livestock, which in turn affects their development, milk
production, reproduction, health, and general well-being. Furthermore, the
environment is unsuitable for the animals due to a lack of grazing areas and food
supplies. Cattle and poultry can occasionally have heat stroke or possibly be afflicted
by other diseases. Additionally, drought reduces the ability of livestock and poultry to
reproduce. Consequently, it results in financial loss for the livelihood that depends on
cattle in drought-affected areas (Dey et al., 2012). At the end, it puts the nation's food
security in jeopardy.
5.4. Impact on Environment:
Environmental deterioration is a result of drought in a number of ways. It causes the
natural water bodies to dry up, which leads to the extinction of wild and cultural stocks.
It lowers water levels in lakes, ponds, and reservoirs, raises salt content and water
temperature, has an impact on air and water quality, deteriorates the condition of the
landscape, and leads to soil erosion. On the other hand, the ground water aquifer is
significantly impacted by drought. The primary source of fresh water in areas that are
prone to drought is surface water as well as ground water. In Northwest Bangladesh,
during the dry season, increased groundwater consumption for agriculture and
domestic purposes both contribute to groundwater level decline (Habiba et al. 2011).
This poses a serious threat to the irrigation system for farming, lowers the level of the
groundwater, and creates environmental issues such salinity, heavy metal poisoning,
and arsenic. Aquifers of ground water aside, dryness also serves as a stimulant for the
degradation of the land, which lowers soil moisture and water-retentive capacity. It
accelerates topsoil drying out and the actual loss of soil aggregation and structure.
Additionally, a drought decreases the amount of organic matter in the soil and
microbial activity. However, it also results in the extinction of some species, harm to

38
plant and animal species, and an increase in disease occurrence by bringing pathogens
and parasites into the environment (Shaw et al., 2013).

5.5. Social Impact:

In areas that are prone to drought, the pattern of livelihood changes. It was found that due to
monga, the likelihood of migration increases greater during drought periods than it does
during normal periods. According to the results, during the 1994 severe drought, 84% of
drought sufferers moved out from drought-prone areas in search of better livelihoods and
government aid, while 65% of other households moved for reasons other than drought. In the
2006 drought, 59% of the area's drought victims moved away, compared to only 40% in more
subsequent years. About 26% of previous drought victims moved away from the region even
though there was no drought, while 18% of other households left because of other unfavorable
events that happened there.

Percentage of migration during droughts

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%
84%
40%
65%
30%

20%
26%
10%

0%
1994 Drought 2006 Recent years

Figure 5.5: Migration during drought

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessment, 8 million
people would be affected by droughts by 2050. (Huq, 2011). However, even after receiving
financial aid and advice about how to deal with the droughts, their desire to move did not
change (Andrijasevic & Walters, 2010). The outcome is consistent with Motamed and
Devisti's (2012) finding that drought has an influence on society.

39
5.6. Impact of Drought in North-western Part during 2007-2017:
The north western part of Bangladesh is the most vulnerable to drought in Bangladesh.
Here, I am presenting impact on Bogra, Saidpur, Rajshahi, Dinajpur, Rangpur and
Ishurdi. The data I have taken from the article, “Short- and Long-Term Effects of Drought
on Selected Causes of Mortality in Northern Bangladesh”.

Table 5.3: Characteristics of North Western Region of Bangladesh (2007-2017)

Monthly
Area Covered Monthly Average
Yearly Average
by Average Humidity
Rainfall from
Station Meteorological Temperature from 2007-
2007-2017
Stations from 2007-2017 2017
(mm)
(km2) (0C) (%)

Bogra 3884.40 1554.72 30.94 76.94

Ishurdi 4868.92 1370.76 31.38 78.35
Rajshahi 9441.29 1258.50 31.60 78.65
Dinajpur 5226.04 1641.12 30.24 78.07
Rangpur 6824.87 1961.52 29.82 79.32
Saidpur 4295.70 1825.50 30.37 78.51

Figure 5.6: Affected areas by drought during 2007-2017 (Prepared by Author)

40
 Chapter - Six
Adaptive Strategies of Drought in Bangladesh

41
6.1. Drought Resistant Crop Varieties:
Researchers from many institutions are collaborating under the National Agricultural
Research Systems (NARS) to create cutting-edge technology that will withstand climate
change and ensure expected crop output. It is possible to increase yield by up to 20% by
creating rice and wheat cultivars that are stress (drought, high temperature) tolerant. This will
help to ensure food security. The Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) has released rice
varieties that are resistant to salt-cold-drought (BRRI dhan56/57) and drought using gene-
marker technology. The Department of Agriculture Extension distributes BRRI dhan variety
seeds multiplied by the Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation (BADC) to
farmers for cultivation in districts susceptible to drought (DAE).
Short-duration varieties have been successfully developed, such as BR 33 by BRRI and BINA
7 by the Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA), to prevent the alleged monga
issue in northern Bangladesh. The Bangladesh Agriculture Research Institute (BARI) is
experimenting with wheat and tomato types that can withstand heat (Selvaraju et al., 2006).
The Agricultural University of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (BSMRAU) has
created several drought-tolerant varieties, including BU chola1, BU dhan1, and BU soybean1.

