applied

sciences
Review
Review on Seat Suspension System
Technology Development
Alireza Heidarian and Xu Wang *
School of Engineering, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia
* Correspondence: xu.wang@rmit.edu.au




Received: 11 June 2019; Accepted: 4 July 2019; Published: 16 July 2019


Abstract: This review will focus on the necessity for developing seat vibration control systems as a part
of manufacturers’ investigation into finding innovative methods to increase the comfort and safety of
the vehicles’ drivers. Operators of either on-road or off-road vehicles are regularly subjected to an
extended variety of various vibration levels, especially at low frequencies. Considering that exposure
to such vibration in long term has some damaging effects on driver’s health, many comprehensive
investigations have been carried out and researchers have proposed several measures for estimating
discomfort and the suitability of various vehicles’ seats such as those of trucks, cars and agricultural
vehicles in operating condition. Active, passive and semi-active suspension systems are employed in
vehicle seats to alleviate the harmful and damaging effects due to the transmitted vibration to the
human body. In order to improve riding comfort, the operator’s body displacement and acceleration
must be reduced. According to the research, active suspension control systems are the best choice to
reduce the transmitted vibration to the drivers’ body and provide the best ride comfort in comparison
with passive and semi-active systems.

Keywords: seat suspension system; vibration control; drivers’ health; ride comfort; passive suspension;
active suspension; semi active suspension

1. Introduction
Nowadays, considering the advancement of different technologies, motor vehicle manufacturers
have concentrated on the research to find new techniques to promote the safety and comfort of the
ground vehicle operators [1]. Plenty of investigations have been carried out and researchers have
proposed several criteria for estimating discomfort and the fitness of various vehicles’ seats such as
those of trucks, cars and agricultural vehicles in operating condition [2]. One of the challenging tasks
for engineers in automotive industries is the design of the suspension system. It is crucial to design
reliable, safe and convenient seats to eliminate road excitation, since transmitted vibrations to the
driver’s body may cause some damaging effects on their health and efficiency [3].
Truck drivers and operators of any earth-moving machine during their operation will experience
a wide range of vibrations, most often originating from road surface unevenness [4]. The vibration
felt in a typical earth-moving machine vehicle usually happens at frequencies from 0 to 20 Hz [5].
The results for operators are the lack of concentration, tiredness and reduction of the effectiveness
of the work being conducted [6]. There is a direct link between vibration discomfort frequencies for
heavy-duty vehicles and eigenfrequencies of the operator’s body. Based on the conducted studies
by Paddan [7], the vibration at low excitation frequencies (0.5–4 Hz) are the principal hazard causes
for lumbago or a backache, which harmfully affect the mental and physical well-being of operators
and travellers and decrease their working performance [8]. Most passive suspensions in normal seats
are not able to isolate these low-frequency vibrations [9]. It is fully identified that vertical vibration
at lower frequencies is the most dominant vibration to the driver’s body which influences the ride

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2834; doi:10.3390/app9142834 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

 Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2018,
2019,8,9,x 2834 2 2ofof2020

and safety [10]. However, in order to lower the vertical vibration acceleration felt by the human body,
comfort and safety [10]. However, in order to lower the vertical vibration acceleration felt by the
a seat suspension system is required.
human body, a seat suspension system is required.
Automotive seats must provide drivers of a broad range of sizes with seating over relatively
Automotive seats must provide drivers of a broad range of sizes with seating over relatively long
long periods of time and isolate vehicle vibration and shock transmitted to the drivers [11]. To satisfy
periods of time and isolate vehicle vibration and shock transmitted to the drivers [11]. To satisfy these
these conditions, there has been extraordinary progress in automotive seat design during the past
conditions, there has been extraordinary progress in automotive seat design during the past decade.
decade. Targets have been developed to maximize seat quality and performance and decrease
Targets have been developed to maximize seat quality and performance and decrease driver’s stress
driver’s stress during long operating hours. An essential part of the improvement is the driver’s seat,
during long operating hours. An essential part of the improvement is the driver’s seat, so research of
so research of seat suspension systems have become the focus of attention in all automotive and truck
seat suspension systems have become the focus of attention in all automotive and truck companies
companies because the driver’s body is connected to the vehicle by the seats and all of the vibration
because the driver’s body is connected to the vehicle by the seats and all of the vibration is transmitted
is transmitted to the driver’s body through the seats [9,12,13].
to the driver’s body through the seats [9,12,13].
Three methods of vibration isolation are applied to the vehicle’s seats in order to decrease
Three methods of vibration isolation are applied to the vehicle’s seats in order to decrease
transmitted vibration from vehicles seat to operators’ body, namely, passive [14,15], semi-active [16],
transmitted vibration from vehicles seat to operators’ body, namely, passive [14,15], semi-active [16],
and active [17,18] vibration control systems. Active vibration control is a method for decreasing
and active [17,18] vibration control systems. Active vibration control is a method for decreasing
unwanted vibration where some sort of sensor is adopted to measure the motion, force, acceleration,
unwanted vibration where some sort of sensor is adopted to measure the motion, force, acceleration,
and other parameters related to vibration signals and a powered actuator is applied to generate a
and other parameters related to vibration signals and a powered actuator is applied to generate a force
force to resist the unwanted motion. Passive vibration control does not employ any sensors or
to resist the unwanted motion. Passive vibration control does not employ any sensors or actuators
actuators and does not use any power; however, mechanical parts are utilised to damp undesired
and does not use any power; however, mechanical parts are utilised to damp undesired vibrations.
vibrations. The mechanical parts include spring blades, shock absorber, air cushion, etc. Semi-active
The mechanical parts include spring blades, shock absorber, air cushion, etc. Semi-active systems with
systems with specific types of dampers present a better performance than passive systems and worse
specific types of dampers present a better performance than passive systems and worse performance
performance than active control systems.
thanAll
active control
of the systems. methods are extensively examined in order to determine the main
mentioned
All of the
advantages andmentioned methods
disadvantages andaretoextensively examined
find the best in order
solution to determine
for vibration the mainInadvantages
isolation. order to
enhance vehicle seat suspension performance, active and semi-active suspensions to
and disadvantages and to find the best solution for vibration isolation. In order areenhance vehicle
more efficient
ways as many investigations have been implemented by researchers about these systems overmany
seat suspension performance, active and semi-active suspensions are more efficient ways as the
investigations
previous years. have been
In 1974, implemented
Karnopp [19,20]by researchers
started aboutthe
to examine these
mainsystems over the
advantages previousactive
of passive, years.
In 1974,
and Karnopp
semi-active [19,20] started
suspension systemsto and
examine the main
compared theiradvantages
performances. of passive,
Based on active and semi-active
the obtained results,
suspension systems and compared their performances. Based on the obtained
the active and semi-active systems are much more efficient than the conventional passive seating results, the active and
semi-active
system. systems arethe
Nonetheless, much more efficient
increased price than
and the conventional
complexity of passive seating system.
active systems Nonetheless,
only justify their
application in cases when the performance is critical, while the semi-active system can when
the increased price and complexity of active systems only justify their application in cases producethe
performance
notable is critical,
performance while
gains forthe
thesemi-active
small extrasystem canThe
cost [21]. produce
passivenotable performance
and active gains for the
seat suspension is
small extra cost
shown in Figure 1. [21]. The passive and active seat suspension is shown in Figure 1.

(A) (B)
Figure
Figure1.1.Prototype
Prototypeofofpassive
passiveseat
seatsuspension
suspension(A)
(A)and
andactive
activeseat
seatsuspension
suspension(B)
(B)[22].
[22].

