QUANTUM MECHANICS

Topic One: Relativity

Written By: Shahzada khan

Institute of Physics
University of Sindh Jamshoro
Introduction
Special theory of relativity is a important part of modern physics that expresses the natural
phenomenon of everyday life. Before the coming of this theory, people understand that there was
something in space called Ether. And this Ether becomes the reason of transmission of light in
space. But This theory removed the concept of Ether and proved the wrong Michel-Morely
experiment. Except this, special theory of relativity bracks down the laws of classical mechanics
and makes the base of Quantum Mechanics. To understand the Special Theory of Relativity, let us
first understand the actual concept of relativity.

What is relativity?
Statement: Relativity is the method for two people that what they see if one of them is moving. Or
that method which tells the point of views of things with respect to observer if one of them is
moving.
Explanation:
•The dependence of various physical phenomena on relative motion of the observer and the
observed objects, especially regarding the nature and behaviour of light, space, time, and
gravity is called relativity.
•When we have two things and if we want to find out the relation between their physical
property i.e. velocity, accleration then we need relation between them that which is higher and
which is lower.In general way we reffered it to as a relativity.
•The famous scientist Einstein has firstly found out the theory of relativity and he has given very
useful theories in relativity.
 Example: 01 (Rest and Motion) #
Let us suppose, your friend is set inside the train and
you are outside the train. When train starts to move
then according to you, your friend is moving and you
are in rest state but according to him, you are
moving and he is in rest position. Then Who is right?
Actually, both of you are right. This common sense is
relativity or relative motion. And shows the views of
observation according to you and him.

Example: 02 (Changing Velocity) # Now take another situation

of relativity, consider the walk way which is moving with 15m/s
and your friend is standing in rest position in the walk way.
You are observing him from outside. According to you, your
friend is moving with the velocity of 15m/s relative to walk way
but according to him, he is in rest position and you are moving
with the velocity of 15m/s. If your friend moves on the walk
way with the velociy of 5m/s then according to you. He is
moving with the velocity of 20m/s but according to him, he is
moving with the velocity of 5m/s. Now if your friend is moving
against the walk way with the velocity of 5m/s then accoding to
you, he is moving with 10m/s but according to him, he is
moving with 5m/s. The differences of velocities appears due to
relativity. In simple of words, due to observer.
• What is Special Relativity?
• Statement:
• In 1905, Albert Einstein determined that the laws of physics are the same for all non-accelerating observers, and that the speed of light in a
vacuum was independent of the motion of all observers. This was the theory of special relativity.
•  
• FRAMES OF REFERENCE
• A Reference Frame is the point of View, from which we Observe an Object.
• A Reference Frame is the Observer it self, as the Velocity and acceleration are common in Both.
• Co-ordinate system is known as FRAMES OF REFERENCE
• Two types:
• 1. Inertial Frames Of Reference.
• 2. non-inertial frame of reference.
•  
• Inertial Frames of References
• We have already come across idea of frames of reference that move with constant velocity. In such frames, Newton’s law’s (esp. N1) hold.
These are called inertial frames of reference.
•  
• Non-Inertial Frames of References
• Suppose you are in an accelerating car looking at a freely moving object (I.e., one with no forces acting on it). You will see its velocity changing
because you are accelerating! In accelerating frames of reference, N1 doesn’t hold – this is a non-inertial frame of reference.
 • Einstein’s postulates of special theory of relativity
Statement:
The first postulate of special relativity states that all the laws of nature are the same in
all uniformly moving frames of reference.
Einstein’s first postulate of special relativity assumes our inability to detect a state of
uniform motion.
Many experiments can detect accelerated motion, but none can, according to Einstein,
detect the state of uniform motion.
Example 01#
Einstein reasoned all motion is relative and all frames of reference are arbitrary. A
spaceship, for example, cannot measure its speed relative to empty space, but only relative
to other objects. Spaceman A considers himself at rest and sees spacewoman B pass by,
while spacewoman B considers herself at rest and sees spaceman A pass by. Spaceman A
and spacewoman B will both observe only the relative motion.
• Example 02#
• A person playing pool on a smooth and fast-moving
ship does not have to compensate for the ship’s speed.
The laws of physics are the same whether the ship is
moving uniformly or at rest.
 The Second Postulate of Special Relativity
Statement:T
• he second postulate of special relativity states that the speed of light in empty space will always
have the same value regardless of the motion of the source or the motion of the observer.
Explanation:
• Einstein concluded that if an observer could travel close to the speed of light, he would measure
the light as moving away at 300,000 km/s.
• Einstein’s second postulate of special relativity assumes that the speed of light is constant.
• The speed of light in all reference frames is always the same.
• Consider, for example, a spaceship departing from the space station. A flash of light is emitted
from the station at 300,000 km/s—a speed we’ll call c.
• The speed of a light flash emitted by either the spaceship or the space station is measured as c by
observers on the ship or the space station. Everyone who measures the speed of light will get the
same value, c.
•
Consequence of Relativity
The Major Consequences To This Theory are:-
– Time Dilation
– Length Contraction
– Mass Expansion 
Gamma Factor
Statement:
Gamma Factor is a mathematical term of this theory that explains the
consequences of relativity. For example, when we move with high speed
clock runs slow, and length of meter sticks are seemed to be contracts. And
mass expands. In above such consequences, the amount of length contraction,
mass expansion and time dilation is specified by the boost factor Gamma. The
boost factor for an object moving with velocity “v” is given by the formula
 TIME DILATION
The first of these consequences is known as “Time Dilation”

