SlimCity

Editor

SlimCity
SlimCity
World Economic Forum

Research
Lee Thomas, Arup

Design
Jeremy Clark, Jacob Dunn, Sarah Khalid, Marcus Morrell, Arup

smart energy
smart energy
Printing and packaging
1st-packaging

Project Management
Marcus Morrell, Arup
Espen Mehlum, Johanna Lanitis, World Economic Forum

Project Direction
Chris Luebkeman, David Singleton, Arup
Christoph Frei, World Economic Forum

Thanks to
Members of the Global Agenda Council on Alternative Energy
and to all contributing photographers.

Printed January 2009

© Text: the authors; © Images: the authors

in collaboration with
city issue map
This graph shows the results from
High
a survey asking a selection of city
Mayors, Deputy Mayors and urban
planners what issues are of most
concern. They were each asked to
rank thirty pre-determined issues
according to importance (high/low),
level of uncertainty (high/low) and
timescale within which to address
Uncertainty
the issue (1-5 years). The survey was
conducted in collaboration with the
World Economic Forum’s partner,
ICLEI. The objective of the survey
was to ensure that the Forum’s work
on SlimCity is relevant in the global
context.
Fifty cities took part in the survey,
conducted in 2008, from the
Low
following countries: Australia, Brazil,
Canada, Estonia, France, Germany,
Ireland, Italy, Japan, Namibia,
Nigeria, Portugal, South Africa,
South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland,
the United Kingdom, the United
States of America and Uruguay.
smart energy
The world’s cities are forecast to account for a large proportion of the projected growth in global energy consumption
and related carbon emissions. City authorities can ameliorate this impact by taking ownership of local energy practices,
Greenhouse working in collaboration with the private sector to deliver solutions. More energy efficiency measures are likely to
gas emissions be welcomed by an increasing number of consumers, as new ways are sought to reduce energy bills and carbon
Consumer interest footprints.
in sustainability
Solutions and best practices exist that can lead to more intelligent, cleaner and more efficient energy systems - offering
new services and more choice to consumers. Pioneering cities like Boulder in the US, Woking in the UK and Växjö,
Energy Sweden, demonstrate that cities are indeed leading the way towards a smarter energy future. A proven technique for
efficiency the improvement of energy systems is the decentralization of electricity generation, which reduces the energy losses
associated with transmission and distribution. Heat that would otherwise be wasted can also be put to better use.
Energy Many cities have established district heating which distributes heat by-product to buildings.
Energy demand
supply Most cities have considerable potential to increase their share of energy production from renewable sources. This may
be done by harnessing natural resources such as solar, wind or biomass. The development of distributed, small-scale
renewable energy facilities will require robust yet flexible electrical infrastructure. In the future, such infrastructure may
ICT infrastructure need to accommodate a growing fleet of plug-in electric vehicles. SmartGrids – a concept which merges information
and communication technologies with electricity networks – provide a plausible technological framework to achieve
just this, whilst realizing substantial energy efficiency gains. Manufacturers and electricity companies are beginning to
trial SmartGrids in urban areas, often making use of established communications systems. One major problem with
Low Importance High many established energy systems is that energy delivered to the end-user is essentially invisible. There is often no
way of knowing how much is being used or where it comes from. Smart metering monitors gas, electricity and water
Fig. ICLEI city issue map for Smart Energy 1 year timeline
supplies and makes available data for manipulation. Smart meters can improve general awareness and understanding,
The size of each circle corresponds to the perceived timescale within and can create price incentives for consumers.
which each issue should be addressed. 5 year timeline
The following set of knowledge cards describes ideas, initiatives and best practice case studies for urban energy
systems. It is hoped that these cards will provide a useful stimulus to improve local energy practices in cities across
the globe. ii
decentralized energy
decentralized energy

SlimCity
SlimCity
Most electricity networks were originally designed to generate Fig. Denmark’s progress towards
power in central locations for distribution to consumers over decentralization over the past
a distance. However, when electricity is transmitted over long two decades
distances, significant energy losses can result. Furthermore, heat Large CHP
(Combined Heat & Power)
created during the generation process itself is often wasted. If
Small CHP
electricity were to be generated closer to the consumer, this waste (Combined Heat & Power)
heat could be used, to heat homes, for example. The shorter

smart energy
smart energy
Wind
distance to the consumer would also reduce power losses in
transmission.
There are often good reasons to site large-scale power plants
outside towns and cities; for instance, for proximity to a primary
source or to mitigate certain health risks. Nevertheless, there
are many opportunities for a city to generate electricity within its
boundaries or limits. By developing smaller energy systems in a Centralized System of the mid 1980’s
more widespread and dispersed manner considerable efficiency
gains can be made, as experienced in Denmark.
Cities can produce energy using local resources such as solar,
wind, geothermal or waste. Furthermore, the generation of power
on a smaller, localized scale could result in substantial reductions in
urban carbon dioxide emissions.
Projects such as the Barkantine CHP project in London is one In 2006, transmission costs accounted for 4%
example of localized generation. The project serves 600 homes and distribution costs for 17% of the average
and saves 1,700 tonnes of CO2 per year. annual electricity bill of the United Kingdom.
Source: www.berr.gov.uk/files/file39385.pdf
More Decentralized System of Today 01
smartgrids
smartgrids

SlimCity
SlimCity
The SmartGrid is an emergent concept that combines information Fig. The SmartGrid as enabling engine
and communications technology (ICT) with electrical power
networks. Distribution substations in conventional networks Allowing
Enabling
typically rely on uniform central control to match supply to local nationwide
the seamless
integration of
use of plug-in
demand. The SmartGrid would also allow local distribution hybrid electric
renewable
energy sources
substations to become semi-autonomous. As such they would vehicles like wind
be able to react more intelligently to dynamic changes in grid

smart energy
smart energy
stability or generation and consumption patterns. In the context
Making Ushering
of fluctuating renewable energy, self-regulating electricity systems large-scale in a new era
energy storage SmartGrid of consumer
take on a heightened importance. a reality choice

Boulder, Colorado is widely thought to be the first city to

implement a SmartGrid. Once finished, it will comprise Exploiting
Making the use of
autonomous substations powering smart homes fitted with use of solar green building
energy – 24 standards to
intelligent appliances that monitor and react to shortages in power hours a day help “lighten
supply. These devices may display real time pricing information, the load”

to encourage efficient consumer behaviour. The city will also

upgrade power lines with broadband to enable two-way “real-
time” communications for more robust energy management. The
roll-out of hybrid electric vehicles, small-scale generation facilities
and battery storage technologies are also proposed. Further
advantages are likely to become apparent once the infrastructure
is in place. For example, once the communication hardware and
The global value at stake from SmartGrids is
open-protocols are established, significant potential may result
estimated at €79 billion.
for new software applications which enable more intuitive energy
management or improved information interfacing and display. Source: The Climate Group, SMART 2020, Enabling the low
© Cameron Khan carbon economy in the information age, 2008
02
electric vehicles
electric vehicles

SlimCity
SlimCity
Improved battery technology has helped accelerate the Fig. Timeline for the introduction
development of electric vehicles (EVs) and plug-in hybrid electric of electric vehicles with battery
vehicles (PHEVs) in recent years. EVs are particularly suited to a technology, UK
city environment because battery life is limited and most journeys Lead

Battery technology
Li-ion (when cost and
acid size have been reduced)
are short. They also help reduce urban air and noise pollution.
Internal Combustion Engine
continued development throughout period
The increased uptake of EVs poses challenges for the electricity

smart energy
smart energy
Future battery
networks that support them, particularly those that are already technology?
stretched to their limits. In such cases methods must be developed High
to ensure that EVs and PHEVs are less likely to be charged at capability EVs

peak times. The probable need for widespread charging points Lead-acid,
Some Li-ion,
mainly future
at car parking facilities will mean that local networks may need Molten Salt,
All Li-ion
battery
technology?
reinforcement. some Li-ion
Commuter EVs
A number of solutions have been proposed to manage the
anticipated peaks in energy demand, including real-time pricing Possibly all Li-ion
before HEVs are
where the consumer sets a price level below which the car can be Ni-MH / Li-ion phased out
As batteries become
recharged. The convergence of information and communications HEVs more capable and
cost effective a migration
technology with electrical networks can help models such as these to PHEV after 2015
to succeed. Ni-MH

