Special Theory of Relativity

1. Background of special theory of relativity

Introduction
Frames of Reference
Postulates of Relativity
Michelson-Morley Experiment
Galilean Transformation
Failure of the Galilean Transformation

2. Relativistic kinematics
Lorentz transformation
Time dilation (Relativity of time)
Length contraction (Relativity of length)
Relativistic velocity transformation

3. Relativistic dynamics
Relativity of mass
Relativistic momentum & Newton’s second law of motion
Equivalence of mass and energy

BACKGROUND OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

ORIGIN OF THE TERM “RELATIVITY”: GALLILEAN OBSERVATION
Before 17th century, people had a deep believe on theology. At that time they knew that the earth is at the
centre of the universe and other terrestrial bodies move round the earth.

Galileo was first persuaded (coaxed) that earth is in motion around the sun, which is stationary. Most of his
fellows (contemporaries) argued that if it is true then why birds leaving the earth would not be left behind
by the speeding earth? Galileo reasoned that if a ship moved uniformly on the sea, a sailor could not
distinguish between the situations either the ship is in motion and the sea is at rest or the ship is at rest and
the sea is in motion. According to Galileo, a weight dropped from the top of the mast of a ship moving
uniformly should land at the base of the mast, not behind of it, although we might expect the later one.
In Galileo’s view- the only motion that is measurable is the relative motion between the ship and the sea;
hence the term “Relativity” was manifested first ever. If he could do experiments on the falling weight,
presumably the weight would not have landed exactly at the base of the mast, partly due to the effects of
wind and partly due to the moving ship.

Newton’s Law of Inertia in Macroscopic and Microscopic point of View:

To send a signal through free space from one point to another as fast as possible, we use a beam of light or
some other electromagnetic radiation such as a radio wave. No faster method of signaling has been
discovered. This experimental fact suggests that the speed of light in free space, c (= 3.00×108 m/sec) is an
appropriate limiting reference speed to which other speed, such as the speeds of particles or of mechanical
waves, can be compared.
In the macroscopic world of our ordinary experiences, the speed u of moving objects or mechanical waves
with respect to any observer is always less then c. For example, an artificial satellite circling the earth may
move at 18,000 mph with respect to the earth; here u/c = 0.000027. Sound waves in air at room
temperature move at speed 332 m/sec through the air so that u/c = 0.0000010. It is in this ever-present, but
limited, macroscopic environment that out ideas about space and time are formulated an in which Newton
developed his system of mechanics.
Problems in the Microscopic point of view and failure of Newtonian mechanics:
In the microscopic world it is readily possible to find particles whose speeds are quit close to that of light.
 For an electron accelerated through a 10 MEV potential difference, a value reasonable easy to obtain,
the speed u equals 0.9988c.
 We cannot be certain without direct experimental test that Newtonian mechanics can be safely
extrapolated from the ordinary region of low speeds (u/c<<1) in which it was developed to this high-
speed region (u/c1).
Experiment shows, in fact, that Newtonian mechanics does not predict the correct answers when it is
applied to such fast particles.
 Indeed, in Newtonian mechanics there is no limit in principle to the speed attainable by a particle, so
that the speed of light c should play no special role at all.
 And yet, if the energy of 10 MeV electron above is increased by a factor of four (to 40 MeV)
experiment shows that the sped is not doubled to 1.9976c as we might expect from the Newtonian
1
relation K  Mv 2 , but remain below c; it increases only from 0.9988c to 0.9999c, a chance of 0.11
2
percent.
 If the 10 MeV electron moves at right angles to a magnetic field at 2.0 weber/m 2, the measured radius
mv   
of curvature of its path (from r  e and Lorentz force F  qv  B ) is not 0.53 cm, but
qB
experiment shows 1.8 cm. Hence, no matter how well Newtonian mechanics may work at low speeds
it fails badly as u/c1.

Einstein’s New look of Relativity:

When we measure length of a stick, time interval between two events and mass of a particle, we ought to
get the same result as there exists. A passenger on the board of an airplane can easily measures its length
by a tape, fixing airplane’s nose and tail. But how an observer on the ground will measure the length of a
moving airplane? How he will measure the time of a watch kept at the plane? Will the measurements of
airplane-observer and ground-observer be the same? If not, how the values will be affected by the relative
motion?

In 1905 a young physicist of 26 named Albert Einstein published his special theory of relativity and
showed how measurements of time and space are affected by motion between an observer and what is
being observed. Relativity connects space and time, matter and energy, electricity and magnetism.
Theoretical concept of the special relativity was introduced in Einstein’s paper “On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies”.

Although motivated by a desire to gain deeper insight into the nature of electromagnetism, Einstein, in his
theory, extended and generalized Newtonian mechanics as well. He correctly predicted the results of
mechanical experiments over the complete range of speeds from u/c = 0 to u/c → 1. Newtonian mechanics
was revealed to be an important special case of a more general theory. In developing this theory of
relativity, Einstein critically examined the procedures used to measure length and time intervals. These
procedures require the use of light signals and, in fact, an assumption about the way light is propagated is
one of the two central hypotheses upon which the theory is based. His theory resulted in a completely new
view of the nature of space and time.

The connection between mechanics and electromagnetism is not surprising because light, which plays a
basic role in making the fundamental space and time measurements that underlie mechanics, is an
electromagnetic phenomenon. However, our low-speed Newtonian environment is so much a part of our
daily life that almost everyone has some conceptual difficulty in understanding Einstein’s ideas of space-
time when he first studies them. Einstein may have put his finger on the difficulty when he said “Common
sense is that layer of prejudices laid down in the mind prior to the age of eighteen.”

Einstein showed that Maxwell’s theory is consistent with special relativity, whereas Newtonian, mechanics
is not and his modification of mechanics brought these branches of physics into accord. As we will find,
relativistic and Newtonian mechanics agree for relative speed much lower than the speed of light. For this
Newtonian mechanics seemed correct for so long. At higher speeds Newtonian mechanics fails and must
be replaced by the relativistic version.

The concept of special theory of relativity was followed by general theory of relativity. The special theory
of relativity deals with the objects and systems moving at constant speed relative to each other, whereas the
general theory of relativity deals with objects or systems having accelerated motion relative to each other.
FRAMES OF REFERENCE
Relative Motion:
The first step is to clarify what we mean by motion. Using Cartesian co-ordinate system in three
dimensions, we can characterize any location by three co-ordinates of that space point. When we say that
something is moving, what we mean is that its position relative to something else is changing. That is all
motion is relative. In each case a frame of reference is part of the description of the motion.

In order to describe the motion of moving bodies, we need to state where the object is at any given time.
But to state where an object is, we need to measure its position relative to something else, right? So we
need a reference point from which to define the position of objects. Once we have chosen such a point,
which is called the origin, we can specify the position of the object by saying, for instance, that the object
is distance x to the east, distance y to the north, and distance z up from the origin. We also need a
clock so that we can specify at what time t the object was at the given position.

The co-ordinate system, relative to which any measurement can be done to specify the state of rest or
motion of an object, is known as the frame of reference.

When we have the origin and the directions in which to measure the distance from the origin set up, and a
clock to measure the time, we say that we have a frame of reference or simply a frame.

Examples: We know that the state of rest or motion of an object becomes meaningful only when
considered relative to a specific system. Let us illustrate with the help of an example. Assume a person (A)
traveling in a train moving at constant speed. If he (A) observes another person (B) sitting adjacent to him
in the train, the person (B) will appear to be at rest. However, to an observer (C) standing on the ground the
person (B) will appear to be moving with the same speed as that of the train. Thus, the same person
appears to be at rest as well as in motion simultaneously to the different observers. Why is this Paradox?

If a well-defined co-ordinate system is attached to different observers, then the state of rest or motion of
the person under observation can be defined in a specific manner i.e. his position can be defined precisely.