Thehuman
The humanbody
bodyisissensitive
sensitivetotovibrations
vibrationsand
andthethefeeling
feelingofofthe
thevibration
vibrationisisdifferent
differentdepending
depending
ononthe
thefrequency
frequencyandandthe
thedirection
directionof ofthe
thevibrations
vibrations[9].[9].By
Byusing
usingaafrequency
frequencyweight,
weight,the thefeeling
feelingcancan
bebetranslated
translatedfrom
fromthe
thevibration
vibrationininspace
spacetotohow
howititisisfelt
feltinside
insidethethedriver’s
driver’sbrain
brainwhere
wherediscomfort
discomfort
isisrecognised.
recognised.TheThefrequency
frequencyweight
weightisisoffered
offeredininISO-2631
ISO-2631[23] [23]and
anddivides
dividesthe
thesensitivity
sensitivityinto
intotwo
two
directions,horizontal
directions, horizontalandand vertical
vertical [24].
[24]. TheThe horizontal
horizontal sensation
sensation function
function is used
is used for both
for both laterallateral
and
and longitudinal accelerations. In ISO-2631, the human filter is presented
longitudinal accelerations. In ISO-2631, the human filter is presented as a transfer function withas a transfer function
with various
various sensitivities
sensitivities for different
for different frequencies.
frequencies. In a vibrating
In a vibrating system system with one
with only onlyfrequency,
one frequency,
the
the experienced
experienced discomfort
discomfort can simply
can simply be measured
be measured by multiplying
by multiplying the acceleration
the acceleration magnitude
magnitude withwith
the
corresponding sensitivity weighting factor for that frequency [17]. In real life, the vibration
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2834 3 of 20

the corresponding sensitivity weighting factor for that frequency [17]. In real life, the vibration
mechanisms are more complex and it is impossible to define the signal using one frequency and
one amplitude. By using Fourier transform, the signal can be converted to a series of trigonometric
functions in the frequency domain. These trigonometric functions can be filtered individually for each
frequency and amplitude and then transformed back to the time domain where an RMS value can
be estimated [25]. Considering the direct relationship between the vibration exposure levels and the
driver’s health, it is clear that the ride comfort is fully dependent on the frequency, amplitude and
exposure time duration of the transmitted vibration [26]. According to the frequency-weighting curves
for single-degree-of-freedom (DOF) system vibration described in ISO 2631-1, the driver’s comfort is
most seriously affected by 5–8 Hz translational vibration along the z axis (Heave motion), 1–1.25 Hz
translational vibration along the x and y axes, and 0.8 Hz rotational vibrations around three axes [27].
Usually, the isolation of the vertical vibration, which is confirmed to have the greatest vibration
amplitude and affects drivers’ comfort in vehicles, is recognised in designing seat suspension [28].
The whole human body system is a complex dynamic system with sophisticated mechanical
characteristics. During operation of any land vehicle, the severe vibration generated by bumpy
roads and the operation of the machineries generate a load which is transferred to the seat; thus,
the operators regularly feel Whole Body Vibration (WBV) [29–31]. To assess human vulnerability due
to transmitted vibrations in vehicles, ISO 2631-1 [23] is always utilised, which has set different ways
for the analysis of Whole Body Vibration and presents guidance on the possible impacts of vibration
on health, comfort, attention, and motion illness.
The objective of obtaining a biodynamic model for a seated body is to be able to predict the
performance of seat design and support the suspension control system configuration [32]. Biodynamic
modelling of the seated human body has attracted considerable attention in recent years, and many
mathematical models ranging from 1-DOF to 11-DOF have been offered [33,34]. These models are
obtained from different modelling methods, such as lumped-mass models, finite element models,
and multi-body models. The lumped-mass body model can be expressed in the frequency domain as a
transfer function or in the time domain as a differential equation of motion. A linear 4-DOF model
of a seated human body to investigate whole-body vibration was studied by Zhou [35]. In order to
model the human body seating system, Zhou prepared a model for the human bodies which contained
four mass segments: the head, upper trunk, lower trunk, and thighs. Complex head–neck–torso
models studying both vertical motion and rotation of the seated human body were proposed in [36–39].
However, the multiple-DOF modelling in 3D space, in particular, when studying the multiple-DOF
vibrations, has not been investigated to date [40]. In addition, the model parameters should be modelled
in terms of various driver bodies and postures. So, real-time classification of model parameters should
be extended [41]. An innovative seating solution is vital to reach a comfortable ride, and therefore
reduce driver exhaustion, by effectively decreasing undesired vibrations [42]. Vehicle seating systems
have been used to reduce vibration transferred from road disturbances. However, vibrations from the
driver of vehicles and machine tools have not been fully studied for most of the currently available
seating systems because these vibrations may come from various directions rather than just from
vertical and fore-and-aft motions [43]. Furthermore, the driver is the most significant vehicle occupant
when the physical and psychological effects of vehicle vibration on the body are considered, especially
in the case of commercial vehicles [44]. A driver’s biodynamic responses to vehicle vibration should be
focused when designing seating systems. However, combining a human body biodynamic model with
a seating system design has also not been fully discussed in research to date [45]. In studies on seating
systems, Because the frequency range plays a vital role in vehicle ride comfort, the head acceleration
or a rigid driver and passenger body acceleration usually is considered as a performance index to
evaluate ride comfort [46]. However, neither a sprung mass acceleration nor rigid body acceleration
can accurately show human bio-dynamical characteristics. Studies [47–49] show that it is essential
to involve a complex biomechanical model of the human body in a seated position to get a good
insight into ride comfort as an essential parameter when designing a seating suspension. It is seen in
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2834 4 of 20

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 4 of 20

preliminary work towards this purpose that developing an integrated model that incorporates the
vehicle chassis suspension,
suspension, the seating the seating
system, system,
and a humanand abody
human body and
model, model, and designing
designing an integrated
an integrated control
control system,
system, will will be important
be important in attempts
in attempts made
made totopromote
promotehuman
human rideride comfort
comfort and
andsafety
safety[50,51].
[50,51].
Therefore, thethe
Therefore, multiple-DOF
multiple-DOF vibration
vibrationreduction
reduction seating
seatingsystem
systemtogether
togetherwith thethe
with human-in-the-loop
human-in-the-loop
control strategy will be an innovative seating solution.
control strategy will be an innovative seating solution.
The Whole
The Whole Body
Body Vibration
Vibrationin in
terms
termsofof
the body
the body frame
frame 𝑥-𝑦-𝑧
x-y-z is described
is describedin in
Figure 2, where
Figure thethe
2, where
three translational vibrations are along the 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 axes; the three rotational vibrations, which
three translational vibrations are along the x, y, and z axes; the three rotational vibrations, which are
also
aredescribed as roll,aspitch,
also described and yaw
roll, pitch, andmotions, are around
yaw motions, the three
are around theaxes.
three axes.

Figure Whole
2. 2.
Figure body
Whole vibration
body of of
vibration thethe
seated human
seated body.
human body.

It can be noticed that the most sensible frequencies for humans are close to those of translational
It can be noticed that the most sensible frequencies for humans are close to those of translational
vibration along the x and y axes, and those of the three rotational vibrations; however, the translational
vibration along the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes, and those of the three rotational vibrations; however, the
vibration amplitudes along the z-axis are larger than the vibration amplitudes in other DOFs at
translational vibration amplitudes along the 𝑧-axis are larger than the vibration amplitudes in other
the sensitive frequencies [52]. This implies that when designing a multiple-DOF seat suspension,
DOFs at the sensitive frequencies [52]. This implies that when designing a multiple-DOF seat
the yaw vibration control, which would have the weakest impact on ride comfort comparing with the
suspension, the yaw vibration control, which would have the weakest impact on ride comfort
vibration in other DOFs, could be neglected in order to decrease the complexity of the seat suspension
comparing with the vibration in other DOFs, could be neglected in order to decrease the complexity
configuration; the translational vibration along the z-axis could be decoupled from other DOFs in order
of the seat suspension configuration; the translational vibration along the 𝑧-axis could be decoupled
to clarify the vibration control [53].
from other DOFs in order to clarify the vibration control [53].
TheThesimple
simplevehicle seat
vehicle form
seat contains
form anan
contains isolation system
isolation and
system a seat
and frame,
a seat frame,asas
given inin
given Figure 2. 2.
Figure
Various techniques which have been applied in seating system designs by different researchers
Various techniques which have been applied in seating system designs by different researchers are are
explained
explained in in
thethe
following sections.
following sections.
2. Passive Vibration Control Systems
2. Passive Vibration Control Systems
Most seat suspensions utilise a passive mechanism to reduce the effect of the vehicle vibration
Most seat suspensions utilise a passive mechanism to reduce the effect of the vehicle vibration
which are created by uneven road surface on the human body. The passive suspension as a conventional
which are created by uneven road surface on the human body. The passive suspension as a
suspension system contains a sprung mass with a damping shock absorber to regulate unwanted
conventional suspension system contains a sprung mass with a damping shock absorber to regulate
vibrations [54]. The basics of passive vibration control are shown in Figure 3 to present the fundamental
unwanted vibrations [54]. The basics of passive vibration control are shown in Figure 3 to present the
concepts. A passive control system can absorb structural vibrations and remove energy from the
fundamental concepts. A passive control system can absorb structural vibrations and remove energy
dynamic system without an external energy source. The method is to connect the structure to elements
from the dynamic system without an external energy source. The method is to connect the structure
and materials with damping characteristics that overcome vibrations. A passive system is regularly
to elements and materials with damping characteristics that overcome vibrations. A passive system
implemented with springs and dampers with time-invariant stiffness and damping coefficients [55].
is regularly implemented with springs and dampers with time-invariant stiffness and damping
coefficients [55].
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2834 5 of 20
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 5 of 20

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Single-degree-of-freedom system [56].