Table 6.1: Development of drought tolerant crop varieties by research institution in

Bangladesh
Name of drought tolerant drought Development technology
BRRI Dhan 42/43, Dhan 48, Dhan 56, and
Rice
Dhan 57
BARI mungbean lines BMX-01007, BARI
Pulse
chola5
Barley BARI barley 6

6.2. Modification of Irrigation Technique:

In the locations that are prone to drought, the effectiveness of climate change adaptation
depends on the availability of fresh water. Regarding climate change, irrigation is essential.
The Barind Multipurpose Development Authority (BMDA) ensures irrigation for rice in the
relatively arid Rajshahi and Rangpur division (Barind region), where the Ministry of
Agriculture (MoA) in 2009 gave farmers a 100-hour free electricity bill for irrigation of the
previous year's aman season. The government has also offered a 20% electricity bill credit for
irrigation across the nation to promote the use of irrigated agriculture.
Additionally, the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE)'s of the "Alternate Wetting
and Drying (AWD)" irrigation technique has been found to be effective in enhancing water
use efficiency for crop production.

42
6.3. Increased Crop Productivity and Food Security:
Bangladesh is extremely vulnerable to the effects of drought and that causes fluctuations on
the agricultural sector. The main risks posed by climate change to agriculture and related
industries in northwest Bangladesh are connected to a rise in the frequency of droughts (kharif
II) and insufficient water supply for irrigation (rabi). Freshwater resources are essential to
agriculture, so the success of the adaptations of those sectors is crucial. Additionally, the
agriculture industry faces the challenging task of supplying the world's rising food demand. If
agriculture is to continue to be a major driver of economic growth and a source of jobs, the
sector's productivity must rise. Diversifying crops will make them less susceptible to drought.
The sector as a whole will profit from adaptation techniques related to new agricultural
systems using drought resistant crops. The recommended agronomic management techniques
(would increase crop productivity during drought circumstances and guarantee food security
(Selvaraju et al., 2006).

Table 6.2: Adaptation practices to reduce the loss during drought

Categories Adaptation practice
Re-excavation of
traditional ponds
Water harvesting
Canals, Mini-ponds
Strengthening field
bunds(ali lifting)
Agronomic management
Seedbed method for T.
Aman rice
Water resources Shallow and deep tube-
exploitation wells
Comments by expert
Careful evaluation needs
to be done in consultation
with department of
fisheries
Excavating new canals
and mini-ponds in non-
irrigated areas
The practice of ali lifting
is highly useful in non-
irrigated areas and is cost
effective.
This would be viable
under climate change
scenarios of the future
rainfall is expected to
shoe higher variability.
Possibility of extending
the deep tube well
schemes for non-irrigated
areas may be exploited

43

Green mature T-.Aman,
Crop intensification T-Aus-Chini atap, T-
Aman-Chickpea
Direct sown rice
Water use efficiency
Drought resistant rice
varieties
This practice can increase
the cropping intensity and
improves the nutritional
security and soil fertility
Useful technique for
kharif II season to reduce
the water requirement.
Are highly useful for
Barind region.

6.4. Rainwater Harvesting and Management:

In drought prone areas, rainfall is highly variable, and the production of rice is seriously
threatened by various seasonal droughts (initial, mid, and terminal). But frequently, heavy rain
water is lost since there aren't adequate storage facilities. Utilizing recycled rainwater is
essential for dealing with seasonal droughts that require additional watering. Therefore,
emphasis needs to be placed on rainwater harvesting, recycling, and conservation as the main
adaptation strategies. Excavation and re-excavation of conventional ponds and canals, water
management structures, and mini ponds are the realistic adaption solutions at the community
level (Selvaraju et al., 2006).

6.5. Zero Tillage:

To preserve the soil's moisture, no or little tillage is used. To reduce soil moisture through
evaporation, soil disturbance is kept to a minimum. Instead of helping with mitigation, it
seems to help in adaptation to drought. Conserving water and soil resources is a crucial step
in modifying agricultural systems to cope with drought (Luo et al., 2010).

6.6. Homestead Vegetation:

Homestead gardening makes ensuring that the land is used sustainably, increases family
income, and assures a steady supply of food. homestead gardening with better skills aided
them drought affected people by supplying a steady stream of nutrients to their food chain and
subsequently generating income all year long.

6.7. Adaptation Measures Implemented by Farmers:

The farmers of the drought pronr areas take some measures to cope up with drought as drougt
is a common figure of our country. Following I am showing the measures with their
effectiveness:

44
 Table 6.3: Drought adaptation measures by farmers
Adaptation measures implemented by farmers Effectiveness
Early seedback 
Irrigation using 
Mixed cultivation 
Crop diversification 
Re-excavation of pond 
Alternative economic activities 
Water withdrawal using pump 
Alternative crop cultivation 

6.8. Adaptation Measures Implemented by Barind Multipurpose Development

Authority (BMDA):
Farmers' attempts to adaptability are insufficient to reduce the negative effects of drought.
Due to a lack of water for irrigation, the agricultural industry is most affected by the drought.
Because of they could not afford the economic expenses involved with such an initiative,
farmers were unable to put necessary measures in place to get water for agriculture. In this
situation, the BMDA took the initiative to set up much needed water and other aid to cope
with the challenges of the drought.