• It requires that, depending on the motion of an

observer, time must pass at different rates.

• Two observers, one stationary, the other moving near

the speed of light, observe the same event.

• In order for each to get the same speed for the event,
each must see it occur during different time intervals.

• The faster the observer travels the slower the rate at

which his time appears to pass to stationary observer.
 • Time Dilation Mirror

In order to demonstrate this change in the rate at which time

passes, let us produce a simple clock.
A photon of light (travelling at c) is bouncing backwards and
forwards between two parallel mirrors.
One back and forth motion of the photon represents one tick of Mirror
the clock.
An observer, stationary in space with respect to the Sun, sees the
“1 Tick”
Earth (with its attached “clock”), go zooming past on its orbit
around the sun.

Photon

Earth Earth Earth

In the time, we (standing on Earth), see the photon bounce back and forth once,
the space observer sees the Earth move a little way along its orbit path.

Hence, if the photon is to strike the mirrors, the space observer

requires it to travel on a diagonal path, as shown.
 Time Dilation
Clock as seen by Earth Clock as seen by Space observer
bound observer Long Distance

Short Distance Speed = c

Speed = c

Since the photon MUST travel at Earth Earth Earth

the Speed of Light, c, the only
logical outcome for the space
observer is to conclude that the
photon on Earth takes a LONGER
TIME to cover the APPARENTLY
LONGER DISTANCE it needs to
travel.
Remember, Speed = distance
and this gets bigger
time
If this has to stay the same
The space observer thus concludes the
Earth clock runs slow compared to his
clock.
This same argument holds true for the
earth bound observer, who would see
the space observer’s clock running
slow.
this must also get
bigger

Thus, MOVING CLOCKS RUN SLOW.

 • Time Dilation
The mathematical
to
representation of Time Dilation t=
So
is shown in the formula: 1 - v2
2

t = γto 1 c
where:
where γ = t = moving observer’s time
1 - v2
2

γ is called the “Lorentz Factor” c as measured by the

• The formula has a number of consequences: stationary observer.
• If v << c, the term v2/c2 approaches zero and to = time measured by
the square root term approaches 1. stationary
• Thus t = to and no change in time (the rate at observer’s clock. (“proper
which time passes) is observed. time”)
• As v approaches c (say v = 0.9c), the v = speed of moving
stationary observer sees the moving observer.
observer’s clock tick over only 0.4 sec for c = Speed of Light.
every 1 second on his own clock. My Clock
• If v = c, the term v2/c2 = 1 and the square root
term becomes zero. Dividing a number by
zero equals infinity.
My observation
• Thus, when v = c the time interval becomes
infinite. In other words, time stops passing. of the moving
clock
 • The Twins Paradox
Twins, Adam and Eve, are thinking how they will age if one of them goes
on a space journey, travelling at say 0.866c.
Will Eve be younger, older, or remain the same age as her brother if she
does a round trip of some years duration ?
Assume that Adam and Eve’s clocks are synchronized before Eve leaves.
At 0.866c, Adam will “see” Eve’s time pass at exactly half the rate his time
passes.
So when Eve returns, she will have aged by 1 year for every 2 years Adam
has aged. Thus, Eve is younger than Adam.
However, can you turn the discussion around and say that Eve has been
at rest in her space-ship while Adam has been on a "space journey" with
planet Earth?
In that case, Adam must be younger than Eve at the reunion!
Adam is at rest all the time on Earth, i.e., he is in the same inertial frame
all the time, but Eve is not - she will have felt forces when her space-ship
accelerates and retards, and Adam will not feel such forces. So the
argument is not an interchangeable one. The travelling twin is the younger
upon their reunion.
 