A programme for the roll-out of EVs has been planned in Israel, Mainly Li-ion, Future battery
Mainly Ni-MH / Li-ion some Ni-MH All Li-ion technology?
with the adoption of a system that combines a battery replacement Ni-MH, Low capability
scheme and charging stations. The city of Berlin is also developing some Li-ion PHEV up PHEVs Based on the current grid mix in the United
to 2015
its EV infrastructure with plans to install 500 charging stations. Kingdom, as much as 40% of CO2 emissions could
be saved through the take-up of electric vehicles.
2010

2020

2030
Source: Re-worded from www.berr.gov.uk/files/file48653.pdf
03
smart metering
smart metering

SlimCity
SlimCity
Energy is often invisible. Consumers rarely see how much energy Fig. Electricity and hot water
they consume at the point of use, and the price of energy is consumption of Växjö apartments
typically only ever communicated to customers in their monthly with and without smart metering
bills. Electricity
50

Consumption (kWh/m2)
This is also the case from the perspective of the network operator.
There is often no way of ascertaining energy use at the periphery 40

smart energy
smart energy
-24%
of a network. Supply could be better managed if more accurate
information were available in realtime. This would also allow for 30
controlled reductions in online backup generation capacity. 20
Until recently, electricity or gas consumption at a consumer’s
10
property has been manually read from meters at the intake for
the building or premises. Many utilities are now installing “smart” 0
meters with the ability to communicate load-use back to a control
Domestic hot water
or administration point. Some smart meters can communicate with
50

Consumption (kWh/m2)
home area networks or mobile devices, allowing the consumer
more intuitive access to their energy information. This enables 40 -43%
consumers to better manage their energy consumption to reduce
demand as and when appropriate. 30

Since smart metering was first introduced into apartments in Växjö, 20

Sweden, customers have reduced their electricity consumption 10 It is estimated that smart metering and information
by 24% and their hot water usage by 43%. The system includes display installations in Växjö, Sweden, have
a web portal that allows users to see hourly rates of consumption 0 resulted in a 24% drop in electricity consumption
and make comparisons to others in the neighbourhood. Reference Reference when compared to average use.
apartment apartment Source: www.vaxjo.se/vaxjo_templates/Page.aspx?id=33649
© www.smartwater.com.au
with display 04
real-time pricing
real-time pricing

SlimCity
SlimCity
Imagine trying to optimize your grocery bill if your local store Fig. Real-time pricing impact on
refused to display prices for their goods in the store, choosing electricity consumption, August 1, 2006
instead to send you a monthly statement showing only the total 800 12

Kilowatts

Megawatts (thousand)
expenditure. This is the situation in which many energy consumers
find themselves today.
700
The use of modern information and communications technology,

smart energy
smart energy
already prevalent in many cities in more developed countries, 600 9
allows the consumer to see accurate pricing information nearer to
the time of use. 500
$471 $480 peak
Trials of various methods of direct visual display have resulted in $437
energy savings of 5-15% while itemized electricity billing shows 400 6
savings of 0-10%. As more monitoring and sensory devices are
installed across networks, more detailed information will become 300
available and may lead to new pricing schemes. Real-time pricing
encourages consumers to be more flexible with their energy use, 200 $200
3
subject to the availability of supply. $172

The city of New York trialled real-time pricing in four volunteer 100 $104 $99
$116

buildings, one of which was an apartment block. The electricity

price changed on an hourly basis, allowing consumers to adjust 0 0
During a heat wave in July 2006, a New York

1 am

12 am
3 am

6 am

9 am

3 pm
4 pm
6 pm

9 pm
12 pm
their behaviour if they so wished. By using electricity at off-peak building’s occupants cut their energy use
times, residents found they could save money. The trial showed by 42% and sold the unused capacity. The
that real-time pricing can have a pronounced effect on peak energy Real time pricing pilot in kilowatts
residents were part of a real-time pricing trial.
use. New York has committed to the expansion of real-time pricing New York city total in megawatts Source: www.nyc.gov/html/planyc2030/downloads/pdf/report_
with a goal of having 50% of small businesses and residents energy.pdf
Day ahead market price of energy
enrolled in the scheme by 2015. $
05
demand response
demand response

SlimCity
SlimCity
Electricity demand can fluctuate significantly over the course of an Fig. California Daily Peak Loads 2000
average day. These peaks and troughs are usually managed from
50

GW
the supply-side. For example, large plants are often kept running in Peak Day August 16
43.5 GW
order to facilitate demand peaks. 45
The demand response concept lowers these peaks by postponing
40
energy consumption until the off-peak. This can be done by

smart energy
smart energy
offering incentives to customers who choose to reduce their peak 35
demand.
30
Traditionally, demand response is achieved by switching these
plants off completely. However, the technology is available to help 25
consumers automatically reduce consumption in numerous subtle
ways, such as increasing temperature set-points on fridges. This 20
ability to regulate a large number of small-scale devices can result
in substantial energy savings across the network – the equivalent, 15
perhaps, of a new power plant. In other words, if scaled up
enough, demand response could add a “virtual power plant” to a 10
city’s generation portfolio.
5
In 2007 in the US, Washington and Oregon carried out a year-long
trial of 150 autonomous appliances, each capable of responding 0

Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
to drops in the availability of energy supply. Rather than turning It is estimated that a 5% reduction in energy
off, the devices reduced their load during a fall in energy supply. Commercial air conditioning demand would have reduced the highest
A tumble dryer, for example, would switch to a lower temperature wholesale prices in California by 50% during the
cycle. The trial surveyed residents in both states, who claimed to Residential air conditioning peak hours of the electricity crisis in 2000/2001.
have experienced little or no inconvenience. Other Source: www.iea.org/textbase/speech/2003/phbilling.pdf
06
combined heat and power
combined heat and power

SlimCity
SlimCity
Cities such as Copenhagen and Stockholm demonstrate Fig. Historical and projected
that retrofitted district heating systems are feasible, and that development of district cooling
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems can offer substantial in Helsinki
improvements in efficiency. 250

MW
CHP plants produce both heat and electricity, typically for local
use. There are two main approaches to CHP installation. The first

smart energy
smart energy
uses waste heat, such as that arising from the process of electricity 200
generation itself, to heat buildings. The second approach outputs a
specific heat load and exports the electrical energy it generates to
the local network.
150
The Finnish capital, Helsinki, uses CHP to generate more than
enough electricity to meet the needs of the city, so Helsinki
Energy sells surplus energy to the Nordic grid. At the same time, 100
it produces 92% of the city’s district heating. Furthermore, the
system was established as a viable business that did not need
subsidies.
50
A more recent development in this area is Combined Cooling,
Heating and Power (CCHP), where heat-driven cooling processes,
such as absorption chilling, are used to cool a refrigerant to The city of Helsinki, Finland, generates 84% of
air-condition buildings. In addition to its district heating network, 0
its heating and more power than it consumes

1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2010
2015
2020
Helsinki has a district cooling system, as part of a new CCHP from combined heat and power systems. Excess
scheme. At present, it is only located in the most densely electricity is sold onto the Nordic market.
populated areas of the city, with 90 connections as of 2008. The Historical cooling load
Source: IEA Combined Heat and Power, Evaluating the Benefits
total connected cooling load is expected to grow to approximately Projected cooling load of Greater Global Investment, 2008
© Timo Noko
250 MW by 2020. 07
district heating
district heating

SlimCity
SlimCity
District heating networks link heat sources to multiple end-users, Fig. Overall CO2 emissions,
typically on a large scale. If systems are built around co-generation Copenhagen, Denmark
(also called Combined Heat and Power), where heat is generated 4000