A conventionalsuspension
A conventional suspensionsystem system was was chosen
chosen by Maciejewski
by Maciejewski et al.et[6].
al.The[6].proposed
The proposed
system
system includes a shear guidance mechanism, an air-spring, a hydraulic
includes a shear guidance mechanism, an air-spring, a hydraulic shock-absorber and buffers. shock-absorber and buffers.
The
The geometry
geometry of theof the seating
seating system
system is shown
is shown in in Figure
Figure 4. 4.The
Thedamped
dampedvibration
vibrationeffecteffectisisgiven
given by by the
the
spring force coupled with the shock-absorber force. Amplification
spring force coupled with the shock-absorber force. Amplification of vibration in the 0–2 Hz of vibration in the 0–2 Hz frequency
range was range
frequency mentioned [57]. At the[57].
was mentioned greater
At thefrequencies, the desired the
greater frequencies, performance of the seat suspension
desired performance of the seat
was given and vibrations transmitted by the seat were decreased significantly
suspension was given and vibrations transmitted by the seat were decreased significantly [58]. The [58]. The pneumatic
and nonlinear
pneumatic andelements
nonlinearprovide
elements a condition
provide atocondition
increasedtovibro-isolating features of the
increased vibro-isolating suspension.
features of the
This kind ofThis
suspension. system
kindisofknown
system by a relatively
is known simple adjustment
by a relatively of stiffness
simple adjustment and damping
of stiffness of the
and damping
pneumatic suspension
of the pneumatic by setting
suspension by air pressure.
setting By adjusting
air pressure. the pressure
By adjusting inside theinside
the pressure air spring
the airchamber
spring
at different loads, a constant static deflection can be forced. Consequently,
chamber at different loads, a constant static deflection can be forced. Consequently, regulating regulating the air pressure
the air
would
pressure lead to a lead
would changeto a in the stiffness
change of the suspension
in the stiffness systemsystem
of the suspension as well asas its as
well eigenfrequency
its eigenfrequency [59].
Incorporating
[59]. Incorporating an additional air reservoir culminates in a decrement in the system stiffness as
an additional air reservoir culminates in a decrement in the system stiffness and anda
result lowers
as a result the the
lowers natural
naturalfrequency
frequency of of
thethe system.
system.The Theair-spring
air-springhas hasminimal
minimal damping; therefore,
damping; therefore,
this
this sort of element employed to suspension systems needs an external shock-absorber. A damping
sort of element employed to suspension systems needs an external shock-absorber. A damping
force
force can
canbebecaused
caused by airflow
by airflow throttling between
throttling the added
between the airaddedreservoir and the air-spring.
air reservoir According
and the air-spring.
to the obtained
According to results by Maciejewski
the obtained results et byal.Maciejewski
[6], the modified et al.seat[6],
suspension outstandingly
the modified promotes
seat suspension
the vibro-isolating characteristics of the seat in the 0–4 Hz frequency range.
outstandingly promotes the vibro-isolating characteristics of the seat in the 0–4 Hz frequency range. For bigger frequencies,
vibro-isolating features vibro-isolating
For bigger frequencies, of both seats (conventional
features of both andseats
modified) are nearly
(conventional themodified)
and same [60].are The best
nearly
performance
the same [60]. of The
the modified seat suspension
best performance of the in comparison
modified seat with normal passive
suspension seats (approximately
in comparison with normal
1.3 Hz) was taken at the resonance frequency. The study by Maciejewski
passive seats (approximately 1.3 Hz) was taken at the resonance frequency. The study by Maciejewski et al. led to a good agreement
between
et al. led the
to adesired reduction in
good agreement transmitted
between vibration
the desired to the driver’s
reduction body and
in transmitted the opposing
vibration to thenecessity
driver’s
for the reduction of seat suspension travel.
body and the opposing necessity for the reduction of seat suspension travel.

Figure 4. The main parts of the passive seat suspension [6].

3. Semi Active
3. Semi Active Vibration
Vibration Control
Control Systems
Systems
The
The vibration transmissibility of
vibration transmissibility of passive
passive vibration
vibration isolation
isolation systems
systems is
is low
low in
in some
some frequencies,
frequencies,
especially in the low-frequency range. The main objective of implementation of the
especially in the low-frequency range. The main objective of implementation of the semi-active semi-active
seat
seat suspension systems is to find a way to reduce vibration transmissibility in the low-frequencies,
suspension systems is to find a way to reduce vibration transmissibility in the low-frequencies, in
in addition
addition to to
thethe high
high performanceatathigh
performance highfrequencies.
frequencies.Semi-active
Semi-activesuspension
suspensionmeasures
measures the
the stiffness
stiffness
and damping characteristics of the isolation system and makes it possible to control the vibration in
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2834 6 of 20
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 6 of 20

aand damping
broad vibrationcharacteristics
frequency range of the[61,62].
isolation system andifmakes
Furthermore, it possible
the stiffness to control
matrix the vibration
of the system in a
is positive
broad vibration frequency range [61,62]. Furthermore, if the stiffness matrix
definite, then the semi-active control systems are unconditionally stable. Besides this, semi-active of the system is positive
definite,are
systems then theefficient
more semi-activebecausecontrol systems
of their lowerare unconditionally
power consumptionstable. Besides with
in comparison this, other
semi-active
active
systems are more efficient because of their lower power consumption
control systems. Adjustable damping and stiffness features in semi-active suspensions have in comparison with other
resulted
active control systems. Adjustable damping and stiffness features in
in this system having been applied in broad industrial fields such as vibration control of high- semi-active suspensions have
resulted in
precision this system
machinery having
[63], been applied
automotive in broad
suspensions [64],industrial
helicopters fields such
[65], as vibration
engine mounts control
[66] and of
high-precision machinery [63], automotive suspensions [64], helicopters
earthquake-response suppression [67]. Vibration isolation by semi-active control can be enhanced by [65], engine mounts [66] and
earthquake-response
employing controllable suppression
stiffness and [67]. Vibration
damping isolation
systems. by semi-active
Semi-active control
devices can be enhanced
manipulate the stiffness by
employing controllable stiffness and damping systems. Semi-active devices
of the structure very quickly to turn uncontrollable stiffness systems into governable systems, and manipulate the stiffness of
the structure very quickly to turn uncontrollable stiffness systems into
this feature makes it possible to decrease the vibration transmissibilities. With the advancement ofgovernable systems, and this
feature makes it possible
magnetorheological (MR) ortoelectrorheological
decrease the vibration transmissibilities.
(ER) dampers, semi-active With control theof advancement
seat suspension of
magnetorheological (MR) or electrorheological (ER) dampers, semi-active
has been developed to enable variable damping force and has less power consumption than active control of seat suspension
has been
control developed
systems [14,68]to. enable variable damping force and has less power consumption than active
control
Oil systems [14,68]. particles (20–50 microns in diameter) are the main components of
and ferrous
Magnetorheologicalparticles
Oil and ferrous fluids [68],(20–50
as microns
shown in in Figure
diameter) are the amain
5. When components
magnetic field isofapplied
Magnetorheological
on the MR
fluids [68],
fluids, as shown
it affects theirinmain
Figure 5. When a magnetic
characteristics, fieldproperties
and their is applied on couldthe MR fluids, it affects
be immediately their main
changed or
characteristics, and their properties could be immediately changed or rearranged
rearranged within a very short time (Millisecond). The main benefit of applying MRF Dampers is within a very short time
(Millisecond).
their The main
quick response to thebenefit
forceof applying(over
variation MRF100 Dampers
times per is their
secondquick response
faster responseto the force
than thevariation
passive
(over 100 times per second faster response than the passive system).
system). Furthermore, they are active and fully adjustable without consuming external power. Furthermore, they are active and
fully adjustable without consuming external power. Besides this, there are
Besides this, there are no moving parts in this system. The main disadvantage of the MRF dampers no moving parts in this system.
The
is themain
highdisadvantage of the MRF dampers is the high cost of construction.
cost of construction.

