ABSTRACT RESEARCH ABOOUT

AGRICULTURE
Development of a Variable Rate Chemical Sprayer for
Monitoring Diseases and Pests Infestation in Coconut
Plantations
Abstract: An image processing-based variable rate chemical sprayer for disease
and pest-infested coconut plantations was designed and evaluated. The manual
application of chemicals is considered risky and hazardous to workers, and
provides low precision. The designed sprayer consisted of a sprayer frame,
motors, a power system, a chemical tank and pump, a crane, a nozzle with a
remote monitoring system, and motion and crane controlling systems. As the
target was confirmed, the nozzle was moved towards the target area (tree
canopy) using the remote monitoring system. The pump then sprayed chemicals
to the target at a specified rate. The results suggested optimal design values for
5–9 m tall coconut trees, including the distance between nozzle and target (1 m),
pressure (1.5 bar), spraying rate (2.712 L/min), the highest movement speed (1.5
km/h), fuel consumption (0.58 L/h), and working capacity (0.056 ha/h). The
sprayer reduced labor requirements, prevented chemical hazards to workers, and
increased coconut pest controlling efficiency.

Monitoring and Precision Spraying for Orchid Plantation with

Wireless WebCAMs
Abstract: Through processing images taken from wireless
WebCAMs on the low altitude remote sensing (LARS) platform,
this research monitored crop growth, pest, and disease
information in a dendrobium orchid’s plantation.Vegetetative
indices were derived for distinguishing different stages of crop
growth, and the infestation density of pests and diseases. Image
data was processed through an algorithm created in
®
MATLAB  (The MathWorks, Inc., Natick, USA). Corresponding
to the orchid’s growth stage and its infestation density, varying
levels of fertilizer and chemical injections were administered. The acquired LARS images from wireless
WebCAMs were positioned using geo-referencing, and eventually processed to estimate vegetative-
indices (Red = 650 nm and NIR = 800 nm band center). Good correlations and a clear cluster range were
obtained in characteristic plots of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and the green
normalized difference vegetation index (GNDVI) against chlorophyll content. The coefficient of
determination, the chlorophyll content values (μmol m−2) showed significant differences among clusters
for healthy orchids (R2 = 0.985–0.992), and for infested orchids (R2 = 0.984–0.998). The WebCAM
application, while being inexpensive, provided acceptable inputs for image processing. The LARS
platform gave its best performance at an altitude of 1.2 m above canopy. The image processing software
based on LARS images provided satisfactory results as compared with manual measurements.

Adapting Agricultural Production Systems to Climate Change—

What’s the Use of Models?
Abstract: Climate change poses a challenge to agricultural production and its impacts vary depending on
regional focus and on the type of production
system. To avoid production losses and make use
of emerging potentials, adaptations in agricultural
management will inevitably be required.
Adaptation responses can broadly be distinguished
into (1) short-term incremental responses that
farmers often choose autonomously in response to
observed changes and based on local knowledge
and experiences, and (2) long-term transformative
responses that require strategic planning, and which are usually implemented at a larger spatial scale.
Models can be used to support decision making at both response levels; thereby, different features of
models prove more or less valuable depending on the type of adaptation response. This paper presents a
systematic literature review on the state-of-the-art in modelling for adaptation planning in agricultural
production systems, investigating the question of which model types can be distinguished and how these
types differ in the way they support decision making in agricultural adaptation planning. Five types of
models are distinguished: (1) empirical crop models; (2) regional suitability models; (3) biophysical
models; (4) meta-models; and (5) decision models. The potential and limitations of these model types for
providing decision-support to short- and long-term adaptation planning are discussed. The risk of
maladaptation—adaptation that implies negative consequences either in the long term or in a wider
context—is identified as a key challenge of adaptation planning that needs more attention. Maladaptation
is not only a risk of decision making in the face of incomplete knowledge of future climate impacts on the
agricultural production system; but it can also be a threat if the connectedness of the agroecosystem is not
sufficiently acknowledged when management adaptations are implemented. Future research supporting
climate change adaptation efforts should thus be based on integrated assessments of risk and
vulnerabilities (considering climate variability and uncertainty). To secure adaptation success in the long
term, frameworks for monitoring management adaptations and their consequences should be
institutionalised.

Effect of Magnesium on Gas Exchange and Photosynthetic

Efficiency of Coffee Plants Grown under Different Light Levels
Abstract: The aim of the present study was to investigate the
effects of magnesium on the gas exchange and photosynthetic
efficiency of Coffee seedlings grown in nutrient solution under
different light levels. The experiment was conducted under
controlled conditions in growth chambers and nutrient solution at
the Department of Plant Pathology of the Federal University of
Lavras. The treatments consisted of five different Mg
−1
concentrations (0, 48, 96, 192 and 384 mg·L ) and four light
−2 −1
levels (80, 160, 240 and 320 µmol photon m ·s ). Both the Mg
concentration and light levels affected gas exchange in the coffee
plants. Photosynthesis increased linearly with the increasing light,
indicating that the light levels tested were low for this crop. The
highest CO2 assimilation rate, lowest transpiration, and highest water use efficiency were observed with
−1
250 mg·Mg·L , indicating that this concentration was the optimal Mg supply for the tested light levels.