1,000 tonnes
as a by-product of electricity generation, then high efficiencies can
be achieved.
District heating systems are best suited to long-term timeframes.

smart energy
smart energy
It took 30 years to connect 95% of buildings to the district heating 3000
system in Copenhagen, Denmark, and it was accomplished only
with the help of planning laws requiring buildings to comply and
connect.
However, once a district heating system is in place, multiple 2000
sources of heat can be chosen to best suit local economic or
environmental conditions. Copenhagen’s network was originally
built around its coal-fired power stations, which had been the most
cost-effective heat source at the time. The versatility of the district
heating system allows the city to transfer to a much broader mix of 1000
heat source - from natural gas, oil and coal to waste incineration,
geothermal energy, wood pellets and straw.
Similarly, district cooling systems use a variety of sources to The district heating network covers 97% of the
provide a cool-temperature refrigerant for networks of buildings. 0
total heating needs of Copenhagen city – the

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000
Such systems can use heat-driven tri-generation systems or equivalent of a floor area of approximately
CCHP (Combined Cooling, Heating and Power). Low temperature 50 million square metres.
sources such as lake water can even be used, as is the case in Energy Waste
Source: www.project2degrees.org/Pages/BestPractices/Energy/
Toronto, Canada, and Amsterdam in the Netherlands. CopenhagenHeat.aspx
Traffic
08
biomass
biomass

SlimCity
SlimCity
A popular form of renewable energy is sustainable biomass, Fig. Geographical bioenergy use
fuelled by replaceable, naturally occurring inputs such as plants, vs bioenergy potential
wood, animal dung or sewage sludge. Biomass systems combust
25

EJ/year
processed biological matter to provide heat or electricity, much like
conventional oil and gas-fired power plants.
20
One of the more efficient ways of producing clean energy from

smart energy
smart energy
biomass is through the use of anaerobic digestion, where the
biomass substances are broken down by bacteria in digesters. 15
The output biogas is then used for the production of heat and
electricity.
10
Another method to produce energy from biomass is known as
gasification. This involves mixing the biomass substances with
oxygen and steam at a high temperature to create biogas. 5

The town of Jühnde in Germany obtains the majority of its energy

from local biomass installations. Renewable biomass materials, 0

North America

Latin America
and Caribbean

Asia*

Africa

Europe

such as manure and plant silage, are fermented at a biogas
plant. The resultant gas is then combusted to supply the town’s
electricity and heating needs. A separate boiler, fired by locally-
sourced wood chips, is available for use when maintenance is
required on the plant or for peak-load and low-supply periods.
Jühnde clearly demonstrates that biomass heating and electricity
can be particularly effective.
Former USSR
Bioenergy use (EJ/year)
Bioenergy potential (EJ/year)
* In Asia the actual use of biomass is higher than the potential.
The value for potential and actual use refer to sustainable use,
indicating that in the case of Asia the actual use is not sustainable,
ie. it can not be sustained over a long period, due to limiting
factors such as land availability.
A switch from traditional food crop production
to non-food biomass production can potentially
help reduce the decline of jobs in agricultural
regions. It is estimated that Europe-wide, over
300,000 jobs could be created from biomass fuel
production by 2020.
Source: www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/energy/sources/renewables/
© Ange Halle explained/biomass/community/page17019.html
09
energy from waste
energy from waste

SlimCity
SlimCity
There are various ways in which energy can be obtained from Fig. Greenhouse gas performance
waste. A report comparing the net CO2 emissions for various of waste management scenarios
waste recovery techniques has been compiled by the city of
300

kgs of carbon dioxide per tonne of waste treated

London in the United Kingdom. It concluded that anaerobic
digestion and gasification linked to CHP plants result in the
200
greatest reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.

smart energy
smart energy
Gothenburg, Sweden, operates an integrated waste system that 100
Incineration
collects, sorts and burns 345,000 tonnes of rubbish annually.
Waste-to-energy production saved the city an estimated 205,060 0
tonnes of CO2 in 2006, when compared to a hypothetical oil-based
generation scenario. -100
The city authority of Freiburg, Germany, has, for the last decade,
operated its own municipal anaerobic digestion plant. It converts -200
annually 36,000 tonnes of household organic waste into
4 million m3 of biogas and 15,000 tonnes of fertiliser. The biogas -300
is cleaned and then burned in a CHP engine generating 7 GWh
of electricity annually – a third of the cities renewable electricity -400
capacity - and feeding heat into the city’s district heating network.
-500
At the Hammarby development in Stockholm, Sweden, sewage
sludge is collected and digested in large tanks. The resultant Mechanical biological Gasification The city of Gothenburg, Sweden, gets 27%
biogas is then used as a fuel source for inner city buses, treatment/biostabilisation
Biomass boiler (incineration Incineration of its electricity and heat energy from the
garbage trucks and taxis. In addition the biogas is distributed to of biodegradable waste) incineration of its waste.
approximately 1,000 gas stoves in Hammarby apartments. Mechanical biological Landfill Source: www.c40cities.org/bestpractices/waste/
treatment followed gothenburg_system.jsp
by anaerobic digestion © Benjamin Pender
10
thermal storage
thermal storage

SlimCity
SlimCity
Thermal storage makes use of available energy to heat or cool Fig. Cool storage design options
substances that retain high or low temperatures over time. These Full storage
can then be used at a later time for space heating or cooling,

Tonnes (kW)
Chiller off
which can improve systemic efficiency. An example can be found Chiller on
in Dallas, US, where off-peak electricity is used for cooling water at
Charging Cooling load
night to fill a 3.3 million gallon tank. The chilled water is then used storage (met by storage)
in the daytime to air-condition a local hospital.

smart energy
smart energy
Chiller
meets
Thermal storage makes up part of a district heating scheme in load
directly
Friedrichshafen, Germany. Approximately 4,300 m2 of solar thermal Time of day
collectors are used to heat water. The water is then transferred to Partial storage - load leveling
a long-term underground thermal storage facility for later use. The

Tonnes (kW)
Chiller runs
system supplies 600 residential dwellings with heated water. continuously

(met by storage)
Ice stores can also be used to reduce the scale of the chiller plants
required for air-conditioning systems. In off-peak or unoccupied Charging
Cooling load
hours, chillers maintain the low air temperature of the ice store. storage
This can then be used to supplement air-conditioning at peak (met by chiller)

times. These schemes work to redistribute the electrical energy Time of day
required for air conditioning and can be coordinated to operate at Partial storage - demand limiting
off-peak hours. This system is used at the Escondido Arts Centre

Tonnes (kW)
Reduced on-peak
in California, US, and in the Wales Millennium Centre in Cardiff, demand

United Kingdom. In the summer of 1997, thermal storage at the

(met by storage)
VA Medical Center in Dallas, Texas, reduced peak
Charging
storage
Cooling load demand by approximately 3 MW, substantially
reducing the electricity bill.
(met by chiller)
© Todd Augustyniak Source: www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/uesc_cs_3.pdf
Time of day 11
geothermal
geothermal

SlimCity
SlimCity
Geothermal energy taps into sources of heat within the earth’s Fig. 1. Comparison of energy prices
core, much of which is at temperatures of 1,000°C or above. While for residential heating in Iceland,
some geographic areas are more pre-disposed to geothermal than September 2005
others, there is potential for low-temperature installations in regions 8

Icelandic krona (ISK)/kWh

with no obvious geothermal characteristics. 7
6
Installations can range from large-scale systems supporting city

smart energy
smart energy
heating networks to small, building-specific systems known as 5
ground-source heat pumps. In Southampton, United Kingdom, a 4
combined geothermal heating and cooling plant exports hot and 3
cold water into the city’s district heating and cooling network. 2
The geothermal well provides 18% of the heating mix into the city’s 1
district heating system, with the remainder coming from natural 0