A physical event is something that happens independently of the frame of reference we might use to
describe it.
Examples: Suppose an event of a collision of two particles occurs at x = 1m, y = 4 m, z = 11 m at time t =
7 s in a laboratory on the earth so that the four numbers (1, 4, 11, 7) specify the event in that reference
frame. If this collision observed from an airplane flying overhead, would these values be different from
those in the laboratory? The event will have different coordinate system in the airplane reference frame.
Examples: A passenger moves relative to an airplane; the airplane moves relative of the earth; the earth
moves relative to the sun; the sun moves relative to the galaxy of stars (the Milky Way) of which it is a
member and so on.
To say that something is moving always implies a specific frame of reference. If well-defined coordinate
systems can be attached to the observers, any event can be defined precisely. Thus, if we are to describe
events, our first step is to establish a frame of reference.

Inertial and Non-inertial Frame of reference

Newton's first law, the law of inertia, states that
1. if an object is at rest it will stay at rest if no force is acting on it, and
2. if an object is moving it will keep on moving at constant velocity if no force is acting on it.
This law is actually not always correct! (Surprised?) It depends on which frame you are using to describe
the motion of the object. For instance, if you are using the moving object itself as the origin of your frame
of reference, it is always at rest no matter what forces are acting on it.

So when we talk about the law of inertia, we are assuming that a frame exists in which the law is correct.
Such a frame is called an inertial frame. If one such inertial frame exists, then an infinite number of other
inertial frames exist since any frame that is moving at a constant relative velocity to the first inertial frame
is also an inertial frame.
Inertial Frame:
An inertial frame of reference is one in which Newton’s first law of motion holds good. In this frame, an
object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion continues to move at constant velocity (constant speed
and direction) if no force acts on it. Any frame of reference that moves at constant velocity relative to an
inertial frame is itself an inertial frame. A reference frame in which a body acted upon by no net force i.e.
has zero acceleration can be considered as an inertial frame of reference. All inertial frames of references
are equally valid. There is no universal frame of reference that can be used everywhere.

Special theory of relativity deals with problems that involve inertial frames of reference that is, where the
body moves with a constant velocity.

Example:
 Newton assumed that a frame of reference fixed with respect to the stars is an inertial system.
 A rocket ship drifting in outer space, without spinning and with its engines cut off, provides an ideal
inertial system.
 If we can neglect the small acceleration effects due to the rotation and orbital motion of the earth and
to solar motion, any set of axes fixed on the earth will be an inertial frame.
 Any set of axes moving at uniform velocity with respect to the earth, as in a train, ship or airplane
will be (nearly) inertial because motion at uniform velocity does not introduce acceleration.
 Gravity is a peculiar force in that if a reference frame is freely falling under the effects of gravity,
then any particle also freely falling will be observed to be moving in a straight line at constant speed
relative to this freely falling frame. Thus freely falling frames constitute inertial frames of reference,
at least locally.
Frames accelerating with respect such system are not inertial.

Non-inertial Frame:
A reference frame in which a body is accelerated without being acted upon by external force is called a
non-inertial frame of reference. Newton’s laws are not valid in such a frame of reference.

General theory of relativity, which is published by Einstein a decade later in 1917, concerns itself with all
frames of reference including the non-inertial frames of reference which are accelerated with respect to
one another.

Example:
 A system of axes which accelerates with respect to the earth, such as one fixed to a spinning merry-
go-round or to an accelerating car.
 Any axes attached to an accelerating Elevator.

A particle acted on by zero net external force will not move in a straight line with constant speed
according to an observer in any non-inertial frame of reference.

GALILEAN TRANSFORMATION

Why Galilean transformation introduced?

Newton’s laws of motion does not tell us whether there is one or many inertial frames of reference, nor, if
there is more than one, does it tell us how we are to relate the coordinates of an event as observed from the
point-of-view of one inertial reference frame to the coordinates of the same event as observed in some
other. In establishing the latter, we can show that there is in fact an infinite number of inertial reference
frames. Moreover, the transformation equations that we derive are then the mathematical basis on which it
can be shown that Newton’s Laws are consistent with the principle of relativity. The transformation of co-
ordinates of a particle from one inertial frame of reference to another is called the Galilean
transformation.

Let us consider we are in an inertial frame of reference S and the coordinates of some event that occurs at
the time t are (x, y, z). An observer located in a different inertial frame S which is moving with respect to S
at constant velocity u, will find that the same event occurs at the time t and has the coordinates (x, y, z ).
For convenience, let u is in the +x direction as shown in the figure.

y y
x

O S 
S x u
p
y y
x x
O

z z
ut

Fig. 6: Frame S moves in the X-direction with speed u relative to frame S.

Let us suppose that the clocks in S and S are set such that when the origins of the two reference frames O
and O coincide, all the clocks in both frames of reference read zero i.e. t = t = 0. According to ‘common
sense’, if the clocks in S and S are synchronized at t = t = 0, then they will always read the same, i.e. t = t
always. This is the absolute time concept. We consider an event of some kind, i.e. an explosion occurs at a
point (x, y, z , t ) according to S. The motion is in the +x direction and there is no relative motion in the y
and z directions, and so the event occurs in S at the point

x  x  ut
y  y
(1)
z  z
and the time t  t

These equations together are known as the Galilean transformation. they tell us how the coordinates of an
event in the inertial frame S, which moving with a uniform velocity u with respect to S, are related to the
coordinates of the same event as measured in S which is in rest.

According to the symmetry of space, if S is moving with a velocity u with respect to S, then S will be
moving with a velocity -u with respect to S so the inverse transformation should be obtainable by simply
exchanging the primed and unprimed variables, and replacing u by −u. Thus the inverse transformation,
i.e., the transformation from S to S is

x  x  ut 
y  y (2)
z  z
t  t

The time-interval and space-interval measurements are absolutes according to the Galilean transformation:
 They are same for all inertial observers
 The relative velocity u of the frames being arbitrary and not entering into the results(x2-x1, or t2-t1)
 Mass of a body is a constant, independent of its motion with respect to an observer

Thus classical mechanics and the Galilean transformations imply that length, mass, and time are all
independent of the relative motion (u) of the measurer or observer.
NEWTONIAN RELATIVITY
How do the measurements of different inertial observers compare with regard to velocities and
accelerations of objects?
The position of a particle is a function of time, so that we can express particle velocity and acceleration in
terms of time derivatives of position.

Let us suppose that the position of a particle in S frame is expressed by the Galilean transformation given
as

x  x  ut
y  y
(1)
z  z
t  t

The velocity components measured in the S frame in terms of their equivalents in the S frame are

dx  dx
 v x'   u  v x'  v x  u
dt  dt
dy  dy
 v 'y   v 'y  v y (2)
dt  dt
dz  dz
 v z'   v z'  v z
dt  dt

In general, v  v  u (3)

Thus, we can see that different velocities are assigned to a particle by different observers when the
observers in relative motion. These are the velocity transformation equations correspond to Galilean
transformation.
The accelerations are

dvx' dv du
a x'   x   ax  0  ax
dt  dt dt
a 'y  a y (4)
and a z'  a z

Hence, a  a (5)

It is clear that the measured components of acceleration of a particle are unaffected by the uniform relative
velocity of the reference frames, i.e., the transformation of acceleration is invariant under Galilean
transformation.

 Two observers observe different velocities of a particle when they are in relative motion. These
velocities always differ by the relative velocity of the two observers which is always a constant
velocity in their inertial frames.
 When the particle velocity changes, the change will be the same for both observers so that they
measures the same acceleration for the particle.
 The acceleration of a particle is the same in all inertial reference frames which move relative to one
another with constant velocity.

In classical physics m = m (mass is not affected by motion). The force acting on the particle of mass m
observed by two inertial frame of reference S and S is then invariant given as ma x'  ma x  Fx'  Fx .
The general conclusion we can draw from all this is that:

Newton’s Laws of motion are identical in all inertial frames of reference.