P.S. Eve's space-ship has to consume fuel, which means that it costs to
keep yourself young!
 • Length Contraction
y
The 2nd consequence of light
having a constant speed is v=0 v = 0.8c
Length Contraction.
An observer sees two set
squares, one stationary in his
inertial frame, the other in
x
an inertial frame moving This must
near the speed of light. Remember: Speed = distance
also be
time less
How does the speed difference
to keep
affect the apparent size of the this the with this
set square ? same having
Remember the stationary become
observer sees the moving less
IMPORTANT NOTE:
“frames” clock running slow.
The length contraction only occurs in
To get the same value for c in
the direction of travel (x direction) and
each frame, he must measure the
measurements at right angles to that
length of the set square (in the
direction are unaffected ! (no
direction of travel) to be shorter
contraction in the y direction)
than his own stationary ruler.
 • Length Contraction
Land available on Mars and its
free !
The Martians send an
advertising rocket to fly past
v = 0.1c Earth.
What is the best speed for the
rocket so stationary Earthlings
can read the sign ?
v = 0.86c

v = 0.90c

v = 0.98c
 Length Contraction
The mathematical representation of Length
Contraction is shown in the formula. 1 - v2 )
L
So, L = o (
L = Lo/γ c2
Where:
The formula has a number of consequences: L = Length of moving
1. If the v << c, the square root term approaches object as measured
1 and the length is unaffected, ie. L = Lo by stationary
observer.
2. As v approaches c, v2/c2 approaches 1 and the Lo = Length of stationary
square root term approaches 0. Thus, the object measured by
length approaches 0 ie. L = 0. stationary
So, a photon of light travelling at c from the Sun toobserver. (“Proper
the Earth makes the journey in no time and travelsLength”)
no distance !!!!!! v = speed of moving
object.
The moving observer’s view
c = Speed of Light.
of the length contracted
world
The stationary observer’s
view of the length
contracted Superman
 Mass Dilation
The third effect of the invariance of the speed of light is mass dilation.
As the speed of an object increases so too does its mass !!!!!!

Under Einstein mass is whatever we measure

it to be.
We must use an operational definition for
mass.
He showed that the mass of an object depends
on how fast the object is moving relative to a
stationary observer.

Under Newton, mass is an absolute

quantity for each object and it is
conserved, never changing for each object.
This invariance of mass is the basis of
Newton’s 2nd Law (F = ma), and our own
every day experience seems to verify that
mass is absolute.
• Mass – Newton v Einstein
Newtonian physics gives good
results at speeds less than 10% of
the speed of light.
The mass of an object does not
change with speed, it changes
only if we cut off or add a piece to
the object .
F = ma means that to accelerate a
mass requires a force, by
supplying sufficient force you can
make an object go as fast as you
like.
Kinetic Energy = ½mv2, since
mass does not change an
increase in KE means an increase
in speed.
Einstein’s relativity deals with faster
speeds.
As an object moves faster its mass
increases. (As measured by a
stationary observer).
Mass approaches infinity as speed
approaches c. To reach c would
require infinite force.
Since mass changes with speed, a
change in K.E. must involve both a
change in speed and a change in
mass.
At speeds close to c most of the
change occurs to the mass.
• Mass - How Fast, How Heavy ?
The mass of an object at rest is called its rest mass (m0)
At low velocities the increase in mass is small.
An object travelling at 20% of the speed of light (60,000 kms-1) has an
apparent mass only 2% greater than its rest mass (m0).
As speed increases, apparent mass increases rapidly.
Mathematically: m0
So, m =
m = γmo 1 - v2
2

6m0 where: c
m = Apparent Mass of the object
m0 = Rest Mass of the object
Apparent Mass

4m0
v = speed of object.
c = Speed of Light.
2m0
1. When v << c, the square root term
approaches 1, and m = m0
m0 2. As v approaches c, the square root
term approaches 0, and m approaches
infinity.
0 20 40 60 80 100
There is insufficient energy in the
% of Speed of Light
Speed of object as seen by a
universe to accelerate even the smallest
stationary observer particle up to the speed of light !!!!!!!!!!
 • Energy & Mass
Increasing the speed of a mass
requires energy.
The fact that feeding energy into a
body increases its mass suggests
that the rest mass m0 of a body,
multiplied by c2, can be considered
as a quantity of energy.
The truth of this is best seen in
interactions between elementary
particles. For example, if a positron and
an electron collide at low speed (so there
is very little kinetic energy) they both
disappear in a flash of electromagnetic
radiation.