Geothermal
(low price)
Geothermal
(average price)
Geothermal
(high price)
District heating
from electric boilers
Electrical heating
(subsidised)
Electrical heating
(not subsidised)
Oil heating
(subsidised)
Oil heating
(not subsidised)
gas and fuel oil. The scheme initially had one customer only, but it
now has thousands of customers and saves over 12,000 tonnes of
carbon emissions per year.
In Iceland, 90% of the country’s housing stock is heated with
geothermal energy. Reykjavik’s electrical and heating energy needs Fig. 2. Utilisation of geothermal
energy in Iceland, 2004
are substantially supported by geothermal sources. This particular
Industry Snow
energy source is so plentiful that roads and pavements are even melting
heated during the winter months. A “thermal beach” has also been Greenhouses
Swimming
created, where hot water is mixed with sea water in a lagoon. Fish pools In the UK, Southampton’s geothermal well is more
Reykjavik shares best practice in this area through a partnership farming than a mile deep and reaches a source of water that is
Electricity
with the Chinese city of Xian Yang, which is set to become China’s Space generation heated to 76°C by rocks deep within the earth.
first “geothermal energy city”. heating
Source: www.managenergy.net/products/R124.htm
12
solar power
solar power

SlimCity
SlimCity
Urban rooftops receive a significant amount of energy in the form Fig. Evolution of the solar heat surface
of solar radiation and many authorities have started to harness this. area in Barcelona due to the ordinance
When the city of Barcelona, Spain, assessed the spatial footprint 40

total area processed (thousand m2)

required to provide the city with domestic energy, it concluded
that 1 m2 per person was needed to heat water using solar 35
thermal, and that 10 m2 per family was required for electricity

smart energy
smart energy
using photovoltaics. A study looking at all of Barcelona’s housing
30
topologies in 1999 found that between 19 m2 and 43 m2 of terrace
was available for each existing apartment. In light of their findings,
the authorities stipulated that solar water heating must provide all 25
new buildings with 60% of their hot water needs. Despite some
resistance, the ordinance proceeded. The legislation has resulted 20
in a significant year-on-year increase in the utilization of rooftops
for solar energy generation.
15
Advances in solar photovoltaic technology has meant that city
amenities such as parking meters or traffic signalling equipment 10
can operate without, or reduce reliance on, a grid connection. In
Rizhao, China, most of the city’s traffic signalling, street lighting and
park illumination are powered with solar photovoltaics. 5

In San Francisco, US, a solar incentive programme aims to The total solar energy received by Barcelona has
0
significantly reduce the cost of installing solar panels for city been calculated to be 28 times more than the

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006
residents. The scheme provides rebates for solar installations on energy consumed.
buildings owned and operated by non-profit organizations and for
Source: Droege, Peter, Urban Energy Transition: From Fossil Fuels
low-income single and multi-family residential applicants. to Renewable Power, Chapter 19, Elsevier, 2008
13
feed-in tariffs
feed-in tariffs

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SlimCity
The concept of giving consumers the opportunity to produce Fig. Influence of feed-in tariff on an
their own electricity could help catalyse the development of annual PV installation in Germany
decentralized electricity networks.
400
Solar-specific feed-in tariffs were first established in Aachen, New feed-in
law
Germany, in the 1990s. Credited with stimulating growth in
renewable generation, they were later rolled out nationwide. Feed- 350

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smart energy
in tariffs put a legal obligation on utility companies to buy electricity
from renewable energy producers at a premium rate, usually over 300
a guaranteed period, making the installation of renewable energy
systems a worthwhile and secure investment for the producer. 250
The extra cost is shared among all energy users, making the price
differential barely noticeable. The revenue-neutral scheme covers
200
its costs by charging all energy consumers a small surcharge. Feed-in
law
It offers a fixed payment for long periods, usually 20 years, and
provides a potentially lucrative business model for small-scale 150
100,000 rooftop
producers. As a result, installations of solar photovoltaic energy program
KfW
systems in Germany have increased significantly, most notably in 100
1000 rooftop
the town of Freiburg. Some of the adopters of the scheme have program
(2.5x3kW)
already paid back their investment and are now making a regular 50 Twelve percent of Germany’s current electricity
income.
production is achieved with photovoltaic
In 2008, the city of Los Angeles announced it would be introducing 0 generation, and at least 25,000 jobs are created

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
a feed-in tariff programme called “Solar LA”. The initiative includes each year in the solar energy sector of its
separate provisions for residential customers and city-owned economy.
spaces. The city aims to meet 10% of its energy demand from Note: KfW = Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau - a German Source: www.guardian.co.uk/business/2007/jul/23/germany.
government-owned development bank which gave
solar power by 2020. low-interest loans to fund the programme greenbusiness
14
hydro power
hydro power

SlimCity
SlimCity
Rivers flow through many cities and can offer a reliable, efficient Fig. Regional shares of hydro
source of energy. Hydro power is traditionally associated with production, 1973 and 2005
large-scale projects requiring a high capital expenditure. However, 1973 - 1,295 TWh
there are opportunities for smaller “run-of-the-river” schemes,
which generate electricity by diverting water to a generator. 2.9% China 4.3% Asia*
2.1% 7.2% Latin
The United Kingdom’s largest run-of-the-river scheme is the Non-OECD America

smart energy
smart energy
Beeston weir hydro scheme in Nottingham, which generates Europe
2.2%
approximately 5.3 gigawatt-hours of electricity each year (GWh/yr) 9.4% Africa
– enough to support around 1,200 households. A similar- Former USSR 71.6%
sized 5.2 GWh/yr scheme was built in 1996 in Xanthi, Greece. 0.3% OECD
Commissioned in 1996, the run-of-the-river hydro plant in Cottbus, Middle East
Germany, generates 2.5 GWh/yr and makes effective use of
waterways previously used to drive the millstone for an old cereal 2005 - 2,994 TWh
mill.
13.3% China 7.3% Asia*
The city of Hastings, US, operates a substantial run-of-the-river
2.0% 20.7%
scheme on the Mississippi River. The city is proposing to add Non-OECD Latin
further generation capacity within the footprint of the existing Europe America
facility. On a canal connecting Manchester, UK, to the sea, a 8.3% 3.1%
disused pump-house has been refurbished to house hydro- Former USSR Africa
generation equipment. The installation supports the electricity 0.7% 44.6%
needs for 600 homes, and needed to be incorporated within an Middle East OECD
existing water level management system to allow safe navigation
for the 3,000 vessels that use the waterway each year. Vietnam has over 2,500 micro-hydro schemes
* Asia excludes China.
supplying over 200,000 households.
Source: www.british-hydro.org/hydrofacts.html
15
tidal power
tidal power

SlimCity
SlimCity
Tidal power is often overlooked as a source of energy, but Fig. Distribution of tidal conversion
represents one of the most reliable of all renewable resources. technologies being developed
The tide maintains predictable rises and falls throughout the worldwide
year, guided by the gravitational pull of the moon. This natural 30

Ocean energy technologies in development

phenomenon has been harnessed for 40 years at the estuary
of the River Rance, near St Malo in France. Owing to its high
tidal range, the site is perfectly suited for a barrage and reservoir

smart energy
smart energy
25
scheme.
The construction of the River Rance tidal barrage was completed 20
in 1966 and has since produced over 600 billion kWh. The price
per kWh is lower than that of nuclear or oil-fired power stations,
and the tidal barrage has generated enough income to cover its 15
construction costs. The facility is estimated to support the energy
demands of 250,000 households. The barrage also acts as a road
link between St Malo and nearby Dinard, and has a lock to allow 10

the passage of small boats.