This is the Newtonian (or Galilean) principle of relativity, and was essentially accepted by all physicists, at
least until the time when Maxwell put together his famous set of equations. One consequence of this
conclusion is that it is not possible to determine whether or not a frame of reference is in a state of motion
by any experiment involving Newton’s laws. At no stage do the laws depend on the velocity of a frame of
reference relative to anything else, even though Newton had postulated the existence of some kind of
“absolute space” i.e. a frame of reference which defined the state of absolute rest, and with respect to
which the motion of anything could be measured. The existence of such a reference frame was taken for
granted by most physicists, and for a while it was thought to be have been uncovered following on from
the appearance on the scene of Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism.

Newton’s Second Law:

By means of the Galilean transformation, we can obtain an important result of Newtonian mechanics
which carries over in a much more general form to special relativity. We shall illustrate the idea by means
of an example involving two particles connected by a spring. If the X coordinates of the two particles are x1
and x2 relative to some reference frame S then from Newton’s Second Law the equation of motion of the
particle at x1 is
d 2 x1
m1   k ( x1  x 2  l ) (1)
dt 2
where k is the spring constant, l the natural length of the spring, and m1 the mass of the particle. If we now
consider the same pair of masses from the point of view of another frame of reference S moving with a
velocity vx relative to S, then
x1  x1  v x t  and x 2  x 2  v x t  (2)
so that
d 2 x1 d 2 x1
 (3)
dt 2 dt  2
and
x2  x1  x2  x1 (4)

Thus, substituting the last two results into Eq. (1) gives
d 2 x1
m1   k ( x1  x 2  l ) (5)
dt  2
Now according to Newtonian mechanics, the mass of the particle is the same in both frames i.e.
m1  m1 (6)
where m1 is the mass of the particle as measured in S. Hence
d 2 x1
m1   k ( x1  x 2  l ) (7)
dt  2
which is exactly the same equation as obtained in S, Eq. (1) except that the variables x1 and x 2 are
replaced by x1 and x 2 . In other words, the form of the equation of motion derived from Newton’s second
law is the same in both frames of reference.
Thus, the mathematical forms of the equations of motion obtained from Newton’s Second Law are the
same in all inertial frames of reference.

Conservation of momentum:
We can show that the momentum is conserved in all inertial reference frames. Thus, in reference frame S,
the total momentum is
m1 x1  m2 x 2  P  cons tan t (8)
Using Eq. (2) above we then see that in S the total momentum is
P   m1 x1  m2 x 2  m1 x1  m2 x 2  (m1  m2 )v x  P  (m1  m2 )v x (9)
which is also a constant (but not the same constant as in S – it is not required to be the same constant!!).
The analogous result to this in special relativity plays a very central role in setting up the description of the
dynamics of a system.

Example: A passenger walks forward along the aisle of a train at a speed of 2.2 miles/hr as the train moves
along a straight track at a constant speed of 57.5 miles/hr with respect to ground. What is the passenger’s
speed with respect to the ground?
Solution: Let us choose the train to be the primed frame S so that v x  2.2 miles / hr . The primed frame S
moves forward with respect to the ground (unprimed frame S) at a speed of u  57.5 miles / hr . Hence the
passenger’s speed with respect to ground is
v x  v x  u  2.2 miles / hr  57.5 miles / hr  59.7 miles / hr

Example: A particle of mass m1 = 3 kg, moving at a velocity of u1 = +4 m/sec along the x-axis of frame S,
approaches a second particle of mass m2 = 1 kg, moving at a velocity u2 = -3 m/sec along this axis. After a
head-on collision, it is found that m2 has a velocity U2 = +3 m/sec along the x-axis.
(a) Calculate the expected velocity U1 of m1 after the collision.
(b) Discuss the collision as seen by observer S who has a velocity v of +2 m/sec relative to S along the
x-axis.
Solution: (a) We use the law of conservation of momentum. Before the collision the momentum of the
system of two particles is
P = m1u1+m2u2 = (3 kg)(+4 m/sec)+ (1 kg)(-3 m/sec) = +9 kg-m/sec
After the collision the momentum of the system, P = m1U1+m2U2 is also +9 kg-m/sec.
So, +9 kg-m/sec = = m1U1+m2U2 = (3 kg)(U1)+ (1 kg)(+3 m/sec)
U1 = +2 m/sec along the x-axis.

(b) The four velocities measured by S can be calculated from the Galilean velocity transformation
v x'  v x  v , from which we get
u1  u1  v = +4 m/sec – 2 m/sec = 2 m/sec
u 2  u 2  v = -3 m/sec – 2 m/sec = -5 m/sec
U 1  U 1  v = +2 m/sec – 2 m/sec = 0
U 2  U 2  v = +3 m/sec – 2 m/sec = 1 m/sec
The system momentum in S is
P  m1u1  m2 u 2 = (3 kg)(+2 m/sec)+ (1 kg)(-5 m/sec) = +1 kg-m/sec
before the collision and

P  m1U1  m2U 2 = (3 kg)(0)+ (1 kg)(1 m/sec) = +1 kg-m/sec

after the collision.

Hence, although the velocities and momenta have different numerical values in the two frames, S and S,
when the momentum is conserved in S it is also conserved in S.

Transformation laws, in general, will change many quantities but will leave some others unchanged. These
unchanged quantities are called invariants of the transformation. For example, acceleration, force,
conservation laws, etc are invariants in inertial frame of reference.
A relativity principle is a statement that describes what the invariant quantities are. It says, for such
quantities, the inertial frames are equivalent to one another; none can have a privileged state status
relative to others. So, Newton expressed his relativity principle as follows: “The motion of bodies included
in a given space are the same amongst themselves, whether that space is at rest or moves uniformly
forward in a straight line.”
Michelson-Morley Experiment
Concept of Ether for propagation of light and its failure:
When we say that the speed of sound in dry air at 0C is 331.3 m/sec, we have in mind an observer, and a
corresponding reference system, fixed in the air mass through which the sound wave is moving. It is
however known that sound waves are mechanical vibrations which are longitudinal in nature cannot
propagate in vacuum and require a medium having some non-zero density.
1
However, when we say that the speed of light is = 2.997925×108 m/s, it is not clear at all what
 0 0
reference system is implied. A reference system fixed in the medium of propagation of light presents
difficulties because no medium seems to exist in contrast to sound. According to Maxwell, light waves are
electromagnetic wave and the physicists’ upto the 19th century felt quite sure that the EM waves require a
propagation medium like all other kinds of waves. For light, they assumed this medium named as
‘Luminiferous Ether’. But problems arose when Ether is attributed to some strange properties:

i) Since light passes through vacuum, so Ether must be massless and of zero density and must have
perfect transparency to account for its undetectability.
ii) Wave propagation requires shearing forces and these forces can occur in solid only. It means that
Ether must be a rigid solid filling the whole space. As the velocity of wave propagation depends on
the elasticity of the medium, Ether must be highly elastic. Thus, the whole free space must be filled
up with such an elastic medium to sustain the vibration of light waves.
Though these are difficult to predict the people believed the Ether medium. A solution of Maxwell’s
equation gives the speed of light, c = 3×108 m/sec, this is in agreement with experimental result. This is
now well known that light waves are transverse electromagnetic waves in origin and do not need any
medium.

Why Michelson-Morley Experiment?

If light is propagated through the Ether medium,
then in an optical experiment one would expect
that the change in velocity (drift) will depend
upon the direction of light propagation with
respect to the motion of the apparatus.
A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley in 1881
performed an experiment to test the validity of
the assumption of ether concept. The apparatus
employed was known as Michelson’s
interferometer.

The figure shows a beam of light (parallel

wave) from a lab source S (fixed with the
interferometer) is split by a partially silvered
mirror into two coherent beams. Beam 1 is
transmitted to P and 2 is reflected from P. Beam
1 is reflected back to P by the mirror B and 2 is reflected by A. The returning beam 1 is reflected by P and
2 is transmitted by P and they enter into the telescope T, where they interfere. The interference will be
constructive or destructive depending on the path difference of the beams. The mirror P is inclined at 45
to the incident beam directions so that if A and B are right angles, we observe fringes in the telescope T
consisting of nearly equal distance.

