General Physics 2 Page 1 of 12

Special Relativity
4.1 EINSTEIN'S POSTULATES

Albert Einstein produced the theory of special relativity using two deceptively simple postulates and
a careful consideration of how measurements are made.

Postulate 1
“The laws of physics are the same and can be stated in their simplest form in all inertial frames of
reference.” The first postulate relates to reference frames. All velocities are measured relative to some frame
of reference.
Example A: A car's motion is measured relative to its starting point on the road it is moving over. The simplest
frames of reference are those that are not accelerated and are not rotating.
Newton's first law, the law of inertia, holds exactly in such a frame. An inertial frame of reference
follows that a body at test remains at rest and a body in motion moves at a constant speed in a straight line
unless acted on by an outside force. Since there is no preferred frame nor absolute motion, the laws of
physics seem to be simplest in inertial frames.
Example B: When you are in a plane flying at a constant altitude and speed, physics seems to work exactly
the same as if you were standing on the surface of Earth.

Postulate 2
“The speed of light c is a constant, independent of the relative motion of the source.” The second
postulate upon which Einstein based his theory of special relativity deals with the speed of light. Late in the
19th century, the major tenets of classical physics were the laws of electricity and magnetism and Newton's
laws. In particular, the laws of electricity and magnetism predict that light travels at 𝑐 = 3x108 m/s in a
vacuum, but they do not specify the frame of reference in which light has this speed.
In the mid-1880s, the American physicist A.A. Michelson, later aided by E.W. Morley, made a series
of direct measurements of the speed of light. The results of their measurements demonstrated that the speed
of light c in a vacuum is independent of the motion of Earth about the sun. The eventual conclusion derived
from this result is that light, unlike mechanical waves such as sound, does not need a medium to carry it.
Likewise, the Michelson-Morley results implied that the speed of light c is independent of the motion of the
source relative to the observer. That is, everyone observe light to move at speed c regardless of how they
move relative to the source or one another. In 1905, Einstein published his first paper on special relativity
that introduced the currently accepted conclusion - that the laws of electricity and magnetism would not allow
another speed of light.

4.2 TIME DILATION AND LENGTH CONTRACTION

Do time intervals depend on who observes them? Intuitively, we expect the time for a process, such
as the elapsed time for a foot race, to be the same for all observers. Our experience has been that
disagreements over elapsed time have to do with the accuracy of measuring time. When we carefully
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Special Relativity
consider just how time is measured, however, we will find that elapsed time depends on the relative motion
of an observer with respect to the process being measured.

Time Dilation
An astronaut measures the line it takes for light to cross his or her ship, bounce of a mirror, and
return as in the following figure.
The figure below shows (a) An astronaut measures the time ∆𝑡0 for light to cross her ship using an
electronic timer. Light travels a distance 2D in the astronaut's frame (b) A person on Earth sees the light to
low the longer path 2s and take a longer time ∆𝑡 (c) These triangles are used to find the relationship between
the two distances 2D and 2s.

How does the elapsed time the astronaut measures compare with the elapsed time measured for
the same event by a person on Earth?
The elapsed time for a process depends on who is measuring it. In this case, the time measured by
the astronaut is smaller than the time measured by the Earth-bound observer. The passage of time is different
for the two observers because the distance the light travels in the astronaut's frame is smaller than in the
Earth-bound frame.
While the speed of light c is the same in both frames (the astronaut and observer on Earth), it will
still take longer to travel the greater distance in the Earth-bound frame.
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Special Relativity
To quantitatively verify that time depends on the observer, consider the paths followed by light as
seen by each observer (see Figure c). Light travels at the same speed c in both frames, and because time is
2𝐷
the distance divided by speed, the time measured by the astronaut is ∆𝑡0 = . This time has a separate
𝑐
name to distinguish it from the time measured by the Earth-bound observer. In the case of the astronaut
observing the reflecting light the astronaut measures proper time. The time measured by the Earth-bound
2𝑠
observer is ∆𝑡0 = .
𝑐
In the said example, elapsed time is not the same for different observers moving relative to one
another, even though both are in inertial frames. Proper time ∆𝑡0 , measured by an observer, like the
astronaut moving with the apparatus, is smaller than time measured by other observers. Since those other
observers measure a longer time ∆𝑡, the effect is called time dilation.
The Earthbound observe sees time dilate (get longer) for a system moving relative to Earth.
Alternatively, according to the Earth-bound observer, time slows in the moving frame since less time passes
there. All clocks moving relative to an observer, including biological clocks such as aging, are observed to
run slow compared with a clock stationary relative to the observer.
Derived from the mentioned astronaut example, the proper time (∆𝑡0 ) is the time measured by an
∆𝑡0 ∆𝑡0
observer at rest relative to the event being observed ∆𝑡 = 2
= 𝛾∆𝑡0 , where 𝛾 = 2
.
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐
Length Contraction
Close to the speed of light distances measured are not the same when measured by different
observers. One thing all observers agree upon is relative speed. Even though clocks measure different
elapsed times for the same process, they still agree that relative speed, which is distance divided by elapsed
time, is the same. This implies that distance, too, depends on the observer's relative motion. If two observers
see different times, then they must also see different distances for relative speed to be the same to each of
them. Length contraction L is the shortening of the measured length of an object moving relative to the
observer's frame. The equation L which relates to the distances measured with different observers is 𝐿 =
𝑣2
𝐿0 √1 − 𝑐 2 . If we measure the length of anything moving relative to our frame, we find its length L to be
smaller than the proper length 𝐿0 , that would be measured if the object were stationary.