Einstein recognised the fundamental

importance of the interchangeability of
mass and energy which is summarised
in his famous equation:
E = mc2
This EM radiation can be detected and
where m is the its energy measured.
Apparent Mass. It turns out to be 2m0c2 where m0 is the
Remember, mass of the electron (and the positron).
m0
m= So each particle must have possessed
1 - v2
2
so called “rest energy” of m0c2
c
If an object is at rest it
Rest Energy
A Hiroshima sized
possesses “rest mass atomic bomb releases
energy” or more simply about 1014 Joules,
“rest energy” (100,000 billion joules).
Einstein’s equation is How much mass has
then written as: been converted ?
E = m0c2

Where E = Energy (joules) E = m0c2

m0 = Rest Mass (kg) Thus m0 = (1014)/(3 x 108)2
c = 3 x 108 ms-1 = 1.1 x 10-3 kg
= 1.1 g
How much energy does 1 kg of As can be seen a tiny mass
mass, at rest, represent ? converts to a huge amount of
E = m0c2 energy
= (1)(3 x 108)2
= 9 x 1016 Joules
This represents the average
annual output of a medium sized
Power Station
 • Moving Mass
As a mass begins to move it
possesses BOTH rest mass energy
AND energy of motion (Kinetic
Energy).
Expressing Einstein’s equation as:
E = mc2
Includes both rest mass and
kinetic energy
The Kinetic Energy of a fast moving
particle can be calculated from:
K.E. = mc2 – m0c2
The relativistic energy of a particle can
also be expressed in terms of its
momentum (p) in the expression:
E = mc2 = p2c2 + m02c4
This is essentially defining the
kinetic energy of an object as the
excess of the object’s energy
over its rest mass energy.
For low velocities this expression
approaches the non-relativistic
kinetic energy expression.
For v/c << 1,
KE = mc2 – m0c2 ≈ ½ m0v2
As an object’s speed increases
more and more of the energy
goes into increasing mass and
less and less into increasing
velocity.
• The Speed of Light. A Limit ?

These equations together are called “The

t0 Lorentz Transforms”.
t Each Lorentz Transform has a limiting
v2 factor.
1 2 If v > c, then:
c
• t becomes negative, and time runs
v2 backward !!!!!! (the bullet hits you
L  L0 ( 1  2 ) BEFORE it is fired from the gun).
c • L becomes negative, and an object has a
length less than zero!!!!!,
m0 • m becomes negative and objects have a
m mass less than zero!!!!!
v2
1 2
c • Thus, c (the speed of light) is the limiting
factor.
• Speeds greater than c are not possible.
 Relativistic Speed Addition
Imagine that you are standing between two space-ships
moving away from you.
One space-ship moves to the left with a speed of 0.75 c
(relative to you) and the other one moves to the right also
with a speed of 0.75 c (again relative to you).
At what speed will each space-ship see the other moving
away? 0.75 c + 0.75 c = 1.5 c?
v =0.75c v’=0.75c
No, their relative speed will be 0.96 c (according to the
relativistic addition of velocities), and it cannot, of course,
v” = 0.96c
be faster than the speed of light c.
However, in special relativity, the velocities are
added together as
In classical Newtonian v” = v’ + v
mechanics, two different 1 + v.v’
velocities and are added c2
together by the formula This formula is called the
v” = v’ + v relativistic addition of velocities.
where v” is the sum of the Note that if v’ = c and/or v = c,
two velocities. then v” = c, and for small
velocities v, v’ << c, then the
classical formula is regained.
 Special Relativity
Experimental Proofs
Experimental proof of the for each of the areas of Time Dilation,
Length Contraction and Mass Dilation are available on Earth. These
are shown below.

E xperim ental
P roofs

Tim e D ilation and M ass D ilation

Length C ontraction

R adioactive particles P rotons when accelerated in particle

from outer space called M U -M E S O N S accelerators show m ass increase exactly as
bom bard the earth at speeds close to c. predicted by the form ula.
Their behaviour is perfectly predicted by the form ulae
 Relativistic Doppler Effect
The Doppler Effect:
Motion towards or away from a
source will cause a change in the
observed frequency f (or
wavelength λ) as compared to the
emitted frequency.
All wave phenomena (e.g., water,
sound, and light) behave in this
way.
If you are driving
towards a red
traffic light (λ0 = 650
nm) at a speed of
approximately v =
0.17 c, the traffic
light will actually
appear to be green
(λ = 550 nm)! (0.17 c
is approximately
5.0 x107 ms-1.)
Suppose a source emits light of frequency
f (or wavelength λ, remember that c = fλ).
Then, an observer moving with a speed v
away from the source, will observe the
frequency:
f = f0 c – v
c+v
This formula is called the relativistic
Doppler formula. Note that f < f0 for all
0 < v < c, i.e., the frequency which the
observer sees, is smaller than the
"original" frequency in the inertial
frame of the source.
Observers moving away from the
source will see a redshift in the
frequency of the light, since light with
lower frequencies are "more red" and
light with higher frequencies are
"more blue."
While observers moving towards the
source will see a corresponding
blueshift.
Special Relativity
Conclusion
• I leave the last word to
Einstein himself who, when
asked to describe Special
Relativity in laymen's terms,
said:
• “Put your hand on a hot stove
for a minute, and it seems like
an hour.
• Sit with a pretty girl for an
hour and it seems like a
minute.
• That’s relativity”