We assume that the earth moves with a velocity v along PB, an ether wind will move in the direction BP
with a velocity –v. Let c = speed of light, D = PB = BP. Time taken by beam 1 travel from P to B and back
to P is
1
D D 2 Dc 2D  v 2  2D  v 2 
tA    2  1    1  
c  v c  v c  v2 c  c 2  c  c 2 
Similarly, the time taken by the beam 2 to travel from P to A and back P is given by
2D  v2 
tB  1  2 
c  2c 
The difference in time taken by the two beams of light for a round trip is
2D  v 2  2D  v 2  Dv 2
t1  t B  t A  1  2   1  2   3
c  c  c  2c  c
This t1 will give rise a path difference d  ct1 between the two rays and hence we will get fringes.
However, if we rotate the apparatus by 90, the time difference will be reversed as AB.
In that case
2D  v2  2D  v2  Dv 2
t2  t A  t B  1  2   1  2    3
c  2c  c  c  c
2 Dv 2
Therefore, the change in these two time difference is t  t1  t2 
c3
2 Dv 2
Then the corresponding path difference is d  ct 
c2
2 Dv 2
For interference we know that path difference, d  n 
c2
2D  v 2 
So the fringe shift, n   
  c 2 
In actual experiment, Michelson and Morley used D = 10 m,  = 5000Å and the earth speed v = 3×104
m/sec. Then fringe shifts
2  10m  (3  104 m / s) 2
n  0.4 fringe
(5  10 7 m)  (3  108 ) 2
Michelson and Morley mounted the interferometer on a massive stone slab for stability and floated the
apparatus in mercury so that it could be rotated smoothly about a central pin. In order to make the light
path as long as possible, mirrors were arranged on the slab to reflect the beams back and forth through
eight round trips.
The arrangement was capable of measuring 1/100th of a fringe shift. But, actually no fringe shift was
found during this measurement. The experiment was performed at different seasons and different places
with the same result every time and no fringe shift was detected. Thus, it was concluded that the relative
velocity between the earth and the Ether is zero and there is no fringe shift at all.

The result of Michelson-Morley experiment was explained by Einstein and he concluded that:
i) There is no ether frame in space, and
ii) The speed of light in free space is invariant i.e. it is constant and is independent of the motion of
source, medium or the observer. This fact lead to n = 0. Downstream and cross-stream speed of light
is c, not c+v.

Problem: Calculate the fringe-shift in Michelson-Morley experiment.

Given that D = 11 m,  = 6×10-5 cm and the earth speed v = 3×104 m/sec.

After the Michelson-Morley experiment, two attempts were considered to preserve Ether frame.
i) The Lorentz-Fitzgerald length contraction hypothesis.
ii) The Ether drag hypothesis.

The drag hypothesis attempts to modify electrodynamics were considered. On this respect, emission
theories (c is relative to the velocity of light source not depend on the medium) were contracted. There
after, many experiments were done, no effects of source velocity (rotation or translation relative to the
interferometer) were observed. Then, it was concluded that laws of electrodynamics do need to modify.
Therefore, the speed c is constant in all inertial frames, independent of the motion or observer.
Hence, a relativity principle, applicable to both mechanics and electrodynamics is operating. So, ultimate
conclusion is that the Galilean transformation must be replaced, and the basic laws of mechanics which are
consistent with those of transformation need to be modified.

POSTULATES OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

Newton discovered his laws in the 17th century. Using Newton's laws, physicists in the 18th and 19th
century were able to predict the motions of the planets, moons, comets, cannon balls, etc.

In the later half of the 19th century, however, Maxwell discovered the equations, which now bear his
name, that govern the behaviour of electricity and magnetism, the basis of all modern technology. In
particular, his equations predicted that electromagnetic waves propagate at the speed of light
c=3×108m/sec, establishing that light was in fact a form of electromagnetic radiation.

Unlike Newton's equation, however, Maxwell's equations were not invariant under the Galilean
transformation. This is evident from the fact that Maxwell's equations predicted the speed of light. But the
speed of something depends on which inertial frame you are observing it from. So Maxwell's equations
could only be correct in one particular inertial frame!

This did not go well with the belief that the laws of physics should be the same regardless of which inertial
frame you were making the observation from.

To overcome this difficulty, physicists decided that light had to travel through a medium which they called
ether, just like sound had to travel through air. The speed of light predicted by Maxwell's equations was
interpreted as that relative to ether. So if the speed of light you observe is different from that predicted by
Maxwell, it would NOT mean that the laws of physics are different in your inertial frame from others.
Your inertial frame is simply moving relative to Ether!

About a hundred years ago, a famous experiment was conducted called the Michelson-Morley experiment
which measured the dependence of the speed of light on the speed of the observer. To everyone’s surprise,
it turned out that the speed of light was always the same no matter what the motion of the observer was!
This was a very peculiar situation indeed. Physicist were trying to come up with a theory that explained
why the speed of light could be different for different inertial frames but the Michelson-Morley
experiment showed that that was not what they should have been worried about. The puzzle now was: how
could the speed of light be the same regardless of which inertial frame you were in?

It was Einstein who, in 1905, pointed out that the only way to understand this was to change our notion of
simultaneity. This was his famous special theory of relativity.

Special relativity is based on two postulates which are contradictory in classical mechanics:

1. Principle of equivalence of physical laws: “The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frame of
reference. No preferred inertial system exists”.

Explanation: This postulate expresses the absence of a universal frame of reference. One can detect the
relative motion of one body with respect to the other not absolute motion of bodies through the space. If
the laws of physics were different for different observers in relative motion, the observers could not
determine which of them were “stationary” in space and which were “moving”.

2. Principle of constancy of velocity of light: “The speed of light in free space (vacuum) has the same
value c  3×108 m/s in all inertial frames of reference, independent of the relative velocity of the
source and observer”.

Explanation: This postulate follows directly from the results of many experiments (such as Michelson-
Morley experiment). It states that the speed of light is same in all directions of propagation and is
independent of the source, regardless of their relative motion or of the motion of the source of the light (No
matter what the speed of the observer or the source). Thus a person moving toward or away from a source
of light will measure the same speed for that light as someone at rest with respect the source.

Newtonian relativity deals with laws of mechanics, whereas Einstein’s relativity principle deals with all the
laws of physics. It states that no physical measurements can tell us whether an inertial frame is intrinsically
stationary or moving; it speaks of the relative motion of the two systems. The 2 nd postulates contradicts
with Galilean transformation but consistent with all subsequent experimental results. The entire special
theory of relativity is derived directly from these two postulates. Their simplicity, boldness, and generality
are characteristic of Einstein’s genius. The success of his theory can only be judged by comparison with
experiment. No experimental objection to Einstein’s special theory of relativity has yet been found.

The second postulate calls for the same value of the speed of light c when determined in S or S. This
contradicts with Galilean transformation. If we measure the speed of light in the x-direction in the S system
to be c, however, in the S system it will be
c  c  u

Clearly a different transformation is required if the postulates of special relativity are to be satisfied.

Consequences of Einstein’s postulates:

There are four important consequences of Einstein’s postulates:

Relativity of simultaneity: Two events that appear simultaneous to an observer A will not be
simultaneous to an observer B if B is moving with respect to A.
Relativity of Time (Time dilation): Moving clocks tick slower than an observer's "stationary" clock.
Relativity of Length (Length contraction): Objects are observed to be shortened in the direction that they
are moving with respect to the observer.
Mass-energy equivalence: According to the relationship E = mc², energy and mass are equivalent and
transmutable.

LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION
What Einstein's special theory of relativity says is that to understand why the speed of light is constant, we
have to modify the way in which we translate the observation in one inertial frame to that of another. The
set of Galilean transformation
x  x  ut , t   t (1)
is wrong and are not consistent with the experimental results. The correct relations which are consistent
with the experimental results are
u
t 2 x
x  ut c
x  t  (2)
1 u / c
2 2
1 u2 / c2
These equations are called the Lorentz transformation.