There are many other technologies purporting to take advantage 5
of tidal energy, many of which do not depend on the construction
of an expensive barrage. For example, the first commercial
standalone tidal turbine was recently installed at Strangford 0

Australia
Belgium
Canada

France
Greece
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Korea
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Spain
Sweden

US
India
Mexico
Finland
UK
Denmark
Narrows, Northern Ireland, UK. Since its construction in 1966, the River Rance
tidal barrage in St Malo, France, has produced
There are a number of other technologies currently under trial with over 600 billion kWh.
commentators likening the current state of play to the early days of Ocean Wave OTEC
Source: www.edf.fr/html/en/decouvertes/voyage/usine/
wind power. retour-usine.html
Tidal Current Salinity Gradient
16
urban wind
urban wind

SlimCity
SlimCity
slimcity
Wind turbines can be integrated into the urban landscape in a wide Fig. Global annual installed wind
variety of ways; for instance on rooftops, alongside roads or rail generation capacity, 1996-2007
routes, in combination with lighting columns, in docklands or on

MW
20,000
industrial sites.
Merchant Wind Power (MWP) is a framework for the installation 18,000

of wind turbines on industrial or brownfield sites: the site owner

smart energy
smart energy
16,000
leases the land to a wind power installer and/or operator, then
purchases back the electricity produced at reduced rates. In 14,000
negotiations for one such scheme, in Dagenham, United Kingdom,
an electricity supply company offered a large manufacturing firm a 12,000
“no capital, no risk” solution for the installation of wind turbines in
return for a supply agreement. 10,000

A similar scheme was implemented at Avonmouth, UK, featuring 8,000

an installation of three wind turbines in a port area. It provides
around 75% of the port’s energy needs, and exports spare 6,000
capacity to the local community when available. A further three
turbines are planned so that it can meet 100% of the port’s energy 4,000

needs.
2,000
Small-scale urban wind technology is not as established as the
large windfarm technologies. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT) 0
Denmark already achieves 21% of its gross

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
are sometimes used in the urban environment. They do not need electricity demand from wind power. In the west
to rotate to face the wind and they can absorb energy from the of the country, this at times rises to over 100%.
turbulent air created around buildings. Five VAWTs have been
Source: Global Wind Energy Council and Greenpeace, Global
installed at the BT Convention Centre, Liverpool, UK. Wind Energy Outlook 2008, p 16
17
electricity storage
electricity storage

SlimCity
SlimCity
A greater reliance on naturally fluctuating renewable energy Fig. Technology development status
sources, such as wind and solar, will mean that methods will be
needed to generate more energy output or reduce consumption Commercial Pre- Demonstration Developmental
commercial phase
during peak periods. Electricity networks will increasingly need to
dynamically dispatch backup generation, store energy and reduce Pumped hydro Flywheel Electro- Lithium
demand. Energy storage can be used for peak-lopping – lowering chemical ion (grid
capacitor applications)
the generation capacity required at peak times.

smart energy
smart energy
Flywheels Flywheel Hydrogen Super-
Many storage technologies are currently available. The most (local power (grid device) loop magnetic
mature is hydro-storage, where water is pumped to a mountain quality) energy
reservoir when energy is abundant. When electrical power is (storage
applications)
required, the stored water is then allowed to flow back to a lower
reservoir via a turbine. Denmark has achieved an average of 20% Compressed Zinc-
wind energy penetration by making use of hydro-storage capacity air energy bromine
in the Norwegian mountains. A pumped water storage system is storage (CAES) battery
also in operation in the city of Hamburg, Germany. Lead acid Vanadium
battery redox
Several other technologies have been put forward as viable battery
models for energy storage, such as hydrogen storage. Water is
split using electrolysis to create hydrogen and oxygen at off-peak Ni-Cd
times, and recombined in fuel cells when electricity is needed. battery

Other techniques include fly-wheels, compressed air and batteries. Sodium

sulphur battery Some 3% of the world’s electricity generation
Large-scale batteries, often used in conjunction with wind turbines, capacity is available through pumped water
are widely used in Japan. A 6 MW eight-hour battery system is storage.
operational in Ohito, Japan.
Source: www.electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_
© Ondrej Nespor technologies_pumpedhydro.htm
18
microgrids
microgrids

SlimCity
SlimCity
Microgrids are small-scale electricity networks that operate with a Fig. Microgrid diagram
degree of autonomy. This may apply to an “islanded” section of an
Interface
established electricity system or a small system operating in a rural protection Photovoltaics
area; or on an island with no connection to a centralized system.
The operation of a microgrid, just as in main networks, relies on the Micro-grid
management
RTU Converter
system CATV and
coordination of supply and demand using methods such as energy Communications

smart energy
smart energy
RTU
storage. This has been achieved in remote places such as Fair Isle,
United Kingdom, via demand management, smart appliances and Data
RTU

regulation of supply. The island relies on wind power for its energy Control Acquisition Sensitive Load
RTU
needs. When the wind drops, its systems automatically reduce Static
the supply to the island’s heating loads. Homes are fitted with Fuel cell conditioner

autonomous washing machines that reduce the electricity they Variable

speed
drives
consume on detection of reduced generating capacity. Converter Interface
protection
Interface
Modern grid visions for urban areas aspire to move away from protection
Converter Microturbine/generator
centralized models towards a more distributed approach. It is
postulated that a reliable supply of electricity can be retained by
allowing small sections of the network to behave like a microgrid.
Will need the rights A United Kingdom report found that a microgrid
The SmartGrids model builds on the autonomous microgrid consisting of around 1.4 kWp PV array per
to use this diagram
system implemented on Fair Isle, integrating modern information household and 45% household ownership of
and communications technology standards with network sensors micro-CHP generators will maintain energy
and controls. This enables portions of the network to control balance on a yearly basis if supplemented by
the availability, generation, storage of and demand for energy. A energy storage of 2.7 kWh per household.
SmartGrid trial is underway in Boulder, Colorado.
Source: www.tyndall.ac.uk/research/theme2/final_reports/
© Darren C. Anderson, Solar Electric Light Fund it1_33.pdf
19
energy security
energy security

SlimCity
SlimCity
Trends suggest that a growing proportion of energy consumed Fig. Interdependence of energy and
is likely to be supplied by electricity networks. This could be other sectors
compounded by the growth in electric road vehicles. This Losing power in even one region damages the
increased reliance on electricity will mean that the capacity for loss whole economy
of supply is higher. Oil / Gas Compressor
Station
Centralized networks route power through critical nodes that are

smart energy
smart energy
Fuel Supply
expected to operate without interruption, often resulting in points
Electric
of weakness. In an attempt to counter this, many cities such as Communications
Power
Plant
Power
Supply Power
New York, US, are embracing the concept of energy resource End Switching
decentralization. Decentralized energy systems can help improve Office Office
Substation

overall efficiencies. The option for districts to operate in “island Traffic

Transportation
Water Light
mode” – perhaps on a reduced-demand basis – could also help to
ensure increased protection of energy supply. Reservoir Transport
Substation

In the US, the 2007 Energy Security and Independence Act Banking
Hospital Emergency
and Finance
explicitly introduced directives and incentives for the creation Bank
Ambulance Services

of SmartGrids as a means of improving energy security. The Check

Processing ATM Federal Fire Emergency
Reserve Station Call Centre
Act promotes the adoption of smart meters, smart appliances Centre

and renewable energy technologies. It also called for greater Government

Pension/Service Services
electrification of vehicular transport. In its “modern grid systems Payments
Treasury Dept.
Legislative Military
view” report, the US Department of Energy supports the concept Offices Installations

of a decentralized mesh-like network topology, with sections able In the US, the average age of a substation
to operate autonomously in extraordinary circumstances. It points transformer is 42 years – two years over the
out that such schemes, while improving security, will bring about expected life span.
multiple benefits in efficiencies and system robustness. Source: www.smartgridnews.com/artman/publish/Overviews_
Misc/The_Smart_Grid_An_Introduction.html
20
partnerships
partnerships

SlimCity
SlimCity
The London Energy Partnership (LEP) is a partnership between Fig. CO2 emissions reductions achieved
the Greater London Authority (GLA) and energy suppliers and by electricity companies as a result
infrastructure owners. The LEP aims to create “energy action of the TMG programme, Tokyo, Japan
areas” in order to achieve energy efficiency gains.