Figure
Figure 5.
5. The
Themechanism
mechanismof
ofmagnetorheological
magnetorheological(MR)
(MR)fluid
fluid [68].
[68].

In 2005,
In 2005, Gavin
Gavin and and Alhan
Alhan [69],
[69], by
by implementing
implementing aa seriesseries of
of experiments
experiments on on anan ER
ER semi-active
semi-active
damping system,
damping system,showed
showedthat that using
using controllable
controllable damping
damping devices
devices is a is a smart
smart way way to provide
to provide low-
low-transmissibility systems. Based on their obtained results, the minimum
transmissibility systems. Based on their obtained results, the minimum damping of the system is the damping of the system
is the important
most most important parameter
parameter that that regulates
regulates the the acceleration
acceleration transmissibility,and
transmissibility, andthethe controllable
controllable
damping and
damping and stiffness
stiffness provides
provides moremore efficient
efficient vibration
vibration insulation.
insulation.
The development of the magnetorheological
The development of the magnetorheological fluidfluid
(MRF) dampers—with
(MRF) dampers—with MRF being
MRFvery sensitive
being very
the magnetic field and having low power consumption—motivates
sensitive the magnetic field and having low power consumption—motivates researchers to useresearchers to use them in them
order
to make
in order semi-active seat suspension
to make semi-active systems [70].
seat suspension There [70].
systems are many
Therenumerical
are manyand experimental
numerical and
investigations about semi-active seat suspensions by using MR dampers.
experimental investigations about semi-active seat suspensions by using MR dampers. Choi Choi and Han [71]andapplied
Han
MR applied
[71] dampersMR to reduce
dampers vertical seat vibration.
to reduce vertical seat Another study
vibration. was done
Another studybywas
Choidoneand by
Wereley
Choi and[72],
where they examined the application of MR dampers that were
Wereley [72], where they examined the application of MR dampers that were implemented onimplemented on helicopter crew
seats and they
helicopter crewreported
seats and the advantages
they reportedof theusing a semi-active
advantages of usingsuspension system
a semi-active in comparison
suspension system with
in
passive systems. In order to decrease the effect of ground vehicle crashes, Bai
comparison with passive systems. In order to decrease the effect of ground vehicle crashes, Bai and and Wereley [73] studied
semi-active
Wereley [73]magnetorheological
studied semi-activeenergy absorbers of MR
magnetorheological seat suspension
energy absorbers of inMR
the crash. They found
seat suspension in that
the
the performance of semi-active seat suspension control systems partially
crash. They found that the performance of semi-active seat suspension control systems partially depends on the damping
force performance
depends of MR dampers.
on the damping The schematic
force performance of MR of dampers.
the MR damper is shown of
The schematic in the
Figure
MR6 damper
[74]. is
shown in Figure 6 [74].
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2834 7 of 20
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 7 of 20
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 7 of 20

Figure 6.
6. schematic of
of the
the magnetorheological
magnetorheological (MR) damper [74].
Figure 6. Schematic
Figure schematic of the magnetorheological (MR)
(MR) damper
damper [74].
[74].

As previously
previouslymentioned,
mentioned, thethe
main main disadvantage
disadvantage of the of
MRthe MR dampers
dampers is the highiscost
theofhigh cost of
construction
As previously mentioned, the main disadvantage of the MR dampers is the high cost of
construction
because of thebecause
price of theof the
MRprice of the MR
fluid [15,75]. fluid MR
In linear [15,75]. In linear
dampers, largeMR dampers,
amounts large amounts of
of magnetorheological
construction because of the price of the MR fluid [15,75]. In linear MR dampers, large amounts of
magnetorheological
fluids are needed to fill fluids
the are
MRneeded to fill
fluid tank, butthein MR fluiddamper,
a rotary tank, but theinrequired
a rotary amount
damper,ofthe MRrequired
fluid is
magnetorheological fluids are needed to fill the MR fluid tank, but in a rotary damper, the required
amount of MR fluid is much smaller and the cost of construction will be decreased
much smaller and the cost of construction will be decreased substantially. The less MR fluid there substantially. The
is,
amount of MR fluid is much smaller and the cost of construction will be decreased substantially. The
less MR fluid
the lower thereofis,construction
the cost the lower the cost of [76].
becomes construction becomes [76].
less MR fluid there is, the lower the cost of construction becomes [76].
One of the restrictions
restrictions of of using
using linear
linear dampers
dampers is is sealing
sealing thethe system
system [77].
[77]. As the working
One of the restrictions of using linear dampers is sealing the system [77]. As the working
mechanism of the linear MR damper fully depends on the pressure difference between the two sides
mechanism of the linear MR damper fully depends on the pressure difference between the two sides
of the
the piston,
piston, ititmeans
meansthe thepressure
pressureofofatat least
leastone side
one is high
side is highandandtherefore needs
therefore good
needs sealing.
good On
sealing.
of the piston, it means the pressure of at least one side is high and therefore needs good sealing. On
the other hand, in a rotary MR damper, the need for sealing is eliminated
On the other hand, in a rotary MR damper, the need for sealing is eliminated since the pressure insince the pressure in rotary
the other hand, in a rotary MR damper, the need for sealing is eliminated since the pressure in rotary
dampers is quiteislow;
rotary dampers quitethus,
low;it is much
thus, it issimpler
much to solve the
simpler sealing
to solve theproblem
sealing [78]. The [78].
problem other The
problems
other
dampers is quite low; thus, it is much simpler to solve the sealing problem [78]. The other problems
of linear MR
problems dampers
of linear MR such
dampersas sedimentation and hard adjustment
such as sedimentation are solvedare
and hard adjustment in rotary
solved dampers.
in rotary
of linear MR dampers such as sedimentation and hard adjustment are solved in rotary dampers.
Compared to a linear
dampers. Compared to aMRlineardamper,
MR damper, the rotary MR MR
the rotary damper
damper generates
generatesa asignificant
significant reduction
Compared to a linear MR damper, the rotary MR damper generates a significant reduction
displacement and device compactness and requires requires less space
space for the configuration
configuration [79].
[79]. A rotary MR
displacement and device compactness and requires less space for the configuration [79]. A rotary MR
damper is shown in Figure 7.
damper is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. The structure of a MR rotary damper [79].

Figure 7. The structure of a MR rotary damper [79].

A novel seat suspension structure by employing a rotary MR damper was proposed by Sun et
A novel
novelseat
seatsuspension
suspensionstructure by by
structure employing a rotary
employing MR damper
a rotary MR damperwas proposed by Sunby
was proposed et al.
Sun [80].
et
al. [80]. The structure of the proposed seat suspension system is shown in Figure 8. Based on their
The structure
al. [80]. of the proposed
The structure seat suspension
of the proposed system system
seat suspension is shown is in Figure
shown in 8. Based
Figure 8. on their
Based onstudy,
their
study, the MR rotary dampers have many advantages compared with linear MR dampers.
the MRthe
study, rotary
MR dampers have many
rotary dampers haveadvantages compared
many advantages with linear
compared withMR dampers.
linear MR dampers.

Figure 8. The structure of the seat suspension with rotary MR damper [80].
Figure 8. The structure of the seat suspension with rotary MR damper [80].
 Figure 7. The structure of a MR rotary damper [79].

A novel seat suspension structure by employing a rotary MR damper was proposed by Sun et
al. [80].
Appl. Sci. The
2019, structure
9, 2834 of the proposed seat suspension system is shown in Figure 8. Based on 8their
of 20
study, the MR rotary dampers have many advantages compared with linear MR dampers.