We can see that if the relative velocity u between the two frames are much smaller than the speed of light
c, then the ratio u/c can be neglected in this relation and we recover the Galilean transformation. So the
reason why we did not have any problems with the Galilean transformation up to now is that u was small
enough for it to be a good approximation of the Lorentz transformation.

Derivation of LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS

We know that the speed of light is not constant under Galilean transformations and the first postulate is the
conclusion from the Newtonian mechanics; thus the second postulate of relativity is not true according to
the Galilean transformations. Actually this is true since the velocity of light calculated by any mean is a
constant. Thus the second postulate is very important and only this postulate is responsible to differentiate
the classical theory and Einstein’s theory of relativity. According to Einstein the theory of relativity is
applicable to laws of optics. Thus for the constancy of velocity of light we have to introduce the new
transformation equations which fulfill the following requirements:-

1. The speed of c must have the same value in every inertial frame of reference.
2. The transformations must be linear and for low speeds u<<c, they should approach the Galilean
transformations.
3. They should not be based on “absolute time” and “absolute space”.

A set of transformation equations can be directly developed from the postulates of special theory of
relativity. Let us consider an event in an inertial frame of reference S is characterized by the coordinates (x,
y, z, t). Another different inertial frame S which is moving with respect to S at constant velocity u, find the
same event occurs at coordinates (x, y, z, t ). For convenience, let u is in the +x direction as shown in the
figure.
y y
x

O S 
S x u
p
y y
x x
O

z z
ut

Fig. 6: Frame S moves in the X-direction with speed u relative to frame S.

A reasonable guess about the nature of the correct relationship between x and x is
x  k ( x  ut ) (1)
Here k is a factor that does not depend on either x or t but may be a function of u.
Because the equations must have the same form in both S and S, we need only change the sign of u (in
order to take into account the difference in the direction of relative motion) to write the corresponding
equation for x in terms of x and t:
x  k ( x   ut ) (2)
The factor k must be the same in both frames of reference since there is no difference between S and S
other than in the sign of u.

Let us consider that a light pulse that starts at the origin of S at t = 0. Since we have assumed that the
origins are coincident at t = t = 0, the pulse also starts at the origin of S at t = 0. Einstein’s postulates
require that the equation for the x-component of the wave front of the light pulse is
x  ct in frame S and x  ct  in frame S.

Substituting ct for x and ct for x in Eq. (1) and (2), we get

ct  k (ct   ut )  k (c  u )t  (3)
and ct   k (ct  ut )  k (c  u )t (4)

t c
From equation (3), 
t k (c  u )

t  k (c  u )
Similarly from equation (4),  and thus we get
t c
 c k (c  u ) c2
  k2  2
k (c  u ) c c  u2
1 1
k2  k  (5)
1 u / c
2 2
1 u2 / c2
Substituting x   k ( x  ut) for x in x  k ( x '  ut ' ) , we get

x  k[k ( x  ut)  ut ]
 k 2 ( x  ut)  kut 
x  k 2 ( x  ut)
or t  
ku
( x  ut)
x
(1  u 2 / c 2 )
  1 u 2 / c2
u
x  u / c 2 x  x  ut ut  u 2 / c 2 x
2
 
u 1 u2 / c2 u 1 u2 / c2
u
t 2 x
 c
1 u2 / c2
u
t 2 x
c u
t   k (t  2 x) (6)
1 u2 / c2 c

The complete relativistic transformation is

x  k ( x  ut ) ….. …… ….. (7)
y  y ….. …… ….. (8)
z  z ….. …… ….. (9)
ux
t   k (t  2 ) ….. …… ….. (10)
c
These are the Lorentz transformation equations.
(i) Lorentz transformation equation is linear in x and t.
(ii) Reduces to Galilean transformation for u/c1.

The observer in S will observe that the frame S is moving to the right with a velocity –u with respect to it.
Thus, when we solve Eqs. (7)-(10) for x, y, z, and t in terms of the primed coordinates, we obtain
x  k ( x   ut ) ….. …… ….. (11)
yy  ….. …… ….. (12)
zz  ….. …… ….. (13)
ux 
t  k (t   2 ) ….. …… ….. (14)
c
which are identical in form of Eqs. 7-10 and are known as Inverse Lorentz transformations.

We see that the time coordinate of one inertial system depends on both the time and the space coordinates
of another inertial system. Hence, instead of treating space and time separately, as is quite properly done in
classical theory, it is natural in relativity to treat them together.
RELATIVISTIC VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION TRANSFORMATION
The complete set of relativistic Lorentz transformation is
ux
x  k ( x  ut ) , y  y , z  z and t   k (t  2 ) ….. …… (1)
c
Let vx , vy , and vz are the velocity components of a particle with respect to the S frame along x, y and z
directions respectively, while vx, vy, and vz are the velocity components of that particle with respect to S
frame along x, y, and z directions respectively.
By differentiating the Lorentz transformation equations for x, y, z and t, we get
u
dx   k (dx  udt) , dy   dy , dz   dz and dt   k (dt  2 dx)
c
dx
u
dx  k (dx  udt) dt vx  u
Therefore, v x     (5)
dt  u u dx u
k (dt  2 dx) 1  2 1  2 vx
c c dt c
dy
1 u2 / c2 v 1 u2 / c2
dy  dy dy 1  u / c2 2
dt
and, v y     
y
….. (2)
dt  u u u dx u
k (dt  2 dx) dt  2 dx 1 2 1  2 vx
c c c dt c
Similarly,
vz 1  u 2 / c 2
v z  ….. …… ….. (3)
u
1  2 vx
c
We may write the complete set of relativistic velocity transformation as
vx  u vy 1 u 2 / c2 vz 1  u 2 / c 2
v x  , v y  and, v z 
u u u
1  2 vx 1  2 vx 1  2 vx
c c c

The inverse velocity transformation equations are

v x  u v y 1  u / c
2 2
v 1  u2 / c 2
vx  , vy  and , vz  z
u u u
1  2 v x 1  2 v x 1  2 v x
c c c
(i) If u and vx are very small compared to c, the velocity transformations satisfy the classical results.
vx  v x  u, vy  v y and, vz  v z
(ii) If a ray of light is emitted in the moving frame S  in its direction of motion relative to S, then v x  c,
and no matter what the value of u of the observer, an observer in frame S will measure the speed
v  u cu
vx  x  c
u u
1  2 v x 1  2 c
c c
Thus the observers in the car and on the road both find the same value for the speed of light, as they must.

Example #1: Suppose that two particles are travelling opposite to each other with velocity v x  0.9 c as
observed in the S system. What is the velocity of one particle with respect to the other?
Solution: Let S be the reference frame in which the  0.9 c particle is rest. Then the velocity of S relative
to S is u = 0.9c so that the particle which is in S has velocity v x  0.9 c has a velocity vx in S is given by
v  u 0.9c  0.9c 1.8c
vx  x    0.994c
u 0.9c 1.81
1  2 v x 1  2  0.9c
c c
Example #2: Two electrons leave a radioactive sample in opposite directions, each having a speed of
0.67 c with respect to the sample. What is the speed of one electron relative to the other?
Solution: Here v x  0.67 c and u = 0.67c
v x  u 0.67c  0.67c 1.34c
The speed of one electron relative to other v x     0.92c
u 0.67c 1 .45
1  2 v x 1  2  0.67c
c c
This is means that speed of one electron relative to the other is less than c.

Example #3: Spacecraft Alpha has a velocity with respect to the earth of 0.9 c . If spacecraft Beta is to
pass Alpha at a relative velocity of 0.5c, what velocity must Beta have with respect to the earth?
Solution: According to classical mechanics, Beta would need a velocity relative to the earth of 0.9c+0.5c
= 1.4c, which is impossible.
According to relativistic mechanics, Here v x  0.5 c and u = 0.9c. So the relative velocity of the Beta
spacecraft with respect to the earth
v  u 0.5c  0.9c 1.4c
vx  x    0.9655c
u 0.9c 1.45

1  2 v x 1  2  0.5c
c c
which is less than c. It is necessary to go less than 10 percent faster than a spacecraft travelling at 0.9c in
order to pass it at a relative velocity of 0.5c (as measured from either spacecraft).