kg-CO2/kWh
0.8
The GLA is collaborating with a leading energy supplier to offer a
heavily discounted home insulation service to London’s residents.

smart energy
smart energy
The energy supplier, obliged to undertake energy-saving actions
0.6
under a national scheme, provides the insulation service while the
GLA runs an extensive advertising campaign.
Twenty per cent of Tokyo’s electricity is to come from renewable
sources by 2020. Tokyo Metropolitan Government (TMG) has 0.4
adopted simple strategies in order to achieve this in a city with
a liberalized electricity market in which consumers choose their
supplier.
0.2
TMG requires that all energy companies reveal their carbon
emissions figures as well as details of plans to install and scale up
renewable energy generation capacity. They are also required to
set targets for emissions reductions. If an energy company should 0.0

Average factor

TEPCO

E REX

Ennet

Summit Energy

GTF Green Power

Nippon Steel Engineering

Nippon Oil Corporation

Diamond Power

Marubeni
fail to submit the appropriate information, TMG withholds the right
to name and shame it publically as a non-participant. The strategy
proved successful in the first year of operation, with six out of nine Tokyo is asking energy companies to supply
electricity companies successfully reducing emissions by a total of 20% renewable energy by 2020.
680,000 tonnes of CO2. 2004
Source: www.project2degrees.org/Pages/BestPractices/
2005 © Unumediastudio Energy/TokyoCompanies.aspx
21
city co-operatives
city co-operatives

SlimCity
SlimCity
Cities can save significant sums of money by leveraging their Fig. Procura+ Milestones action
collective purchasing power. This can also help stimulate new plan framework
markets for energy-efficient products, which could lead to further
cost reductions. One of the Clinton Foundation’s core objectives 2
is to pool the purchasing power of cities. To date, it has negotiated Target setting
discounted pricing agreements with more than 25 manufacturers 1
Preparation
of energy-efficient products, giving 1,100 cities access to these

smart energy
smart energy
prices. ICLEI’s Procura+ campaign advises and helps cities to
make sustainable procurements. ICLEI’s campaign has already
helped the city of Kolding, Denmark, and Zurich, Switzerland, 3
Develop
procure energy-efficient IT equipment. Action Plan

In Australia, Darebin and Whitehorse city councils have set up a 5

co-operative under the banner Community Power. Together, they Monitor progress
and report results
were able to broker a deal for electricity from renewable sources
at a reduced rate. They also shared knowledge and resources to
produce educational guides promoting energy efficiency practices
among their citizens.
Cooperation between cities can go further than buying power. The
Australian Solar Cities initiative, including Adelaide, Townsville,
Blacktown, Alice Springs and Central Victoria, encourages partner
cities to share best energy practices and compare new emergent
technologies. ICLEI’s Cities for Climate Protection campaign,
supported by over 800 local governments, provides a platform for
shared resources and methodologies to reduce carbon emissions
in cities.
4
Implement
Action Plan
The public sector in the EU is estimated to buy
approximately 150,000 GWh of electricity per year,
representing about 6-7% of the market. Shifting to
green electricity could save up to 60 million tonnes
of CO2 emissions, equivalent to the emissions of a
city the size of London.
Source: Procura+ and ICLEI, The Procura+ Manual, A Guide to Cost-
Effective Sustainable Public Procurement, 2nd edition, 2007
22
lighting
lighting

SlimCity
SlimCity
The intelligent control of street lighting can lead to large savings Fig. Comparison of source and system
and a reduction in energy consumption. In Oslo, Norway, a efficacies (LPW) lighting technologies
system has been installed where 10,000 High Pressure Sodium
140

Lumens per Watt (LPW)

(HPS) street-lighting columns can be individually controlled from
a central location. This is achieved using existing power cables
as communication links. The lighting can be dimmed when 120
appropriate, which helps to reduce energy consumption and

smart energy
smart energy
extend lamp life. 100

Tougher efficiency standards for street lighting and lighting controls

can impact significantly the totality of a city’s energy consumption. 80
Although the most efficient light source for streetlights is generally
considered to be HPS, more efficient sources are emerging. The 60
Light Emitting Diode (LED) has a significantly longer life-rating
when compared to standard HPS sources. Pilot tests have found 40
that people prefer the colour output of LEDs to that of HPS, and
that they are happy to accept a drop in overall light output if
necessary – thereby helping to ensure reduced lighting demand. 20
Many pilot schemes are underway that compare these two
sources, including a project conducting a direct comparison in 0

Incandescent

Hallogen

CFL

400W Mercury

400W HPS

400W MH

1 Watt LED
Oakland, US.
LEDs have been installed in place of incandescent lamps in traffic The introduction of high-efficiency lamps and
signalling lights in Thekwini, South Africa. The replacement realized an intelligent lighting control system reduced
an energy saving of 73% for these systems, mirroring the results of energy consumption in Oslo by 70%.
other schemes undertaken in Portland and Chicago, US. Source LPW (rated)
Source: www.c40cities.org/bestpractices/lighting/oslo_
System mean LPW streetlight.jsp
23
energy education
energy education

SlimCity
SlimCity
Energy waste often results from the unintentional misuse of Fig. Responses to energy-saving
equipment. Energy savings forecast to arise from the installation actions
of energy-efficient appliances may be negated if such appliances 120
are not used as intended (eg. leaving the lights on when an office
is empty). Peer-to-peer educational programmes such as those
offered by the Building Owners and Managers Association offer 100
frameworks for the promotion of energy-efficient behaviour.

smart energy
smart energy
Educational programmes can raise awareness among young 80
people. A project called “Discover Energy and Talk About it”,
implemented by the Pamplona City Council in Spain, teaches
60
children about basic energy efficiency and encourages them to
pass on any information to their families.
40
A further avenue for the dissemination of information relating
to energy efficiency and conservation is community activism,
bringing together those who share a desire to improve energy 20
practices locally. Chicago’s Conservation Corps aims to tap into
this sentiment with its stated mission “to recruit, train and support
volunteers to save energy” in collaboration with other conservation 0

Not leave
on standby
Dry clothes
outside
Full load
to wash
Wash clothes
lower temp
Defrost fridge
regularly
Let food cool
before fridge
Keep fridge
closed
Adjust fridge
not so cold
Minimum water
in kettle
Microwave
not stove
Lids on pans
Cook oven
things together
schemes. The energy-saving trust in the United Kingdom runs
a network known as Community Action for Energy (CAfE). The
agency acts as a support group for small-scale community In Massachusetts, for every US$ 1 invested in
projects, providing educational and technical support as well as Never Fairly often Always energy efficiency programmes, more than US$ 3
recommending funding sources where required. The project’s has been saved.
Sometimes Usually
website lists numerous projects, from initiatives to educate local Source: www.env-ne.org/public/resources/pdf/ENE_MA_Energy_
primary school children to “eco” home improvements groups. EE_Opportunity_June_2007_061107.pdf
24
empowered city
empowered city

SlimCity
SlimCity
In what started as a drive for energy efficiency in 1991, and has Fig. Comparison of grid and private
since incorporated the roll-out of Solar PV and Local Combined wire supply prices in the UK
Heat, Cooling and Power systems, Woking’s Borough Council 100

Percent
Scheme in the UK has enabled the city to reduce its CO2
emissions by 82%.
80
In 1999, the Council set up Thamesway, a jointly funded public-

smart energy
smart energy
private Energy Services Company (ESCo) to facilitate the roll-out
of distributed energy resources. The company sources schemes 60
of various sizes, suitable for the installation of combined heat and
power systems, often with complementary solar photovoltaics.
Electricity and heat from these systems are then distributed to 40
local energy networks, again installed and owned by the ESCo.
Thamesway would typically match electricity prices charged to
customers and make up any cost shortfalls with a district heating 20
system service provided from the same plant.
The efficiencies gained are multifaceted. The generation of 0