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x Figure

Figure8.
8.The
Thestructure
structureof
ofthe
theseat
seatsuspension
suspensionwith
withrotary
rotaryMR
MR damper
damper [80].
[80]. 8 of 20

on the
Based on theimplemented
implementedexperimental
experimental tests
tests byby Sun
Sun et al.,
et al., theythey considered
considered transmissibility
transmissibility as a
as a parameter, which is the ratio of affected response acceleration to excitation
parameter, which is the ratio of affected response acceleration to excitation acceleration. The acceleration.
The transmissibility
transmissibility ratioratio
showsshows whether
whether the the suspension
suspension system
system is efficient
is efficient or or not.
not. They
They offered
offered a
a comparisonbetween
comparison betweenpassive
passiveandandsemi-active
semi-activeseat seatsystem
system acceleration
acceleration andand explained
explained that
that the
acceleration amplitude in the semi-active case is considerably decreased in comparison with passive
ones. According
Accordingtotothetheobtained results
obtained in the
results insemi-active state, the
the semi-active seatthe
state, acceleration had the minimum
seat acceleration had the
value,
minimum which verified
value, whichthat the semi-active
verified rotary MR damper-based
that the semi-active seat suspension
rotary MR damper-based seat was much more
suspension was
efficient
much in decreasing
more efficient inthe vibrations.the
decreasing The experimental
vibrations. The results, as given
experimental in Figure
results, 9, proved
as given that the
in Figure 9,
semi-active
proved thatsystem by utilizing MR
the semi-active damper
system by can efficiently
utilizing MRdecrease
damperthecan transmissibility and presents
efficiently decrease the
the best performance
transmissibility over a wide
and presents frequency
the best range. over a wide frequency range.
performance

Figure 9.
Figure The experimental
9. The experimental results
results of
of the
the transmissibility
transmissibility of
of the
the seat
seat with
with MR
MR damper
damper [80].
[80].

Both ER and MR fluid are useful just for a small frequency range, and out of that range they will lose
Both ER and MR fluid are useful just for a small frequency range, and out of that range they will
their efficiencies. To expand the efficient frequency range, in a study by Du et al. [24], they suggested
lose their efficiencies. To expand the efficient frequency range, in a study by Du et al. [24], they
MR elastomers (MREs). Conversely, from MR/ER fluids, magnetorheological elastomers (MREs) have
suggested MR elastomers (MREs). Conversely, from MR/ER fluids, magnetorheological elastomers
controllable damping capabilities [81]. MRE is a kind of composite which is formed by magnetized
(MREs) have controllable damping capabilities [81]. MRE is a kind of composite which is formed by
particles scattered with the alliance in a solid polymer such as rubber. The elastic behaviour of an
magnetized particles scattered with the alliance in a solid polymer such as rubber. The elastic
MRE grows monotonically based on the magnetic field. Simultaneous to the removal of the magnetic
behaviour of an MRE grows monotonically based on the magnetic field. Simultaneous to the removal
field, the MRE quickly returns to its primary status [82]. These unique characteristics of MREs have
of the magnetic field, the MRE quickly returns to its primary status [82]. These unique characteristics
pointed to a variety of uses such as tuned vibration absorbers [83,84]. This novel vibration isolator has
of MREs have pointed to a variety of uses such as tuned vibration absorbers [83,84]. This novel
potential in utilisation where the reinforced vibration properties are wanted. Study of MRE isolators in
vibration isolator has potential in utilisation where the reinforced vibration properties are wanted.
vibration attenuation of structural systems has been done in [85–87], and a model of an MRE isolator
Study of MRE isolators in vibration attenuation of structural systems has been done in [85–87], and a
has been constructed and experimentally examined in [88]. The efficiency of the MRE isolator depends
model of an MRE isolator has been constructed and experimentally examined in [88]. The efficiency
on some significant parameters, like the relative MR effect, the material’s strength and its life span.
of the MRE isolator depends on some significant parameters, like the relative MR effect, the material’s
Figure 10 represents a schematic diagram of the mentioned MRE seat isolator using the fabricated
strength and its life span. Figure 10 represents a schematic diagram of the mentioned MRE seat
MRE. As mentioned before, one of the restrictions of the MRF dampers is the cost of construction.
isolator using the fabricated MRE. As mentioned before, one of the restrictions of the MRF dampers
According to the obtained results, MRE-based devices are comparatively low-priced and strong in
is the cost of construction. According to the obtained results, MRE-based devices are comparatively
comparison with other semi-active systems like MR dampers [81].
low-priced and strong in comparison with other semi-active systems like MR dampers [81].
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2834 9 of 20
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 9 of 20
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 9 of 20

Figure
Figure 10.
10. MR
MRelastomer
elastomer(MRE)
(MRE)seat
seatisolator
isolator[81].
[81].
Figure 10. MR elastomer (MRE) seat isolator [81].
Another
Another method
method to to implement
implement semi-active
semi-active seatseat suspension
suspension isis anan energy
energy regenerative
regenerative seatseat
Another
suspension, method
whichwas to implement
wassuggested
suggested semi-active seat suspension is an energy regenerative
of theseat
suspension, which andand
builtbuilt by et
by Ning Ning et al.
al. [89]. The[89]. The simplified
simplified layout
layout of the regenerative
suspension,
regenerative which
seat was suggested
suspension system is and
givenbuiltFigure
by Ning et shown,
al. [89].the
The simplified layout ofbethe
seat suspension system is given in Figure 11. Asinshown, 11.vibration
the As energy vibration energy
will be stored in awill
battery
regenerative
stored in aastorageseat suspension
batterycircuit.
through system
a storage is given
circuit. in Figure
Theabsorber 11.
regenerative As shown,
shock the
absorber vibration
converts energy will be
through The regenerative shock converts vibration energy intovibration
electrical
stored
energy in a battery through a storage circuit. The regenerative shock absorber converts vibration
energy into
throughelectrical energy through
electromagnetic couplingelectromagnetic coupling energy
and uses the electrical and uses the electrical
to generate energy to
electromagnetic
energy into electrical energy
generate through
force. electromagnetic coupling and uses the electrical energy to
dampingelectromagnetic
force. damping
generate electromagnetic damping force.

Figure
Figure11.
11.Schematic
Schematicof
ofthe
theregenerative
regenerativeseat
seatsuspension
suspensionsystem
system[89].
[89].
Figure 11. Schematic of the regenerative seat suspension system [89].
The
Thementioned
mentioned systemsystemcontains
containsaachangeable
changeableexternal
externalresistance
resistanceand andaasemi-active
semi-activecontroller
controllerfor for
vibrationThe mentioned system contains a changeable external resistance and a semi-active controller for
vibration control.
control. TheTheschematic
schematicand andprototype
prototype of of this
this seat
seat system
system is is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 12.
12. The
Theenergy
energy
vibration control.
regenerative The schematic
seat suspension
suspension andofprototype
consists a pair of of this seat
metal leavessystem is shown
that slide in Figure
against each and12. The
other energy
and is
regenerative seat consists of a pair of metal leaves that slide against each other is located
regenerative
located at the of seat
middle suspension
of the consists of a pair of metal leaves that slide against each other and
of is
at the middle the seat, andseat, and generator
generator and a gearand a gearride
reducer reducer
on it. ride on it. The
The rotary rotary
motions of motions
the scissors
the located
scissors atstructure
the middle of the energy
generate seat, andand generator
will and be
directly a gear reducer ride on it.AnThe rotary variable
motions of
structure generate energy and will directly be stored in thestored in the
battery. battery.
An external external
variable resistor was
the
resistorscissors
was structure
assigned the generate
to measure energy and will
the electromagnetic directly
torque.be stored in the battery.
A series of experimental An external variable
andevaluations
numerical
assigned to measure electromagnetic torque. A series of experimental and numerical
resistor was assigned
evaluations toconfirm
measure theefficiency
electromagnetic torque. and
A series ofthe
experimental and numerical
were done towere donethe
confirm to efficiencythe of the system of andtheallsystem
of the obtainedall of results obtained results
were compared were
with
evaluations
compared with were done
passive seat to confirm
suspension. the efficiency of the system and all of the obtained results were
passive seat suspension. Results showedResults showed
that utilizing that utilizing
regenerative seatregenerative
suspensionseat suspension
fosters a 22.84%
compared
fosters a 22.84% with passive seat
reduction in thesuspension. Resultsvibration
total transmitted showed that utilizingwith
comparing regenerativesystem,
seat suspension
reduction in the total transmitted vibration comparing with passive system, andpassive it clearly provesand thatita
fosters
clearly a 22.84%
proves reduction
thatride
a more in the total transmitted
comfortable ride will be vibration comparing withthepassive system,seatand it
more comfortable will be experienced. Because theexperienced.
regenerativeBecauseseat suspension regenerative
shows a good
clearly
suspension proves
shows that a more comfortable ride will be experienced. Because the regenerative
as a self-seat
performance, there ais good performance,
high potential there this
to develop is high
system potential to develop semi-active
as a self-powered this systemsystem.
suspension shows
powered semi-active system. a good performance, there is high potential to develop this system as a self-
powered semi-active system.