Example #5: An observer in S frame is moving to the right at a speed u = 0.50c away from the stationary
observer in frame S. The observer in S measures the v of a particle moving to the right away from her.
What speed v does the observer in S measure for the particle if a) v = 0.60c? b) v = 0.99c ?

v x'
u

S S
Solution:
The relative speed between the frames of reference u = 0.5 c
The speed of the particle in the S frame v = 0.6 c
Speed of the particle in the S frame v =?
v  u 0.6 c  0.5 c 1.1
[a] We know, v x  x =  c  0.846c
u 0.5 c 1.3
1  2 vx 1  2 0.6
c c
[b] The speed of the particle in S frame v = 0.99 c
0.99 c  0.5 c 1.49
Hence v=  c  0.997 c
0.5 c 1.495
1  2 0.99 c
c
Example #5: A body moving at 0.5c with respect to an observer disintegrates into two fragments that
move in opposite directions relative to their centre of mass along the same line of motion as the original
body. One fragment has a velocity of 0.6c in the backward direction relative to the centre of mass and the
other has a velocity of 0.5c in the forward direction. What velocities will the observer find?

Example #6: Derive the relativistic acceleration transformation equation along x direction is
u2
a x (1  2 ) 3 / 2
a x  c in which ax = dvx/dt, and ax = dvx/dt and show that the relativistic result reduces to
u
(1  2 v x ) 2

c
the classical result when u and v are small compared to c.
Relativity of simultaneity
Two events are said to be simultaneous if they occur at the same time. According to the relativity of
simultaneity, if two observers are in relative motion, they will not agree as to whether two events are
simultaneous. If one observer finds them to be simultaneous, the other generally will not, and conversely.
The simultaneity of the two events is not an absolute concept and depends on the frame of reference. In
fact each observer is correct in his own frame of reference.
Two events that appear simultaneous to an observer A will not be simultaneous to an
observer B if B is moving with respect to A.
Let us consider an example to clarify the above statement:

Figure: Spreading of light signals in a toy car as observed (a) by an observer on the car itself and (b) by
an observer standing on the ground.
Imagine a trolley traveling at a constant speed along a smooth, straight track. In the centre of the trolley
there a light bulb is hanged. When it is switched on, the light spreads out in all directions at a speed c.
Because the lamp is equidistant from the two ends, an observer on the trolley will find that the light
reaches the front and the rear ends at the same time, i.e., the two events of light reaching the front and the
rear ends occur simultaneously (Fig. a). However, to an observer on ground these two events do not appear
to be simultaneous. As the light travels out from the bulb, the trolley itself moves forward, so the beam
going to the rear end has a shorter distance to travel than the one going forward. According to this
observer, therefore, the second event appears to happen before the first event (Fig. b). Therefore, we can
conclude that the two events that are simultaneous in one inertial frame are not, in general, simultaneous in
another frame.
In fact, measuring times and time intervals involve the concept of simultaneity and from the above
discussion it follows that the time interval between two events may be different in different frames of
references.
Proof of this statement:
Let us consider two frames of reference S and S . The frame reference S is moving with velocity u relative
to the frame of reference S along +ve direction of x-axis and the two events occur simultaneously in S at
the coordinates P1 (x1, y1, z1, t1) and P2 (x2, y2, z2, t2) respectively. Since the events are simultaneous in
frame S, therefore we have t1 = t2. If t1 and t 2 are the corresponding times of the same two events with
ux1
respect to system S, then we have from Lorentz transformation equations:- t1  k (t1  ) and
c2
ux2
t 2  k (t 2  )
c2
ux2 ux
t 2  t1  k (t 2 
2
)  k (t1  21 )
c c

u ( x1  x 2 )
k since t1  t 2
c2
Thus if the events are simultaneous in frame S, t1 must be equal to t 2 or t 2  t1 must be equal to zero, but
it is not so because x1 is not equal x2. Therefore, the same two events are not simultaneous in frame S. As
such “Two events at different places P1 and P2 which are simultaneous for an observer at rest in frame S,
are no longer simultaneous to an observer in frame S having linear motion relative to S ”.
RELATIVITY OF LENGTH (LENGTH CONTRACTION)
If a frame is fixed and another one is moving the moving observer in a frame (S or S ) will see a
contraction of length of anything placed in other frame. This is called Lorentz-Fitzgerald length
contraction.

Situation 1: A stick fixed in S but observed in S.

i) Using Lorentz transformation:

Let us consider a stick at rest in the system S

and the coordinates of two ends are x1 and x2
so that its length as measured by an observer
in S is given by L = x2 - x1. The frame S is
moving with a velocity u with respect to S.

From S, length must be measured at the same

time t. According to the Lorentz
transformation x1  k ( x1  ut) and x2  k ( x2  ut) .
L
Hence L   ( x 2  x1 )  k ( x 2  x1 )   L  L 1  u 2 / c 2 >>Contraction observed by
1 u / c
2 2

S. L = Length of the stick as measured relative to S-observer.

This summarizes the effect known as length contraction. The frame S is at rest with respect to the object so
the measured rest length is L and L >L. As the frame S is moving with respect to S, all observers outside
the frame S are in motion relative to S and measure a shorter length, but only along the direction of
motion; length measurements transverse to the direction of the motion are unaffected.

For ordinary speeds (u<<c), the effects of length contraction are too small to be compared (L  L).
Faster means shorter

L0
L0
L0

L0
L0
L
Fig.4: Some length-contracted objects. Notice that the shortening
occurs only in the direction of motion.
ii) Using Inverse Lorentz transformation:
An event in such as measurement of length in S can be measured at the same time t by the observer in S.
But the observer of S can not measure the coordinate x2 and x1 at the same time t as S is moving. So the
x2  ut 2 x1  ut1
inverse Lorentz transformation is x2  , x1 
1 u2 / c2 1 u2 / c2
( x2  x1 )  u(t 2  t1 )
Now, L  x2  x1 
1 u2 / c2

The time recorded by the observer in S in terms of t1 and t2 are
(t   ux1 / c 2 ) (t   ux2 / c 2 )
 t1  1 and t 2  2
1 u2 / c2 1 u2 / c2
But we must have the measurement of time at x1 and x2 at the same time t, otherwise result will be wrong.
 u
Thus, t1 = t2, therefore t 2  t1   ( x 2  x1 )
c2
u
( x 2  x1 )  u ( )( x 2  x1 )
c2 (1  u 2 / c 2 )( x 2  x1 )
L 
1 u 2 / c 2 1 u 2 / c 2

L  ( x 2  x1 ) 1  u 2 / c 2  L  1  u 2 / c 2  Same result as before.

Situation 2: A stick fixed S in but observed in S .

(i) Measurement at the same time t in S.

Let us consider a stick at rest in the system S and

the coordinates of two ends are x1 and x2 so that its
length as measured by an observer in S is given by
L = x2 - x1. The frame S is moving with a velocity u
with respect to S.

From S, length must be measured at the same time

t.
The length of the stick as measured from S is L  ( x2  x1 ) at time t.

According to the inverse Lorentz transformation x1  k ( x1  ut ) and x2  k ( x2  ut ) .

L
Hence, L  ( x 2  x1 )  k ( x 2  x1 ) 
1 u2 / c2
 L  L 1  u 2 / c 2 Here L   L and S observer will se a contracted length L.