Grid
supply

Private
supply
electricity close to the area of use reduces transmission losses;
and the use of private networks means that the ESCo is exempt
from “use of system” charges and associated fees. In addition, the
Electricity Supply margin
use of the heat from the generation process provides an additional
revenue stream not available to more centralized power producers. Transmission losses TUOS In 2001/2002, the town of Woking achieved
99.85% independence from the national
Although Thamesway is still physically reliant on the wider grid Distribution losses DUOS
electricity grid of the United Kingdom.
system, the more efficient, decentralized and independent concept Renewable obligation Private wire
Source: Action Energy - Carbon Trust, An integrated approach to
realized by the Woking scheme has allowed the council to prevent energy services at Woking Borough Council GPCS434, Jan 2004
Climate change levy VAT © Nick Hider
144,380 tonnes of CO2 from being released into the atmosphere. 25
 glossary

SlimCity
SlimCity
kilowatt-hour (kWh) absorption chilling gasification
Unit of energy equal to 1,000 watt-hour (Wh); one Wh is consumed The heat-driven cooling process typically used in CCHP systems. Process by which carbon-based materials such as coal, petroleum
when one W of power is used for a period of one hour. or biomass can be converted into carbon monoxide and hydrogen
anaerobic digestion by reacting the raw material at high temperatures with a controlled
kilowatt peak (kWp) The process used to create biogas from biomass substances or amount of oxygen and/or steam.
Unit of energy equal to 1,000 watt-hour (Wh); one Wh is consumed waste, involving the use of bacteria to break down material in vats
when one W of power is used for a period of one hour. known as digesters. gigawatt-hour (GWh)
A unit of electrical energy consumption.
Light Emitting Diode (LED) biogas

smart energy
smart energy
An emerging lighting technology, usually has long-rated life.
megawatt (MW)
Unit of power equal to 1,000,000 watts (W).
megawatt-hour (MWh)
Unit of energy equal to 1,000,000 watt-hours (Wh).
photovoltaic (PV)
A reference to the electrochemical process by which electricity is
produced from solar radiation.
real-time pricing
Energy-pricing concept whereby a commodity price is set
according to availability/demand in real time and communicated
to the consumer; thought to be able to aid system robustness by
increasing the flexibility of the supply and demand balance.
SmartGrid
A concept that merges modern ICT systems with electrical power
networks to achieve a more intelligent, dynamic and robust power
system with which users and operators can intuitively interact.
use of system charges
A construct in which electricity transmission and distribution
companies in the United Kingdom receive income from the use of
their infrastructure.
Gas created from biomass or waste materials.
Combined Cooling Heat and Power (CCHP)
The process in which the generation of both useful heat and
electrical power is combined; an amount of the heat is typically
used to provide cooling in a heat-driven cooling process.
Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
The process in which the generation of both useful heat and
electrical power is combined.
ESCo
Energy Systems Company or Energy Services Company often set
up as a part of a public private partnership.
feed-in tariff
A financial incentive for generators of electricity, the cost of which is
often shared among all consumers within a system; typically used
to encourage uptake of clean renewable technologies.
fuel cell
A semiconductor device that converts light to electricity via an
electrochemical process known as the photovoltaic effect; a
hydrogen fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce
electricity with water as a by-product.
grid
A common name for the electrical distribution system; can also
refer to the patterned metal contact on the top of a PV cell.
High Pressure Sodium (HPS)
Widely accepted as the most efficient light source for street lamps;
produces a yellow/orange light.
Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
ICT is an umbrella term that includes all technologies for the
manipulation and communication of information.
International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI)
ICLEI is an international association of local governments and
their associations that have made a commitment to sustainable
development.
incandescent lamps
Traditional light source; light emitted by passing current through
thin wire (or filament); generally considered inefficient as it gives off
a large proportion of input energy as heat.
kilowatt (kW)
Unit of power equal to 1,000 watts (W).