Whole-Body Vibration in Farming: Background Document for

Creating a Simplified Procedure to Determine Agricultural
Tractor Vibration Comfort
Abstract: Operator exposure to high levels of whole-body vibration (WBV)
presents risks to health and safety and it is reported to worsen or even cause
back injuries. Work activities resulting in operator exposure to whole-body
vibration have a common onset in off-road work such as farming. Despite the
wide variability of agricultural surface profiles, studies have shown that with
changing soil profile and tractor speed, the accelerations resulting from ground
input present similar spectral trends. While on the one hand such studies
confirmed that tractor WBV emission levels are very dependent upon the
nature of the operation performed, on the other, irrespective of the wide range
of conditions characterizing agricultural operations, they led researchers to set
up a possible and realistic simplification and standardization of tractor driver
comfort testing activities. The studies presented herewith indicate the
usefulness, and the possibility, of developing simplified procedures to determine agricultural tractor
vibration comfort. The results obtained could be used effectively to compare tractors of the same category
or a given tractor when equipped with different seats, suspension, tyres, etc.

Geostatistical Determination of Soil Noise and Soil Phosphorus

Spatial Variability
Abstract: This research studies the effect of stratifying soil
samples to try and find a suitable depth to establish a geospatial
relationship for a practical soil sampling grid in New Zealand
hill country. Cores were collected from 200 predetermined sites
in grids at two trial sites at “Patitapu” hill country farm in the Wairarapa, New Zealand. Trial 1 was a 200
m × 100 m grid located in a gently undulating paddock. Trial 2 was a 220 m × 80 m grid located on a
moderately sloped paddock. Each grid had cores taken at intervals of 5 m, 10 m, or 20 m. Core sites were
mapped out prior to going into the field; these points were found using a Leica Geo Systems GS15 (real
time kinematic GPS) and marked with pigtail pegs and spray-paint on the ground. Cores were taken using
a 50 mm-diameter soil core sampler. Cores were cut into three sections according to depth: A—0–30 mm,
B—30–75 mm, and C—75–150 mm. Olsen P lab results were obtained for half of the total 1400 samples
due to financial constraints. The results indicate that there was a significant decrease in variability from
Section A to Section B for both trials. Section B and C for Trial 1 had similar variability, whereas there
was another significant drop in variability from Section B to C in Trial 2. Measuring samples below the
top 3 cm appeared to effectively reduce noise when sampled from 3 to 15 cm. However, measuring from
7.5 cm to 15 cm on the slope in Trial 2 reduced variability so much that all results were almost identical,
which may mean that there is no measurable representation of plant available P. The reduction in noise by
removing the top 3 cm of soil samples is significant for improving current soil nutrient testing methods by
allowing better geospatial predictions for whole paddock soil nutrient variability mapping.
Efficacy of the Herbicide Lancelot 450 WG (Aminopyralid +
Florasulam) on Broadleaf and Invasive Weeds and Effects on
Yield and Quality Parameters of Maize
Abstract: Reduced efficacy of several herbicides on some important broadleaf weeds might be due to the
extended use of the specific active ingredients. In our study, field experiments were carried out in Greece
in 2014 and 2015 to study the efficacy of the herbicide Lancelot 450 WG (aminopyralid 300 g ai/kg +
florasulam 150 g ai/kg) compared to other herbicides against broadleaf weeds in maize. Effects on crop
yield and quality parameters (nitrogen, protein, and oil content) were also evaluated. Our results showed
that the ready mixture of aminopyralid + florasulam at the recommended dose of 33 g/ha resulted in a
very good control of Xanthium strumarium, Amaranthus retroflexus, Cirsium arvense, and Solanum
nigrum even at 28 DAT, providing a long-term effect. Efficacy of the specific mixture was also very
efficient against the invasive weed species Physalis angulata L. Moreover, there were not any significant
differences between the two doses of Lancelot 450 WG (33 and 66 g/ha) and Callisto 10 SC at double the
recommended dose (1500 mL/ha) regarding yield of maize, with untreated plots and treated with Callisto
10 SC at the recommended dose (750 mL/ha) showing significantly lower yields. It has to be noted that
even double the recommended dose of Lancelot 450 WG (66 g/ha) was highly selective to the crop,
without any adverse effects on yield and quality parameters. Conclusively, Lancelot 450 WG could be
proposed as a very efficient herbicide for the control of the major broadleaf weeds and alien, invasive
species in maize crop.