(ii) As the S observer is moving, he cannot measure x2 and x1 at the same time t. Now the Lorentz
transformation gives x1  k ( x1  ut1 ) and x2  k ( x2  ut2 ) .
(t1  ux1 / c 2 ) (t 2  ux2 / c 2 )
And t1  and t 2 
1 u2 / c2 1 u2 / c2
( x2  x1 )  u(t 2  t1 )
The length of the stick measured from Sobserver is L  x2  x1 
1 u2 / c2
u
Since we have to measure at the same time, t1 = t2, hence t 2  t1   ( x 2  x1 )
c2

u
( x 2  x1 )  u ( )( x 2  x1 )
c2 (1  u 2 / c 2 )( x 2  x1 )
 L  
1 u2 / c2 1 u2 / c2

L   ( x 2  x1 ) 1  u 2 / c 2  L 1  u 2 / c 2  Same result as before.

Length contraction suggests that objects in motion are measured to have a shorter length than they do at
rest. The objects do not actually shrink; there is merely a difference in the length measured by different
observers. For example, to observers on earth a high speed rocket ship would appear to be contracted
along its direction of motion, but to an observer on the ship it is the passing earth that appears to be
contracted.
RELATIVITY OF TIME (TIME DILATION): Moving clocks tick slower than an observer's
"stationary" clock.
A clock is measured to go at its fastest rate when it is at rest relative to the observer. When it moves with a
velocity u relative to the observer, its rate measured to have slowed down by a factor 1  u 2 / c 2 .
Proof: Let there be two frames of reference S
and S ; S is moving with a velocity u relative
to S along (+ve) direction of x-axis. Let a clock
to be at rest at the point x in the moving frame
S and another clock be rest at the point x in the
frame S.
Let two events occurs in S at x : one occurs at
time t1 and other at time t2. The corresponding
times measured by the clock at S are t1 and t2
respectively.
Then the time interval between the two events as noted on the clock in the moving frame S is given by
t   t 2  t1 and the time interval between the same two events as noted by the clock in the stationary
observer S is given by t  t 2  t1 .
According to the Inverse Lorentz transformation t1  k (t1  ux  / c 2 ) and t 2  k (t 2  ux  / c 2 )
t 
Therefore, from these equations, we have t  t 2  t1  k (t 2  t1 ) 
1 u2 / c2
1
Now since is greater than unity as u/c <1, therefore t  t  .
1 u2 / c2
It is clear that a stationary clock measures a longer time interval of two events occurring in S frame than a
moving clock measures.

If the events are in S frame but the clocks are

in S and S.
According to Lorentz transformation
t1  k (t1  ux / c 2 ) and t 2  k (t 2  ux / c 2 )

Therefore, from equations (4) and (5) we

have
t
t   t 2  t1  k (t 2  t1 ) 
1 u2 / c2
1
Now since is greater than unity as u/c <1, therefore t   t .
1 u2 / c2
It is clear that a moving clock (in S) measures a longer time interval between two events occurring in a rest
frame S than a rest clock measures.
 It is clear that the time dilation is independent of the direction of velocity and depends only on its
magnitude.
 A clock is measured to go at its fastest rate when it is at rest relative to the observer.
 When it moves with a velocity u relative to the observer, its rate is measured to have slowed down
1
by a factor .
1 u2 / c2
 It is not that the clocks are somewhat at fault. To the contrary, the clocks are assumed to be good
ones. Time is actually measured to pass more slowly in any moving frame of reference as
compared to a reference frame at rest.

The time dilation effect has been verified experimentally with decaying elementary particles as well as
with precise atomic clocks carried aboard aircraft.
Proper Time
The frame in which the observed body is at rest, it is known as proper frame. The length of a stick in such
as frame is called the proper length. Likewise, the proper time interval is the time interval recorded by a
clock attached to the observed body. This is the time interval measured by a single clock at one place. A
non-proper time is an interval measured by two different clocks at two different places.

When two events occurs in S at x then the time interval measured by the clock at S is the proper time
and the time interval measured by the clock which is at the frame S is the non-proper time.
1
In this case, Non-proper time = ×Proper time.
1 u2 / c2
Example: Muons are elementary particles with a (proper) lifetime of 2.2 μs. They are produced with very
high speeds in the upper atmosphere when cosmic rays collide with air molecules. Take the height L o of
the atmosphere to be 100km in the reference frame of the earth. Find the minimum speed that enables the
muons to survive the journey to the surface of the earth.
Solution:
The birth and decay of the muon can be considered as the ticks of a clock. In the frame of reference of the
Earth (Observer O) this clock is moving and therefore its ticks are slowed by the time dilation effect. If the
muon is moving at a speed that is close to c, the time necessary for the muon to travel from the top of the
L 100km
atmosphere to the surface of the Earth is: t  0   333s
c 3.00x108
If the muon is to be observed at the surface of the earth, it must live for at least 333 µs in the earths’
frame of reference. In the muon’s frame of reference, the interval between its birth and decay is a proper
time interval of 2.2 μs.
2.2s
Now 333s  Solving we get u=0.999978c.
1 u2 /c2
If it were not for the time dilation effect, muons would not survive to reach the earths’ surface. The
observation of these muons is a direct verification of the time dilation effect of special relativity.

Example:A spacecraft is moving relative to earth. An observer on the earth finds that according to her
clock, 3601s elapse between 1 PM and 2 PM on the spacecraft’s clock. What is the spacecrafts’ speed
relative to the earth?
Solution:
Here to = 3600s is the proper time interval on the earth and t = 3601s in the time interval in the moving
frame as measured from the earth.
t0
Now t
1 u 2 / c2
3600 2
Therefore v  c 1  (t 0 / t )2  ( 2.998x108 m / s ) 1  ( )  7.1x106 m / s
3601
To-days spacecrafts are much slower than this. For instance, the highest speed of the Apollo 11 spacecraft
that went to the moon was only 10,840 m/s and its clocks differed from those on the earth by less than one
part in 109.
Most of the experiments that have confirmed time dilation made use of unstable nuclei and elementary
particles which readily attain speeds not far from that of light.

Example: A crew member on a space ship that flies past at a speed of 0.99c relative to the earth, measures
its length obtaining 400 m. what length do observers measure on earth?
Solution:
The 400 m length of the space ship is the proper length l 0 because it is measured in the frame in which it is
at rest. We want to find the length L measured by the observers on earth which is given by
L  L0 1  u 2 / c 2  (400m) 1  (0.99) 2  56.4 m

Example: A galaxy in the Constellation Ursa Major is receding from earth at a speed of 15,000 km/s. If
one of the characteristic wavelength of the light the galaxy emits is 550 nm, what is the corresponding
wavelength measured by astronomers on the earth?
Solution:
Speed of light c = 3 x 108 m/s
Speed of recession of the constellation u = 15000 km/s = 1.5 x 107 m/s = 0.05 c
We know, when the source moves away from the observer the observed frequency is given by
cu c c cu
r o or, 
cu  r o c  u
cu  c  .05c 
or, r  o  550 nm    (550 nm) 1.05  578.23 nm (Ans)
cu 
 c  0.5c  0.95
RELATIVITY OF MASS
According to classical (Newtonian) mechanics, the mass of a body is constant and it does not depend on its
velocity. But special theory of relativity tells that the mass of a body varies with its velocity.

The mass of an object increases as its speed increases. Momentum of a body is conserved in the case of
classical physics but it does not conserved when we consider the case of relativity. The mass of a body
moving at the speed v relative to an observer is larger than its mass when at rest relative to the observer by
the factor 1 1 v2 / c2 .
m0
The relativistic mass m of a body is given by m  , where m0 is called the rest mass of the
1 v2 / c2
body.

It is clear that if v/c0, mm0 and if v /c0, minfinity. Mass can not be infinity, indicating c is the
upper limit of the velocity of a body.

Relativistic mass increases are significant only at speeds approaching that of light. At a speed one tenth
that of light the mass increase amounts to 0.5 percent but this increase is over 100% at a speed nine-tenths
that of light.
Only atomic particles such as electrons, protons, mesons and so on have sufficiently highly speeds for
relativistic effects to be measurable and in dealing with these particles, the ordinary laws of physics
cannot be used.

