Planetary Sciences:

Earth and Beyond

Lecture 35
Theory of Relativity

GNR 649
Background!
• Einstein described how at age 16 he watched himself in his mind’s eye as
he rode on a light wave and gazed at another light wave moving parallel to
his. According to classical physics, Einstein should have seen the second
light wave moving at a relative speed of zero.
• However, Einstein knew that Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations
absolutely require that light always move at 3 × 108 m/s in a vacuum.
• Nothing in the theory allows a light wave to have a speed of zero.
• If a fixed observer sees light as having a speed of 3 × 108 m/s, whereas an
observer moving at the speed of light sees light as having a speed of zero, it
would mean that the laws of electromagnetism depend on the observer.
• But in classical mechanics the same laws apply for all observers, and
Einstein saw no reason why the electromagnetic laws should not be equally
universal. The constancy of the speed of light and the universality of the
laws of physics for all observers are cornerstones of special relativity.
Theory of Relativity
• The theory of relativity usually encompasses two interrelated theories by
Albert Einstein: special relativity and general relativity, proposed and
published in 1905 and 1915, respectively.
• Special relativity applies to all physical phenomena in the absence of
gravity. General relativity explains the law of gravitation and its relation to
other forces of nature.
• It applies to the cosmological and astrophysical realm, including astronomy.
• The theory transformed theoretical physics and astronomy during the 20th
century, superseding a 200-year-old theory of mechanics created primarily
by Isaac Newton.
• With relativity, cosmology and astrophysics predicted extraordinary
astronomical phenomena such as neutron stars, black holes, and
gravitational waves.
Special Theory of Relativity
• In physics, the special theory of relativity, or special relativity for short, is a
scientific theory regarding the relationship between space and time. In
Albert Einstein’s original treatment, the theory is based on two postulates:
1. The laws of physics are invariant (that is, identical) in all inertial frames of
reference (that is, frames of reference with no acceleration)
2. The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all observers, regardless of
the motion of the light source or observer.
• The theory is “special” in that it only applies in the special case where the
spacetime is “flat”, that is, the curvature of spacetime, described by the
energy–momentum tensor and causing gravity, is negligible.
• Today, special relativity is proven to be the most accurate model of motion
at any speed when gravitational and quantum effects are negligible.
• Even so, the Newtonian model is still valid as a simple and accurate
approximation at low velocities (relative to the speed of light)
Origin and Significance
• The incompatibility of Newtonian mechanics with Maxwell's equations of
electromagnetism and, experimentally, the Michelson-Morley null result
(and subsequent similar experiments) demonstrated that the historically
hypothesized luminiferous aether did not exist.
• This led to Einstein’s development of special relativity, which corrects
mechanics to handle situations involving all motions and especially those
at a speed close to that of light (known as relativistic velocities).
• A defining feature of special relativity is the replacement of the Galilean
transformations of Newtonian mechanics with the Lorentz
transformations.
• Time and space cannot be defined separately from each other. Rather,
space and time are interwoven into a single continuum known as
“spacetime”. Events that occur at the same time for one observer can occur
at different times for another.
Lorentz transformations
• Define an event to have spacetime coordinates (t,x,y,z) in system S and (t′,x′,y′,z′)
in a reference frame moving at a velocity v with respect to that frame, S′. Then
the Lorentz transformation specifies that these coordinates are related in the
following way:
𝑡 ′ = 𝛾 𝑡 − 𝑣𝑥Τ𝑐 2
𝑥 ′ = 𝛾 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
𝑦 ′ = 𝑦; 𝑧 ′ = 𝑧
where,
1
𝛾=
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
is the Lorentz factor and c is the speed of light in vacuum, and the velocity v of S′,
relative to S, is parallel to the x-axis. For simplicity, the y and z coordinates are
unaffected; only the x and t coordinates are transformed.
Relativistic Space and Time
• From previous equations, Einstein derived a new relationship that replaces
the classical law of addition of velocities,
′
𝑢+𝑣
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑣
1+ 2
𝑐
where u and u′ are the speed of any moving object as seen by each observer
and v is again the speed of one observer relative to the other.
• To make the speed of light constant, the theory requires that space and
time change in a moving body, according to its speed, as seen by an outside
observer.
• The body becomes shorter along its direction of motion; that is, its length
contracts. Time intervals become longer, meaning that time runs more
slowly in a moving body; that is, time dilates.
Relativistic Space and Time
• The relations describing previous mentioned changes are
𝑣2
𝐿 = 𝐿0 1− 2
𝑐
𝑇0
𝑇=
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
where L0 and T0, called proper length and proper time, respectively, are the values
measured by an observer on the moving body, and L and T are the corresponding
quantities as measured by a fixed observer.
• These effects do not appear in ordinary life, because the factor v2/c2 is minute at
even the highest speeds attained by humans, so that Einstein’s equations become
virtually the same as the classical ones.
Relativistic Mass and Cosmic speed limit
• Einstein’s second postulate ensured that these laws remained valid for all
observers in the new theory, and he used them to derive the relativistic meanings
of mass and energy.
• One result is that the mass of a body increases with its speed. An observer on a
moving body, such as a spacecraft, measures its so-called rest mass m0, while a
fixed observer measures its mass m as
𝑚0
𝑚=
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
• As the spacecraft’s speed approaches that of light, the mass m approaches
infinity.
• However, as the object’s mass increases, so does the energy required to keep
accelerating it; thus, it would take infinite energy to accelerate a material body to
the speed of light.
• Therefore, no material object can reach the speed of light, which is the speed
limit for the universe. (Light itself can attain this speed because the rest mass of a
photon is zero)
E=mc2