iii
12 geothermal
www.discoversouthampton.
co.uk/sections/
southampton%20geothermal.aspx
www.greenpeace.org.uk/climate/
case-study-southampton
www.renewableenergyworld.com/
rea/news/story?id=46757
www.os.is/page/english/
www.or.is/English/
EnergyandEnvironment/Geothermal/
www.c40cities.org/bestpractices/
renewables/reykjavik_geothermal.jsp
www.managenergy.net/products/
R124.htm
www.hochtief.com/hochtief_
en/9134.jhtml
Figures 1 and 2: Orkustofnun
National Energy Authority,
Energy Statistics in Iceland, Oct
2005, pp 8-9, www.os.is/Apps/
WebObjects/Orkustofnun.
woa/swdocument/3879/
Orkutölur+enska+2005.pdf
13 solar power
www.sfsolarsubsidy.com/wp-
content/uploads/2008/06/san-
francisco-solar-
www.c40cities.org/bestpractices/
renewables/rizhao_solar.jsp
Droege, Peter, Urban Energy
Transition: From Fossil Fuels to
Renewable Power, Chapter 19,
Elsevier, 2008
www.c40cities.org/bestpractices/
renewables/rizhao_solar.jsp
http://www.sfsolarsubsidy.com/sf-
solar-news/san-francisco-solar-
incentive-video/
Fig: Barcelona Energy Agency,
Jan 2007, www.barcelonaenergia.
cat/eng/observatory/ost/ost5.htm
14 feed-in tariffs
www.guardian.co.uk/
business/2007/jul/23/germany.
greenbusiness
http://mayor.lacity.
org/villaraigosaplan/
EnergyandEnvironment/
ClimateChange/LACITY_004983.
www.wind-works.
org/FeedLaws/USA/
ContinentsLargestMunicipalUtility
ProposesSolarFeed-inTariff.html
www.worldfuturecouncil.org/
fileadmin/user_upload/Rob/press/
publications/Feed-inGuidePrint.pdf
Fig: EPIA, 2005, in World
Future Council, Feed-In Tariffs
- Boosting Energy for our Future:
A guide to one of the world’s best
environmental policies, June 2007,
p 9, www.worldfuturecouncil.org/
fileadmin/user_upload/Maja/Feed-
in_Tariffs_WFC.pdf
15 hydro power
www.emra.gov.uk/
publications/documents/
viewpointsonsusenergy_
appendices.pdf
BERR Energy Trends 2007 UK
www.berr.gov.uk/files/file43304.pdf
www.energie-cites.eu/db/xanthi_
140_en.pdf
www.energie-cites.eu/db/cottbus_
140_en.pdf
www.energie-cites.eu/db/boulder_
colorado_570_en.pdf
www.ecotricity.co.uk/about/source_
hydro.html
www.caddet.org/infostore/display.
php?id=4624
www.hgenergy.com/hastings.html
Fig: International Energy Agency,
Key World Energy Statistics, 2007,
p 18, www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/
free/2007/Key_Stats_2007.pdf
16 tidal power
www.edf.fr/html/en/decouvertes/
voyage/usine/retour-usine.html
http://kn.theiet.org/magazine/
issues/0816/tidal-0816.cfm
Fig: International Energy Agency
Ocean Energy Systems (IEA-OES),
Policy Report, 2006, www.iea-
oceans.org/
17 urban wind
www.gwec.net
www.ecotricity.co.uk/wind-parks
www.quietrevolution.co.uk
Fig: Global Representation for
the Wind Energy Sector and
Greenpeace, Global Wind Energy
Outlook 2008, Oct 2008, p 16
www.gwec.net/fileadmin/images/
Logos/Corporate/GWEO_A4_
2008_lowres.pdf
18 electricity storage
www.electricitystorage.org/tech/
technologies_technologies.htm
www.prod.sandia.gov/cgi-
bin/techlib/access-control.
pl/2002/020751.pdf
www.electricitystorage.org/tech/
technologies_technologies_nas.htm
www.economy-point.org/p/
pumped-storage-power-station-
geesthacht.html
www.windpower.org/en/
didyouknow.htm
Fig: Delta Energy and Environment
in Cogeneration and On-Site
Power Production, Emerging
electricity storage technologies,
Table 1, www.cospp.com/
display_article/341386/122/CRTIS/
none/none/1/Emerging-electricity-
storage-technologies/-
19 microgrids
www.fairisle.org.uk/FIECo/renewed/
introduction.htm
Fig: Hatziargyriou, Nikos, National
Technical University of Athens
20 energy security
www.netl.doe.gov/moderngrid/
opportunity/vision_characteristics.
html
http://home2.nyc.gov/html/om/pdf/
energy_task_force.pdf
smart energy
01 decentralized energy
www.guardian.co.uk/
society/2006/mar/15/
guardiansocietysupplement1l
www.localpower.org/
www.lcca.co.uk/server.
php?show=nav.005009
Fig: US Department of Energy
Office of Electricity and Energy
Reliability. The Smart Grid: An
Introduction, 2008, p 9, www.
smartgridnews.com/artman/publish/
Overviews_Misc/The_Smart_Grid_
An_Introduction.html
02 smartgrids
Phone conversations, Peter Corsell,
Randy Huston, Sandy Simon
Fig: Based on US Department of
Energy Office of Electricity and
Energy Reliability, The Smart Grid:
An Introduction, 2008, p 15
www.smartgridnews.com/artman/
publish/Overviews_Misc/The_
Smart_Grid_An_Introduction.html
03 electric vehicles
http://kn.theiet.org/news/sep08/
berlin-emobility.cfm
www.berr.gov.uk/files/file48653.pdf
www.betterplace.com/israel
Fig: BERR: Department for
Transport, Investigation into the
Scope for the Transport Sector to
Switch to Electric Vehicles and Plug-
in Hybrid Vehicles, Oct 2008, p 3
www.berr.gov.uk/files/file48653.pdf
04 smart metering
Energy Efficiency in Buildings
– Business Realities and
Opportunities, http://www.
vaxjo.se/vaxjo_templates/Page.
aspx?id=33649
Fig: Based on City of Växjö and
Energie-Cités, Intelligent and
communicative metering, p 1
www.vaxjo.se/upload/29082/
metering.pdf
05 real-time pricing
www.nyc.gov/html/planyc2030/
downloads/pdf/report_energy.pdf
www.eci.ox.ac.uk/research/energy/
downloads/smart-metering-
report.pdf
Fig: Energy Investment Systems,
Inc., City of New York - Mayor’s
Office of Long-Term Planning
and Sustainability, PlaNYC 2030:
Progress Report 2008, A Greener,
Greater New York, 2008, p 109
www.nyc.gov/html/planyc2030/
downloads/pdf/report_energy.pdf
06 demand response
http://gridwise.pnl.gov/docs/gfa_
project_final_report_pnnl17079.pdf
Fig: PIER Demand Response
Research Center, http://drrc.lbl.gov
07 combined heat and power
Helsingin Energia
www.helen.fi/sljeng/kj_kehitys.html
IEA, Combined Heat and Power:
Evaluating the Benefits of Greater
Global Investment, 2008
www.iea.org
Fig: Helsingin Energia, Development
of district cooling in Helsinki
www.helen.fi/sljeng/kj_kehitys.html
08 district heating
www.project2degrees.
org/Pages/BestPractices/Energy/
CopenhagenHeat.aspx
Arup Intranet Mechanical Skills
Network Forums
www.ctr.dk/images/publikationer/
3folder2006.pdf
www.project2degrees.org/
Pages/BestPractices/Energy/
AmsterdamCooling.aspx
Fig: Large Cities Climate
Summit, LCCS: Energy-District
Heating System, Figure 2
www.nycclimatesummit.
com/casestudies/energy/energy_
heating_copen.html
09 biomass
www.german-renewable-energy.
com/Renewables/Navigation/
Englisch/Biomasse/case-
studies,did=132912.html
Droege, Peter, Renewable City: A
Comprehensive Guide to an Urban
Revolution, John Wiley and Sons,
2007
www.anaerobic-digestion.com/html/
ad_plants_in_the_uk.html
Fig: Kaltschmitt, 2001, at European
Biomass Industry Association,
Biomass resources and production
potential, www.eubia.org/215.0.html
10 energy from waste
www.c40cities.org/bestpractices/
waste/gothenburg_system.jsp
www.london.gov.uk/mayor/
environment/waste/docs/
greenhousegas/summaryreport.rtf
www.hammarbysjostad.
se/inenglish/pdf/HS_miljo_bok_
eng_ny.pdf
TCPA and CHPA, Community
energy: Urban Planning for a low
carbon future, 2008
www.urbed.coop/journal_docs/
UrbedReport_LoRes.pdf
Fig: Greater London Authority,
Greenhouse gas balances of
waste management scenarios, Jan
2008, Chart A, www.london.gov.
uk/mayor/environment/waste/docs/
greenhousegas/technicalreport.pdf
11 thermal storage
www.eere.energy.gov/
www.managenergy.net/products/
R430.htm
www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/
uesc_cs_3.pdf
Fig: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc., www.ashrae.org, in
Pacific Northwest National Library,
Thermal Energy Storage for Space
Cooling, Figure 14, p 11
www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/
FTA_coolstorage.pdf
iv
smart energy
Calvin, Robert and Yeager, Kurt,
Perfect Power: How the microgrid
revolution will unleash cleaner,
greener, and more abundant energy,
McGraw Hill 2009.
Fig: Science Applications
International Corporation in National
Energy Technology Laboratory,
Appendix A3: A Systems View of
the Modern Grid, Resists Attack,
Jan 2007, Figure 2, p A3-3
www.netl.doe.gov/moderngrid/
opportunity/vision_characteristics.
html
21 partnerships
www.c40cities.org/bestpractices/
energy/tokyo_companies.jsp
www.london.gov.uk/view_press_
release.jsp?releaseid=11351
www.london.gov.uk/insulate/
Fig: C40 Cities, Energy: Tokyo,
Japan, 2008, www.c40cities.
org/bestpractices/energy/tokyo_
companies.jsp
22 city co-operatives
www.clintonfoundation.org/what-
we-do/clinton-climate-initiative/our-
approach/green-technologies
www.communitypower.org/
www.environment.gov.au/
settlements/solarcities/
www.iclei.org/index.php?id=811
www.procuraplus.org/index.
php?id=6263
Fig: ICLEI Europe, The Procura+ Fig: Action Energy - Carbon Trust,
Milestones, 2007, www.iclei- An integrated approach to energy
europe.org/index.php?id=4584 services at Woking Borough Council
23 lighting GPCS434, Jan 2004, Figure 7
www.carbontrust.co.uk/
www.samferdselsetaten.oslo. Publications/publicationdetail.
kommune.no/arbeidsomrade/ htm?productid=GPCS434&metaN
losartikler/article63385-8990.html oCache=1
Fig: Based on BetaLED and
KramerLED, LEED Certification
Guide: LED Lighting Systems In
Sustainable Building Design, 2008, The publishers have made every
effort to contact the copyright
p 6, www.betaled.com/docs/LEED_
042408-web.pdf owners of the texts and images
published in these cards. In certain
24 energy education cases it has not been possible and
we invite any such copyright owner
www.managenergy.net/download/
nr233.pdf to get in touch.
www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/cafe
www.fypower.org/bpg/module.
html?b=institutional&m=Education
http://egov.cityofchicago.org
Fig: Association for the
Conservation of Energy (UK)
in World Business Council for
Sustainable Development, Energy
Efficiency in Buildings Facts &
Trends: Business realities and
opportunities, 2008, Figure 5.21,
p 73, www.wbcsd.org/plugins/
DocSearch/details.asp?type=DocD
et&ObjectId=MjU5MTE
25 empowered city
www.c40cities.org/bestpractices/
energy/woking_efficiency.jsp
www.project2degrees.
org/Pages/BestPractices/Energy/
WokingEfficiency.aspx
v