(A) (B)
(A) (B)
Figure 12. (A) Semi-active regenerative seat suspension schematic. (B) Seat suspension prototype [89].
Figure 12. (A) Semi-active regenerative seat suspension schematic. (B) Seat suspension prototype [89].
evaluations were done to confirm the efficiency of the system and all of the obtained results were
compared with passive seat suspension. Results showed that utilizing regenerative seat suspension
fosters a 22.84% reduction in the total transmitted vibration comparing with passive system, and it
clearly proves that a more comfortable ride will be experienced. Because the regenerative seat
suspension
Appl. shows
Sci. 2019, 9, 2834 a good performance, there is high potential to develop this system as a
10 self-
of 20
powered semi-active system.

(A) (B)
Figure 12.
Figure 12. (A)
(A) Semi-active
Semi-active regenerative seat suspension
regenerative seat schematic. (B)
suspension schematic. (B) Seat
Seat suspension prototype [89].
suspension prototype [89].

4. Active Vibration Control Systems

Active suspensions are able to utilize external energy to power the system to reduce undesired
oscillation through continuous control. The main goal of using the active suspensions is to reduce the
effects of road conditions on the suspension travel, and bumpy road profiles do not change the efficiency
of the suspension system [90]. The active suspension system is a more efficient vibro-isolating system
but because of its high costs of construction and complex structure, they are applied infrequently.
There are various methods for the implementation of active control systems to reduce vibration, such as
using conventional linear actuators like hydraulic cylinders or linear motors, pneumatic actuators,
and rotary and linear electro motors.
A system employing active vibration control has the opportunity to add and eliminate energy from
the system through the use of actuators that apply force or torque to the structure. The advantage is that
they are more robust and usually provide better performance. Many researches have been performed
to enhance the ride comfort of passengers. The active system can generate force through the use of
electric or hydraulic actuators according to the state of the system. Consequently, an external energy
source is required, which results in active systems being larger, more energy-consuming and more
costly than both passive and semi-active control systems. In addition to the increased complexity of the
system, another disadvantage is the stability of the system in case of system failure due to faulty sensors.
Time delay may occur in active suspension systems because of delay in data processing, sensors or some
mechanical faults. In order to control the actuator time delay, various controllers such as Proportional
Integral Derivative [91], Fuzzy [92] and Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) [93] are
applied and tested to optimise the active suspension systems. In 2017, Puneet Gandhi et al. [94]
designed the mentioned controllers in MATLAB for a half car active suspension model of 4 Degrees of
Freedom (4-DOF) on the road of the ISO 8608 [95] random road profile. According to their obtained
results, among the different controllers, the ANFIS-based controller presents the best performance in
terms of ‘settling time’ and ‘peak overshoot’ in comparison with other controllers.
In 2012, Du et al. [96] designed an integrated seat suspension system by applying a controller in
order to enhance suspension performance and achieve better ride comfort. Their model consists of a
quarter-car suspension, a seat suspension, and 4-DOF driver body and a feedback controller as shown
in Figure 13. By employing a static output feedback controller, the driver head acceleration in bumpy
road conditions experienced a substantial decrease, and because of the reduction in head acceleration,
the integrated seat suspension system could provide better performance in terms of ride comfort in
comparison with other seat suspension systems.
Negative-stiffness elements have been known as novel mechanisms for improving vibration
damping. This method of isolation employs a revolutionary concept in low-frequency vibration
isolation. Danh and Ahn in 2014 [12] analyzed this mechanism comprehensively and incorporated an
active pneumatic system to isolate the vibrations by applying negative stiffness for a vehicle seat in
low frequencies, defining it as an active system with negative stiffness structures. Negative stiffness
structure is used to decrease the absorbed vertical vibration energy by the seat. In the structure,
the mass is displaced by some random amount from the primary position because of the action of the
force that opposes the displacement. When the force has influence on the seat structure, it leads to
controller presents the best performance in terms of ‘settling time’ and ‘peak overshoot’ in
comparison with other controllers.
In 2012, Du et al. [96] designed an integrated seat suspension system by applying a controller in
order to enhance suspension performance and achieve better ride comfort. Their model consists of a
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2834 11 of 20
quarter-car suspension, a seat suspension, and 4-DOF driver body and a feedback controller as shown
in Figure 13. By employing a static output feedback controller, the driver head acceleration in bumpy
roadtwo
that conditions
horizontal experienced a substantial
springs will decrease,
be compressed andand
twobecause
verticalof the reduction
restoring in head
moments act acceleration,
on the mass.
The experimental results confirm that the isolation efficiency of the suggested systemride
the integrated seat suspension system could provide better performance in terms of comfort
is better thanin
comparison
that withsystem
of the active other seat suspension
without systems. structures.
negative-stiffness

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 11 of 20

an active pneumatic system to isolate the vibrations by applying negative stiffness for a vehicle seat
in low frequencies, defining it as an active system with negative stiffness structures. Negative
stiffness structure is used to decrease the absorbed vertical vibration energy by the seat. In the
structure, the mass is displaced by some random amount from the primary position because of the
action of the force that opposes the displacement. When the force has influence on the seat structure,
it leads to that two horizontal springs will be compressed and two vertical restoring moments act on
the mass. The experimental Figureresults confirmseat
13. Integrated thatandthesuspension
isolation model
efficiency
[96]. of the suggested system is
better than that of the active Figure 13. Integrated
system withoutseat and suspension model
negative-stiffness [96].
structures.
In In 2015,
2015, a project
Negative-stiffness
a project was
was performed
elements
performed havebybybeenEKBERG
EKBERG known andand HANSSON
asHANSSON
novel [97]
mechanisms
[97] atat
thethe
for Department
improvingofof
Department Applied
vibration
Applied
Mechanics
damping.
Mechanics atatthe
This the Chalmers
method
Chalmers University
of isolation
University ofofTechnology
employs Technology inincollaboration
a revolutionary collaboration
concept in with
with VolvoGroup
low-frequency
Volvo Group Trucks
vibration
Trucks
Technology
isolation. Danh
Technology [98].
[98]. andThe
The Ahn main purpose
maininpurpose
2014 [12] of this
analyzed
of this research
researchthiswaswas to
mechanism improve
to improve ride comfort
comprehensively
ride comfort byand by using
using active
incorporated
active and and
semi-active
semi-active suspensions,
suspensions, with
with a focus
a focus ononthe the vertical
vertical dampers.They
dampers. Theyexamined
examinedthe theeffects
effects
ofof vertical
vertical
dampers on the ride comfort feature of a commercial truck through the
dampers on the ride comfort feature of a commercial truck through the use of active and semi-active use of active and semi-active
cabcab suspensions
suspensions based
based on principle
on the the principle of individual
of individual controlcontrol
of each of each separately.
damper damper separately. By this
By this method,
themethod,
restoring theforce
restoring
mainlyforce mainly
depends on depends
the state of onthethesuspension
state of theitself
suspension itself and is of
and is independent independent
the other
of the other dampers and the overall motion of the cab. The benefits of this
dampers and the overall motion of the cab. The benefits of this method are that it is easy to implement method are that it is easy
to implement and easy to overview. Figure 14 presents the truck
and easy to overview. Figure 14 presents the truck coordinate system that was considered to study coordinate system that was
considered
damping to in
forces study damping
the model forces in the
coordinates, i.e., model
heave, coordinates,
roll and pitch.i.e., heave, roll
According andobtained
to the pitch. According
results
to the obtained results by EKBERG and HANSSON, the active
by EKBERG and HANSSON, the active control systems improve the ride comfort regardless of the control systems improve the ride
road
comfort
profiles regardless
while of the road
the semi-active profiles
control whileprincipally
systems the semi-active control
work well for systems
the roadprincipally
profile thatwork
induces well
for the road profile
low levels of vibration. that induces low levels of vibration.