4.3 RELATIVISTIC VELOCITY ADDITION

𝑣+𝑢′
The formula for relativistic velocity addition is 𝑢 = 𝑣𝑢′
where u is the relative velocity between
1+
𝑐2
two observers, u is the velocity of an object relative to one observer, and u’ is the velocity relative to the other
observer. (For ease of visualization, we often choose to measure u in our reference frame, while someone
moving at v relative to us measures u’.)

Example: Applying the Relativistic Velocity Addition

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Special Relativity
Suppose a spaceship heading directly toward Earth at half the speed of light sends a signal to us on a laser-
produced beam of light. Given that the light leaves the ship at speed c as observed from the ship, calculate
the speed at which it approaches Earth.

Strategy: Because the light and the spaceship are moving at relativistic speeds, we cannot use simple velocity
addition. Instead, we can determine the speed at which the light approaches Earth using relativistic velocity
addition.

Solution: First, identify the knowns. 𝑣 = 0.5𝑐 ; 𝑢′ = 𝑐

Second, identify the unknown, 𝑢
𝑣+𝑢 ′
Third, choose the appropriate equation. 𝑢 = 𝑣𝑢′
1+ 2
𝑐
Fourth, plug the known into the equation,
𝑣 + 𝑢′ 0.5𝑐 + 𝑐 1.5𝑐
𝑢= ′ = =
𝑣𝑢 (0.5𝑐 )𝑐 1 + 0.5
1+ 2 1+
𝑐 𝑐2
1.5𝑐
𝑢= =𝑐
1.5

Discussion: Relativistic velocity addition gives the correct result. Light leaves the ship at speed c and
approaches Earth at speed c. The speed of light is independent of the relative motion of source and observer,
whether the observer is on the ship or Earth hound.

4.4 RELATIVISTIC DOPPLER SHIFT

Although the speed of light does not change with relative velocity, the frequencies and wavelengths
of light do. First discussed for sound waves, a Doppler shift occurs in any wave when there is relative motion
between source and observer. The observed wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is longer (called a red
shift) than that emitted by the source when the source moves away from the observer and shorter (called a
blue shift) when the source moves toward the observer.
𝑢
1+𝑐
𝜆obs = 𝜆𝑠 √ 𝑢
1−
𝑐
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In the Doppler equation, 𝜆obs is the observed wavelength, 𝜆s is the source wavelength, and 𝑢 is
the relative velocity of the source to the observer. The velocity 𝑢 is positive for motion away from an observer
and negative for motion toward an observer. In terms of source frequency and observed frequency, this
𝑢
1−
equation can be written 𝑓obs = 𝑓𝑠 √ 𝑐
𝑢 . Notice that the - and + signs are different than in the wavelength
1+
𝑐

equation.
The relativistic Doppler shift is easy to observe. This equation has everyday applications ranging
from Doppler-shifted radar velocity measurements of transportation to Doppler-radar storm monitoring. In
astronomical observations, the relativistic Doppler shift provides velocity information such as the motion and
distance of stars.

Example: Applying the Doppler Equation

Suppose a space probe moves way from Earth at a speed 0.35c. It sends a radio wave message back to
Earth at a frequency of 1.5GHz. At what frequency is the message received on Earth?
𝑢
1−𝑐
𝑓obs = 𝑓𝑠 √ 𝑢
1+𝑐

0.35𝑐
1− 𝑐
𝑓obs = 1.5𝐺𝐻𝑧√
0.35𝑐
1+ 𝑐
𝑓obs = 1.04 𝐺𝐻𝑧