Table 6.4: Drought adaptation measures by BMDA

Adaptation measures by BMDA Effectiveness
Underground irrigation pipeline High effective
Prepaid irrigation water High effective
Drinking water supply High effective
Deep tube well Effective
Re- excavation of pond Effective
Afforestation Effective
Road construction Effective
Cross dam Effective
Construction of water reservoir Effective
Drought tolerant rice cultivation Effective
Cotton cultivation Not understandable
Supply of seeds Ineffective

Drought influences the physical environment as well as people's livelihoods and access to
food. BMDA has launched a number of initiatives to solve this problem. To increase the rice

45
production, high-yielding and drought-tolerant species of rice have been introduced in Barind
Tract.
Instead of traditional Aus rice, BRRI-Dhan-48 and BRRI-Dhan-55 are cultivating. Crop
diversification is another active strategy. In order to encourage farmers to grow crops other
than boro rice during the Robi season—such as wheat, potatoes, mustard, pulses, etc. BMDA
arranged a number of training programs. This results in a 20% reduction in irrigation water
use (BMDA 2016). Additionally, they are creating and giving drought-affected farmers high
quality, certified seed for crops including rice, wheat, gram, peas, mustard, etc. Instead of
Boro rice, cotton planting is a relatively new strategy that is implemented during the Rabi
season. Cotton uses less water than rice, yields higher profits, and ensures the productive use
of vacant land.
Farmers think that the majority of adaptation strategies, with the exception of cotton
cultivation and seed distribution, are effective. But these two projects are deemed to be
"ineffective" and "not understandable," respectively. The growing of cotton is a recent
strategy. Farmers are therefore confused about the likely outcome of that measure.
Unfortunately, the majority of farmers claimed that the seed distribution system is confusing.
Due to supplier corruption, the needy and poor farmers do not receive seed.

6.9. Major Challenges to Sustain Adaptive Measures:

The drought adaptation strategies made a substantial contribution to the decrease of disaster
risk. Despite the effectiveness and level of farmer satisfaction, there are certain difficulties
with the sustainability of those adaption strategies. The artificial irrigation system is the most
important project that was carried out to reduce the consequences of the drought. The main
criteria for this measure is groundwater pumping. The supply of groundwater is limited.
According to a recent study, only 6% of the total volume of groundwater worldwide has been
refilled and rejuvenated in the past 50 years, making it a practically non-renewable resource
(Gleeson et al. 2015).
The BMDA's excessive groundwater pumping could threaten the needs of the next
generation. According to several studies, the Barind Tract's groundwater level is declining
yearly. Shamsudduha et al. (2009) discovered a groundwater decline trend in northwest
Bangladesh (0.1-0.5 m/yr). Rahman and Mahbub (2012) discovered a groundwater loss (0.42
m/yr) in the Barind Tract because of an increase in artificial irrigation. Rainwater can recharge
groundwater, but the process is incredibly slow. In addition, compared to the rest of
Bangladesh, northwest Bangladesh experiences the least quantity of rainfall.

46
 Chapter - Seven
Findings and Conclusion

47
7.1. Findings:
As Bangladesh is highly vulnerable to drought and almost every year drought affects the
country so in-depth research in most of the fields are done. However, by going through the
literatures there are some research gaps, which can be further topics to research:

 Severe droughts hit Bangladesh during 1975, 1982, 1984, 1989, 1994 and 2000 after
independence. However, there is not adequate data of 1984 and 2000’s droughts;
therefore, in depth research work is not done for these particular year’s drought.
 Water conservation is a very effective strategy to cope up with droughts. But in
Bangladesh this procedure is not followed properly. So, more research should be done
on this purpose.
 Another adaptive strategy - providing seeds to the farmers is also a loss project for
Bangladesh because of corruption. So how we can provide seeds to the farmers without
any problems can be a further research topic.

7.2. Conclusion:
This report is about to find out the drought vulnerability in Bangladesh from existing studies
and research gap to do further research on that issues. Three objectives have been set for this
purpose and 42 literatures are gone through to fulfill the set objectives. Another important
finding is the record of droughts around the word and Bangladesh. Data is taken from all
published sources and present those in this report. These strategies can reduce vulnerability at
a great extent. But there are some challenges to cope up with those strategies to reduce drought
vulnerability which are also presented in this report according to the study. By studying the
record of past history, it is found that, the 1994 drought of Bangladesh was most devastating.
Bangladesh is facing drought almost every year but the type, frequency and other phenomenon
has changed because of the effect of climate change. Drought has mainly impact on our
agricultural products which creates food shortage. As drought is one of the most devastating
events, almost all type of research has done on this, but there are some research gaps. In the
various issues of adaptive strategies, there is space for further in-depth research.

48
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