Figure 14. Pitch, roll and heave in Cab [97].

Figure 14. Pitch, roll and heave in Cab [97].
To apply a control suspension system, one of the main methods is the use of conventional linear
actuators, e.g., hydraulic
To apply cylinders orsystem,
a control suspension linear electric motors
one of the mainto reduce is
methods thethe
effects
use ofofconventional
vibration onlinear
the
actuators, e.g., hydraulic cylinders or linear electric motors to reduce the effects of vibration on the
human body [99]. However, one of the restrictions of this method is that they require to be fully
maintained/powered and are usually expensive when large force outputs are needed. In order to
overcome this limitation, Ning et al. [99] designed a seat suspension system that was able directly
utilise a rotary motor to provide a reliable and efficient seat suspension system without maintaining
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2834 12 of 20

human body [99]. However, one of the restrictions of this method is that they require to be fully
maintained/powered and are usually expensive when large force outputs are needed. In order to
overcome this limitation, Ning et al. [99] designed a seat suspension system that was able directly
utilise a rotary motor to provide a reliable and efficient seat suspension system without maintaining
the basic structure of the seat suspension. The idea of using an electric servomotor, as noted by Kawana
and Shimogo [13], in order to reduce vibration in a truck seat was applied and they designed a ball
screw mechanism as the actuator. Using an electric servomotor is simpler than implementing hydraulic
or pneumatic actuators. Furthermore, its loading capacity and frequency span are appropriate for a
seat vibration system. Ning et al. [99] used an electrical rotary motor to achieve this goal. These motors
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 12 of 20
are applied in many industrial fields. It worth noting that other advantages of the rotary motor in
comparison with linear actuators are lower price and ease of maintenance and control. By using a gear
control. By using a gear reducer, it is possible to increase a motor’s torque output. Thus, a low-rated
reducer, it is possible to increase a motor’s torque output. Thus, a low-rated power motor can be used
power motor can be used for active vibration control. A rotary-motor-based active seat suspension
for active vibration control. A rotary-motor-based active seat suspension model is shown in Figure 15.
model is shown in Figure 15.

Figure
Figure 15.
15. Active
Active seat
seat suspension
suspension configuration.
configuration.

According to tothe
theobtained
obtained result
result from experimental
from experimental evaluations
evaluationson active seat suspension,
on active which
seat suspension,
were done
which were bydoneNing et al.et[99],
by Ning this this
al. [99], system is able
system to to
is able overcome
overcome thethevibration
vibrationacceleration
acceleration especially
especially
around the critical value (4 Hz). Considering that the vibrations with
Considering that the vibrations with the greatest the greatest effect on human
health ininheavy-duty
heavy-duty vehicles
vehicles occuroccur
in the inrange
the range
of 3 to of 3 to
5 Hz, 5 Hz,
active seatactive seat suspension
suspension could
could significantly
significantly
enhance ride enhance
comfort.ride comfort.
As mentioned
mentionedbefore,
before,the theidea
ideaof of using an integrated
using an integrated seat seat
suspension was investigated
suspension by Duby
was investigated et
al.
Du [96]
et al.and
[96]the
andresults were were
the results explained. In 2018,
explained. Ning Ning
In 2018, et al. et[27]
al. developed the integrated
[27] developed seat
the integrated
suspension
seat suspension system and tried
system and to overcome
tried to overcomethe whole body vibration
the whole of vehicles,
body vibration especially
of vehicles, in heavy-
especially in
duty ones, by designing a novel two-layer multiple-degrees-of-freedom
heavy-duty ones, by designing a novel two-layer multiple-degrees-of-freedom (multiple-DOF) seat. (multiple-DOF) seat. In
Figure 16, 16,
In Figure the the
simplified planplan
simplified of theofaforementioned
the aforementioned two-layer multiple-DOF
two-layer seat suspension
multiple-DOF design
seat suspension
is shown. There are two main sections in this seat suspension: a top layer
design is shown. There are two main sections in this seat suspension: a top layer including two including two separately
controlled
separately rotational
controlledDOFs and aDOFs
rotational bottom andlayer to decrease
a bottom layer tothedecrease
heave vertical motions.
the heave One
vertical of the
motions.
main
One of characteristics of this model
the main characteristics of isthis
its model
ability is
to its
control the
ability tovibration
control the of the driver’s
vibration of body in five
the driver’s
DOFs,
body in except for the except
five DOFs, yaw vibration,
for the which interestingly
yaw vibration, whichhasinterestingly
the smallest effect
has theon smallest
humans. effect
The top-
on
layer suspension is examined then its rotational stiffness and friction are recognized. In Figure 17, a
constructed model of a multiple-DOF seat suspension is shown. Some experimental tests have been
done in order to evaluate the interaction of the top layer and the bottom layer, and according to the
obtained results, this interaction is small so it is obvious that by using this technique, the whole body
vibration experienced a substantial reduction.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2834 13 of 20
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 13 of 20

humans. The top-layer suspension is examined then its rotational stiffness and friction are recognized.
In Figure 17, a constructed model of a multiple-DOF seat suspension is shown. Some experimental tests
have been done in order to evaluate the interaction of the top layer and the bottom layer, and according
to the obtained results, this interaction is small so it is obvious that by using this technique, the whole
body vibration experienced a substantial reduction.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 13 of 20

Figure 16. Schematic diagram of a two-layer multiple-degrees-of-freedom (multiple-DOF) seat

suspension [53].

According to the obtained results by Ning et al. [27], when the fully controlled two-layer seat
suspension is employed, the whole body vibration for roll and pitch direction decreases by 41.4% and
44.3% respectively. This multiple-DOF seat suspension will improve the driver’s work condition and
is effective
Figurein
Figure 16.application.
16. Schematic diagram
Schematic diagram of
of aa two-layer
two-layermultiple-degrees-of-freedom
multiple-degrees-of-freedom (multiple-DOF)
(multiple-DOF) seat
seat
suspension[53].
suspension [53].

According to the obtained results by Ning et al. [27], when the fully controlled two-layer seat
suspension is employed, the whole body vibration for roll and pitch direction decreases by 41.4% and
44.3% respectively. This multiple-DOF seat suspension will improve the driver’s work condition and
is effective in application.

Figure 17. Multiple-DOF seat suspension prototype [53].

Figure 17. Multiple-DOF seat suspension prototype [53].