• Einstein’s treatment of mass showed that the increased relativistic mass

comes from the energy of motion of the body—that is, its kinetic energy
E—divided by c2.
• Thus, each body of rest mass m possesses mc2 (E = mc2) of “rest energy,”
which potentially is available for conversion to other forms of energy.
• Such a conversion of rest energy to other forms of energy occurs in
ordinary chemical reactions, but much larger conversions occur in nuclear
reactions.
• This is particularly true in the case of nuclear fusion reactions that
transform hydrogen to helium, in which 0.7 percent of the original rest
energy of the hydrogen is converted to other forms of energy.
• Stars like the Sun shine from the energy released from the rest energy of
hydrogen atoms that are fused to form helium.
Twin Paradox
• In physics, the twin paradox is a thought experiment in special relativity
involving identical twins, one of whom makes a journey into space in a
high-speed rocket and returns home to find that the twin who remained on
Earth has aged more.
• This result appears puzzling because each twin sees the other twin as
moving, and so, as a consequence of an incorrect application of time
dilation and the principle of relativity, each should paradoxically find the
other to have aged less.
• The answer is that the paradox is only apparent, for the situation is not
appropriately treated by special relativity. To return to Earth, the spacecraft
must change direction, which violates the condition of steady straight-line
motion central to special relativity.
• A full treatment requires general relativity, which shows that there would
be an asymmetrical change in time between the two sisters.
Twin Paradox Example!
• Consider a space ship traveling from Earth to the nearest star system: a
distance d = 4 light years away, at a speed v = 0.8c (i.e., 80% of the speed of
light).
• To make the numbers easy, the ship is assumed to attain full speed in a
negligible time upon departure. Similarly, at the end of the outgoing trip,
the change in direction needed to start the return trip is assumed to occur
in a negligible time.
• Earth’s Perspective: The Earth-based mission control reasons about the
journey this way: the round trip will take t = 2d/v = 10 years in Earth time
(i.e. everybody on Earth will be 10 years older when the ship returns).
• The amount of time as measured on the ship’s clocks and the aging of the
travelers during their trip will be reduced by the factor 𝛼 = 1 − 𝑣 2 Τ𝑐 2
(time dilation). In this case α = 0.6 and the travelers will have aged only
0.6×10 = 6 years when they return.
Twin Paradox Example!
• Travelers' perspective: The ship’s crew members also calculate the
particulars of their trip from their perspective.
• They know that the distant star system and the Earth are moving relative to
the ship at speed v during the trip. In their rest frame the distance between
the Earth and the star system is α d = 0.6 × 4 = 2.4 light years (length
contraction), for both the outward and return journeys.
• Each half of the journey takes α d / v = 2.4 / 0.8 = 3 years, and the round
trip takes twice as long (6 years).
• Their calculations show that they will arrive home having aged 6 years. The
travelers’ final calculation about their aging is in complete agreement with
the calculations of those on Earth, though they experience the trip quite
differently from those who stay at home.
How far we can travel?
• Since one can not travel faster than light, one might conclude that a human can
never travel farther from Earth than 40 light years if the traveler is active between
the ages of 20 and 60. But that would be a mistaken conclusion.
• Due to time dilation, a hypothetical spaceship can travel thousands of light years
during the pilot’s 40 active years.
• If a spaceship could be built that accelerates at a constant 1g (9.81 m/s2), it will,
after a little less than a year, be travelling at almost the speed of light as seen
from Earth. This is described by:
𝑎𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 =
𝑎2 𝑡 2
1+ 2
𝑐
where v(t) is the velocity at a time t, a is the acceleration of 1g and t is the time as
measured by people on Earth. Therefore, after one year of accelerating at 9.81
m/s2, the spaceship will be travelling at v = 0.77c relative to Earth.
How far we can travel?
• Time dilation will increase the traveler’s life span as seen from the
reference frame of the Earth
• A 20-year round trip for him (5 years accelerating, 5 decelerating, twice
each) will land him back on Earth having travelled for 335 Earth years and a
distance of 331 light years.
• A full 40-year trip at 1g will appear on Earth to last 58,000 years and cover
a distance of 55,000 light years. A 40-year trip at 1.1g will take 148,000
Earth years and cover about 140,000 light years.