Establishing a Risk Profile for New Zealand Pastoral Farms

Abstract: In this paper, the risk profile of two pastoral
production systems in New Zealand are examined. All
farmers must manage and mitigate a multitude of risks.
Traditionally, a farm budget is solely undertaken to satisfy a
lending institution. Limited variance analysis takes place,
usually for output prices and inputs such as: interest rates,
energy costs, and fertiliser. The authors of this paper use “@Risk”, a risk profiling plug-in tool for
Microsoft Excel to demonstrate how farm budgets can be more relevant to farmers. Many risk factors that
affect farm financial performance, such as climate and commodity prices, are not controlled by the
farmer. Wet summers help hill country sheep and beef pastoral farmers, as more grass growth occurs,
which thereby reduces the cost of production and increases revenue, as more stock is finished. Whereas in
drought years income falls as stock must be sold prior to finishing, in severe droughts capital stock may
also be sold. Input costs also rise as pasture weed invasion occurs; health issues such as rye grass staggers
may also add cost. Monte Carlo simulations on model farm budgets for a North Island sheep and beef
property and a Canterbury dairy farm help demonstrate the risk profile of each farm type.

Morphological Characterization and Determination of

Aflatoxin-Production Potentials of Aspergillus flavus Isolated
from Maize and Soil in Kenya
Abstract: This study aimed at morphologically identifying Aspergillus
flavus in soil and maize and at determining their aflatoxin-producing
potentials. Five hundred and fourteen isolates obtained from maize and
soil in Kenya were cultivated on Czapeck Dox Agar, Malt Extract Agar,
Sabouraud Dextrose Agar, Potato Dextrose Agar, and Rose-Bengal
Chloramphenicol Agar. Isolates were identified using macro-
morphological characteristics. Micromorphological characteristics were
determined using slide cultures. Aflatoxin production was determined by
direct visual determination of the UV fluorescence of colonies on
Coconut Agar Medium, Yeast Extract Sucrose agar, and Yeast Extract
Cyclodextrin Sodium Deoxycholate agar and by Thin Layer
Chromatography. Forty-three presumptive A. flavus isolates were
identified; aflatoxin was detected in 23% of the isolates by UV fluorescence screening and in 30% by
Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC). The aflatoxins produced were: aflatoxin B 1 (AFB1), aflatoxin
B2 (AFB2), and aflatoxin G1(AFG1); some isolates produced only AFB1, whereas others produced either
AFB1 and AFB2 or AFB1 and AFG1. The highest incidence of A. flavus (63%) and aflatoxin production
(28%) was recorded in samples from Makueni District. Isolates from Uasin Gishu (21%) and Nyeri (5%)
were non-aflatoxigenic. Bungoma District recorded 11% positive isolates of which 2% were aflatoxin
producers. The occurrence of aflatoxin-producing A. flavus emphasises the need for measures to eliminate
their presence in food crops.

Energy and Carbon Impact of Precision

Livestock Farming Technologies
Implementation in the Milk Chain: From Dairy
Farm to Cheese Factory
Abstract: Precision Livestock Farming (PLF) is being developed in livestock farms to relieve the human
workload and to help farmers to optimize production and management procedure. The objectives of this
study were to evaluate the consequences in energy intensity and the related carbon impact, from dairy
farm to cheese factory, due to the implementation of a real-time milk analysis and separation (AfiMilk
MCS) in milking parlors. The research carried out involved three conventional dairy farms, the collection
and delivery of milk from dairy farms to cheese factory and the processing line of a traditional soft cheese
into a dairy factory. The AfiMilk MCS system installed in the milking parlors allowed to obtain a large
number of information related to the quantity and quality of milk from each individual cow and to
separate milk with two different composition (one with high coagulation properties and the other one with
low coagulation properties), with different percentage of separation. Due to the presence of an additional
milkline and the AfiMilk MCS components, the energy requirements and the related environmental
impact at farm level were slightly higher, among 1.1% and 4.4%. The logistic of milk collection was also
significantly reorganized in view of the collection of two separate type of milk, hence, it leads an
increment of 44% of the energy requirements. The logistic of milk collection and delivery represents the
process which the highest incidence in energy consumption occurred after the installation of the PLF
technology. Thanks to the availability of milk with high coagulation properties, the dairy plant, produced
traditional soft cheese avoiding the standardization of the formula, as a result, the energy uses decreased
about 44%, while considering the whole chain, the emissions of carbon dioxide was reduced by 69%. In
this study, the application of advance technologies in milking parlors modified not only the on-farm
management but mainly the procedure carried out in cheese making plant. This aspect makes precision
livestock farming implementation unimportant technology that may provide important benefits
throughout the overall milk chain, avoiding about 2.65 MJ of primary energy every 100 kg of processed
milk.