EINSTIEN’S MASS AND ENERGY RELATION

Let a force F is acting on a body so that there is a displacement ds along the direction of the force. The
work done is then given by W = Fds

If no other forces act on the object and the object starts from rest, all the work done on it becomes kinetic
s
energy K. and is given by K  0
Fds (1)
dp d (mv)
If the force is changing with time and is given by F   . Where v is the velocity of the body
dt dt
m0 v
and the relativistic momentum is p  mv  .
1 v2 / c2
So the kinetic energy K becomes
S S v
d (mv) ds
K  Fds
0

0 dt
ds   d (mv)
0
dt
v
  (mdv  vdm)v
0
v
  (mvdv  v 2 dm) (2)
0
in which m and v are variable. These quantities are related as
m0
m  m 2 (1  v 2 / c 2 )  m0  m 2 c 2  m 2 v 2  m0 c 2
2
(3)
1 v2 / c2

Differentiating equation (3), we get

2mc 2 dm  m 2 2vdv  v 2 2mdm  0
 mvdv  v 2 dm  c 2 dm (4)
Substituting this value in equation (2) and integrating, we get
v
K   c 2 dm
0
mm
 c2  dm
m  m0
v
K   c 2 dm
0
mm
 c2  dm
m  m0

 m c 2  m0 c 2 (3)
This is the relativistic equation for kinetic energy of a body moving with a velocity v. Also, if we take mc2
=E as the total energy of the body then the above equation may be written as

E  m0 c 2  K (4)
2
in which m0c is called the rest energy of the body.
The rest energy is energy of the body at rest when v = 0, and K = 0 and the body has an amount of
Rest energy E0  m0 c 2 (5)
Thus we can write E  E0  K (6)
2
m0 c
If the body is moving, its total energy is E  mc 2  (7)
1 v2 / c2
This is the Einstein famous mass-energy relation.

(i) For low speeds, v / c  1 , Then we can write

m0 c 2  1 
K  m c  m0 c 
2 2
 m0 c 2  m0 c 2   1 (8)
1 v2 / c2  1 v / c
2 2


Using the binomial approximation (1  x) n  1  nx with x  1 , we get

 1 
K  m0 c 2   1
 1 v / c 
2 2

 1 v2 
 m0 c 2 1  2
 1
 2c 
1
 m0 v 2 (9)
2
At low speed, the relativistic expression for the K.E. of a moving body reduces to the classical one.

m0 c 2
(ii) Mass-less particles: We know, total energy E , (10)
1 v2 / c2
m0 u
and relativistic momentum p (11)
1 v2 / c2
When m0 = 0 and v<c, i.e. E = p = 0 i.e. A mass less particle with a speed less than that of light can
have neither energy nor momentum.
(iii) When mo =0 and v = c, E = 0/0 and p = 0/0 which are indeterminate: E and p can have any values. The
equations [10] & [11] are consistent with the existence of mass-less particles that possess energy and
momentum provided that they travel with the speed of light.
(iv) There is another restriction on mass-less particles.
2
m0 c 4
we can write E 
2

1 v2 / c2
2 2 2
m0 v m0 v 2 c 2
Also we can write p 
2
, or, p c 2 2

1 v2 / c2 1 v2 / c2
Subtracting p 2 c 2 from E2 yields
2 2
m0 c 4 m0 v 2 c 2
E p c 
2 2 2

1 v2 / c2 1 v2 / c2
 c2 v2  2
 m0 c 2  2  c
2

c v c2  v2
2

 c2  v2 
 m0 c 4  2 
2

c v
2

 m0 c 4
2
(12)

 E 2  m0 c 4  p 2 c 2
2

Therefore, for all particles, we have

E  mo c 4  p 2 c 2  Eo  p 2 c 2
2 2
(13)
According to this formula, if a particle exists with m 0 = 0, the relationship between its energy and
momentum must be given by
mass - less particles E  pc (14)

In fact, mass-less particles of two different kinds - the photon and the neutrino have indeed been
discovered and their behavior is as expected.

1. Find the mass of an electron (mo =9.1x10-31 kg) whose velocity is 0.99c.
Solution:
m0 9.1x1031
Given u/c=0.99, so m    64x1031 kg.
1 u / c
2 2
1  (0.99) 2

which is 7 times greater than the electron’s rest mass. If v =c , m =  , from which we can conclude
that v can never equal c:

No material object can travel as fast as light

2. A stationary body explodes into two fragments each of rest mass 1.0 Kg that move apart at
speeds 0.6C relative to the original body. Find the rest mass of the original body.
Solution:
The total energy of the original body must equal the sum of the total energies of the fragments.
Hence
E  E 0  K .E  E 0  0  E 0
m01c 2 m02 c 2 (1.0kg )c 2 (1.0kg )c 2
m0 c 2    
1  u1 / c 2
2
1  u2 / c 2
2
1  (0.6) 2 1  (0.6) 2
Therefore,
m0  2.5kg
Mass can be created or destroyed but when this happens an equivalent amount of energy
simultaneously vanishes or comes into being and vice versa.

Mass and energy are different aspects of the same thing

 The conversion factor between the unit of mass (the kg) and the unit of energy (the joule, J) is c 2. So, 1
kg of matter has an energy content of
m0 c 2  (1kg) * (3x10 8 m / s ) 2  9x1016 J
This is enough to send a payload of a million tons to the moon.

3. An electron (m0 = 0.511 MeV/c2) and a photon (m0 =0) both have momenta of 2.00 MeV/c. Find
the total energy of each.
Solution:
The electron’s total energy is
E  m02 c 4  p 2 c 2  (0.511MeV / c 2 ) 2 c 4  (2.00MeV / c ) 2 c 2  2.064 MeV
4. What is the percentage increase in the mass of an electron accelerated to a K.E of 500 MeV? Use
rest mass of electron = 0.511 MeV/c2.
1
5. What is the speed of a particle if its kinetic energy is 1% larger than mo u 2 ?
2
Conclusion
I hope I have succeeded in giving you a flavor of Einstein's special theory of relativity. Key points I would
like you to take home with you are:
1. The speed of light is constant regardless of the inertial frame in which it is measured. All of the
theory's conclusions are derived from this simple experimental fact.
2. Simultaneity is a relative concept. The chronological order in which two events occurred may
depend on the frame of the observer.
3. Faster than light speed travel or communication is impossible.
(Otherwise, causality will be broken.)
4. Interesting phenomena like time dilation and Lorentz contraction have been predicted and
observed.
5. Equivalence of mass and energy
6. Physics is fun!

Famous People
The following is a list of famous people whose names I have mentioned in my lecture notes.
 Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
 Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727)
 James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)
 Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1854-1928)
 Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Homework

H.W.P. (A): A man leaves the earth in a rocket ship that makes a round trip to the nearest star which is 4
light years away at a speed of 0.8c. How much younger will he be on his return than his twin brother we
preferred to stay behind?

H.W.P. (B): At what speed should a clock be moved so that it may appear to lose 1 minute in each hour?

H.W.P. (C): The length of a rocket ship is 100 meters on the ground. When it is in the flight its length
observed on the ground is 99 meters. Calculate its speed.

H.W.P. (D): A particle with a mean proper life of 1  sec moves through the laboratory at 2.7×108 m/sec.
(i) What will be its life time as measured by the observer in the laboratory? (ii) What will be the distance
traversed by it before disintegrating? and (iii) Find the distance traversed without taking relativity into
account?

H.W.P. (E): An electron is moving with a speed of 0.85c in a direction opposite to that of a moving
photon. Calculate the relative velocity of the electron and photon.

H.W.P. (F): Show that if in system S we have uy = c.sin and ux = c.cos, then in frame S
u x  u y  c 2 , where S is moving with a velocity u with respect to frame S.
2 2

H.W.P. (G): A particle moves with velocity represented by a vector u = 3i+4j+12k meters/sec in frame
S. Find the velocity of the particle in frame S if S moves with velocity 0.8c relative to S along (+)ve x-
axis.