• A one-way 28 year (14 years accelerating, 14 decelerating as measured
with the astronaut’s clock) trip at 1g acceleration could reach 2,000,000
light-years to the Andromeda Galaxy.
Evidence for Special Relativity
• Because relativistic changes are small at typical speeds for
macroscopic objects, the confirmation of special relativity has relied
on either the examination of subatomic bodies at high speeds or the
measurement of small changes by sensitive instrumentation.
• For example, ultra-accurate clocks were placed on a variety of
commercial airliners flying at one-millionth the speed of light. After
two days of continuous flight, the time shown by the airborne clocks
differed by fractions of a microsecond from that shown by a
synchronized clock left on Earth, as predicted.
Evidence for Special Relativity
• Larger effects are seen with elementary particles moving at speeds
close to that of light. One such experiment involved muons,
elementary particles created by cosmic rays in Earth’s atmosphere at
an altitude of about 9 km.
• At 99.8 percent of the speed of light, the muons should reach sea
level in 31 microseconds, but measurements showed that it took only
2 microseconds.
• The reason is that, relative to the moving muons, the distance of 9 km
contracted to 0.58 km.
• Similarly, a relativistic mass increase has been confirmed in
measurements on fast-moving elementary particles, where the
change is large
General Theory of Relativity
• The theory of general relativity says that the observed gravitational effect
between masses results from their warping of spacetime.
• General relativity generalizes special relativity and refines Newton’s law of
universal gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a
geometric property of space and time or four-dimensional spacetime.
• In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the energy
and momentum of whatever matter and radiation are present.
• According to Newton’s theory of gravity, an apple falls to the floor because
the force of gravity pulls the apple down.
• But Einstein pointed out that the apple would appear to behave in exactly
the same way in space, far from the gravitational influence of any planet or
star, if the floor were to accelerate upward.
Equivalence principle
• The equivalence principle is the equivalence of gravitational and inertial
mass, and Albert Einstein’s observation that the gravitational “force” as
experienced locally while standing on a massive body (such as the Earth) is
the same as the pseudo-force experienced by an observer in a non-inertial
(accelerated) frame of reference.
• The principle states that a person in a free-falling elevator cannot tell that
they are in free fall.
• A person in a free-falling elevator experiences weightlessness. Since
everything in the elevator is falling together, no gravitational effect can be
observed. In this way, the experiences of an observer in free fall are
indistinguishable from those of an observer in deep space, far from any
significant source of gravity.
• Every experiment in such a free-falling environment has the same results as
it would for an observer at rest or moving uniformly in deep space, far from
all sources of gravity.
 Testing General Relativity
• An experiment by Italian scientists using data
from NASA’s Cassini spacecraft confirms
Einstein’s theory of general relativity with a
precision that is 50 times greater than
previous measurements.
• The experiment took place in the summer of
2002, when the spacecraft and Earth were
on opposite sides of the Sun separated by a
distance of more than 1 billion kilometers
• Researchers observed the frequency shift of
radio waves to and from the spacecraft as
the waves passed near the Sun.
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/12249/saturn-bound-spacecraft-tests-
einsteins-theory/
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature01997
Evidence for General Relativity
• Using the world’s most accurate clocks in 2010, the gravitational slowing of
time has been measured at two vertical positions separated by only 1 foot
in a laboratory. Just as predicted, time slows down enough that the lower
clock would read about 90 billionths of a second less over a 79-year period.
• Another context in which the general theory of relativity shows up is when
certain technology, by its very nature, is highly sensitive.
• For example, global positioning system (GPS) satellites must use extremely
accurate clocks in order to triangulate an accurate position on Earth. The
effects of gravity slow down time on Earth’s surface compared to the
satellite’s clocks, so general relativity must be taken into account for an
accurate GPS result.
• Without general relativity included, GPS would accumulate errors of more
than 10 km per day!
 LIGO: Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory

Gravitational Waves
• The general theory of relativity predicts that oscillating massive objects
should produce gravitational radiation, or gravitational waves.
• Gravitational waves transport energy as gravitational radiation, a form of
radiant energy similar to electromagnetic radiation; propagated as waves
outward from their source at the speed of light.
• The first indirect evidence for the existence of gravitational waves came
from the observed orbital decay of the Hulse–Taylor binary pulsar, which
matched the decay predicted by general relativity as energy is lost to
gravitational radiation.
• The first direct observation of gravitational waves was not made until 2015
(exactly 100 years after Einstein’s prediction), when a signal generated by
the merger of two black holes was received by the LIGO gravitational wave
detectors in Livingston, Louisiana, and in Hanford, Washington.
https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/deep-space/a41118858/gravitational-waves-invisible-universe/
Current Status
• General relativity has emerged as a highly successful model of gravitation
and cosmology, which has so far passed many unambiguous observational
and experimental tests. However, there are strong indications that the
theory is incomplete.
• The problem of quantum gravity and the question of the reality of
spacetime singularities remain open. Observational data that is taken as
evidence for dark energy and dark matter could indicate the need for new
physics.
• Even taken as is, general relativity is rich with possibilities for further
exploration. Mathematical relativists seek to understand the nature of
singularities and the fundamental properties of Einstein’s equations, while
numerical relativists run increasingly powerful computer simulations (such
as those describing merging black holes).
• A century after its introduction, general relativity remains a highly active
area of research (discovery of gravitational waves).
“ When you are courting a nice girl an hour
seems like a second. When you sit on a red-
hot cinder a second seems like an hour. That's
relativity.

– Albert Einstein
”
Next time …
Neutron Stars and Black Holes