According to the obtained results by Ning et al. [27], when the fully controlled two-layer seat
The roll vibration will be fully transmitted to the driver’s body in conventional single-DOF seat
suspension is employed, the whole body vibration for roll and pitch direction decreases by 41.4% and
isolation systems and only the affected vibration in the vertical direction will be damped. A two-layer
44.3% respectively. This multiple-DOF seat suspension will improve the driver’s work condition and
(integrated seat system) multiple-degrees-of-freedom seat suspension system was proposed by Ning
is effective in application.
et al. [53]. The efficacy of the multiple-DOF seat suspension system was examined by doing a series
The roll vibration will be fully transmitted to the driver’s body in conventional single-DOF seat
Figure 17. Multiple-DOF
of both simulations and experimental seatwas
test. The seat suspension prototype
constructed [53].layers: the layer which is
in two
isolation systems and only the affected vibration in the vertical direction will be damped. A two-layer
located on top of the seat is considered to be affected by vertical vibration in the z-axis, and the lower
(integrated seat system) multiple-degrees-of-freedom seat suspension system wassingle-DOF
proposed by
layer The roll
is designedvibration
for thewill be vibration.
roll fully transmitted to the driver’s
A multiple-DOF seatbody in conventional
suspension is shown in Figure seat 18,
Ning et al.systems
isolation [53]. Theandefficacy of affected
the multiple-DOF seat suspension systemwillwas beexamined bytwo-layer
doing a
developed by Ning etonly
al., the
presenting vibration
the bottomin the
partvertical
of the direction
multiple-DOF damped.
seat A
suspension as a
series of bothseat
(integrated simulations and experimental test. The seat
system) multiple-degrees-of-freedom seat was constructed inwas
twoproposed
layers: the layer
mechanism for controlling the vertical vibration. As shown suspension
in Figure 19,system
a U-joint is connectedby toNing
two
which
et al. is
[53].located
The on top
efficacy of
of the
the seat is
multiple-DOF considered
seat to be affected
suspension by
system vertical
was vibration
examined by in the az-axis,
doing series
actuators in the top layer.
and the lower
of both layer is
simulations anddesigned
experimentalfor thetest.
roll The
vibration.
seat was A multiple-DOF seat layers:
constructed in two suspension is shown
the layer whichinis
Figure 18, developed by Ning et al., presenting the bottom part of the multiple-DOF
located on top of the seat is considered to be affected by vertical vibration in the z-axis, and the lower seat suspension as
alayer
mechanism for controlling
is designed for the roll thevibration.
vertical vibration. As shown
A multiple-DOF in Figure
seat 19, a U-joint
suspension is shown is connected
in Figure to 18,
two actuators in the top layer.
developed by Ning et al., presenting the bottom part of the multiple-DOF seat suspension as a
In the structure
mechanism of the the
for controlling U-joint, there
vertical are fourAs
vibration. springs
shownininthe four19,
Figure corners
a U-jointto provide rotational
is connected to two
stiffness, which can be
actuators in the top layer. equal to two torsional springs in the universal joint.
An active multiple-DOF seat suspension was compared with a single-DOF active seat suspension
and a conventional passive one to evaluate the impacts of transmitted vibration on health and ride
comfort. Based on the collected measurement results, the total vibration of the active multiple-DOF
active seat surface experienced a 29.8% vibration reduction, in comparison with the single-DOF active
Appl.
Appl.Sci.
Sci.2018,
2019,8,9,x 2834 1414ofof2020

one. The multiple-DOF seat suspension system could efficiently reduce the whole body vibration
(WBV) of heavy-duty vehicle operators.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 14 of 20

Figure 18. The prototype of multiple-DOF seat suspension [53].

In the structure of the U-joint, there are four springs in the four corners to provide rotational
stiffness, which can be equal to two torsional springs in the universal joint.
Figure
Figure 18. The prototype
18. The prototype of
of multiple-DOF
multiple-DOF seat
seat suspension
suspension [53].
[53].

In the structure of the U-joint, there are four springs in the four corners to provide rotational
stiffness, which can be equal to two torsional springs in the universal joint.

Figure19.
Figure Thegeometry
19.The geometryofofuniversal
universaljoint
joint[53].
[53].

Another active force control system suggested by Tahmasebi et al. [100] is the neuro active force
An active multiple-DOF seat suspension was compared with a single-DOF active seat
control system. They believed this system was simple, effective and accurate. This system was designed
suspension and a conventional passive one to evaluate the impacts of transmitted vibration on health
and employed for an active seat suspension of heavy-duty vehicles likes trucks. They proved the
and ride comfort. Based on Figure the collected measurement
19. The geometry results,
of universal jointthe
[53].total vibration of the active
efficiency of the neuro active force control system by doing a series of experimental tests and numerical
multiple-DOF active seat surface experienced a 29.8% vibration reduction, in comparison with the
simulations. According to the results, the neuro active force control mechanism as an intelligent control
single-DOF
An activeactivemultiple-DOF
one. The multiple-DOF seat suspension
seat suspension system could
was compared withefficiently reduce active
a single-DOF the whole
seat
approach reduced the unwanted transmitted vibration in the driver’s body.
body vibration
suspension and(WBV) of heavy-duty
a conventional passivevehicle
one tooperators.
evaluate the impacts of transmitted vibration on health
Sliding mode control is a control scheme that changes the dynamics of a system by use of an
andAnother active force
ride comfort. Basedcontrol
on thesystem suggested
collected by Tahmasebi
measurement results,et the
al. [100]
totalisvibration
the neuroof active
the force
active
intermittent signal. Sliding mode control is an efficient method to control nonlinear uncertainties
control system. active
multiple-DOF They seatbelieved
surfacethisexperienced
system wasa 29.8%simple,vibration
effectivereduction,
and accurate. This system
in comparison withwas
the
in a system and are employed in suspension control systems. A sliding mode controller including
designed
single-DOF andactive
employed
one. The formultiple-DOF
an active seatseat suspension
suspension of system
heavy-duty
couldvehicles
efficientlylikes trucks.
reduce They
the whole
a state observer for semi-active seat suspension was proposed by Choi and Han [49]. The terminal
proved the efficiency
body vibration (WBV) of of
theheavy-duty
neuro active force operators.
vehicle control system by doing a series of experimental tests
sliding mode controller gives some improved characteristics. Because of the improved performance
and numerical simulations.
Another active According
force control system to the results,by
suggested theTahmasebi
neuro active force
et al. control
[100] is the mechanism
neuro activeasforce
an
of the terminal sliding mode controller in 2017, Ning et al. [22] designed a modified terminal sliding
intelligent control approach reduced the unwanted transmitted vibration
control system. They believed this system was simple, effective and accurate. This system was in the driver’s body.
mode controller aimed for practical application. The results reveal that the frequency-weighted root
Slidingand
designed mode control is
employed fora an
control
active scheme that changes
seat suspension of the dynamicsvehicles
heavy-duty of a system
likesby use ofThey
trucks. an
mean squared (RMS) accelerations of the controlled active seat suspension had a 34.1% decrease
intermittent
proved the signal.
efficiencySliding
of themode
neurocontrol
active is an efficient
force methodby
control system todoing
control nonlinear
a series uncertaintiestests
of experimental in
compared with that of a passive seat suspension. The suggested control algorithm was confirmed in
aand
system and are employed in suspension control systems. A sliding mode controller
numerical simulations. According to the results, the neuro active force control mechanism as an including a state
the simulation and experimental tests. Both the simulation and experimental results show the control
observer
intelligentforcontrol
semi-active
approachseat reduced
suspension the was proposed
unwanted by Choi vibration
transmitted and Han [49].in theThe terminal
driver’s sliding
body.
algorithm effectiveness for practical application. Figure 20 presents the experimental test set-up.
mode Sliding
controllermode gives someisimproved
control a control characteristics.
scheme that changes Becausethe ofdynamics
the improved performance
of a system by useofofthe
an
terminal sliding
intermittent mode
signal. controller
Sliding mode incontrol
2017, Ning
is anetefficient
al. [22] method
designedtoa control
modified terminaluncertainties
nonlinear sliding modein
controller
a system andaimed arefor practicalinapplication.
employed suspension The results
control revealAthat
systems. the mode
sliding frequency-weighted
controller includingroot mean
a state
squared (RMS) accelerations of the controlled active seat suspension had
observer for semi-active seat suspension was proposed by Choi and Han [49]. The terminal sliding a 34.1% decrease compared
with
modethat of a passive
controller seat suspension.
gives some The suggested
improved characteristics. controlofalgorithm
Because the improved was performance
confirmed inofthe the
terminal sliding mode controller in 2017, Ning et al. [22] designed a modified terminal sliding mode
controller aimed for practical application. The results reveal that the frequency-weighted root mean
squared (RMS) accelerations of the controlled active seat suspension had a 34.1% decrease compared
with that of a passive seat suspension. The suggested control algorithm was confirmed in the
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 15 of 20

simulation and
Appl. Sci. experimental
2019, 9, 2834 tests. Both the simulation and experimental results show the control15 of 20
algorithm effectiveness for practical application. Figure 20 presents the experimental test set-up.

FigureFigure
20. Experimental setupsetup
20. Experimental of active seating
of active suspension
seating system
suspension with
system a sliding
with mode
a sliding controller.
mode controller [22].
[22].
5. Our Contributions
5. Our Contributions
Our team has been working on a project which aims to develop an innovative 6-degree-of-freedom
seating
Our teamsystem
has been for commercial
working onvehicles,
a projectincluding
which aims heavy-duty
to develop trucks
an and equipment
innovative that are used
6-degree-of-
principally in the construction of roads, bridges, ditches, and
freedom seating system for commercial vehicles, including heavy-duty trucks and equipment buildings, to maximise the reduction
that of
undesired
are used transmitted
principally in the vibrations
construction to the
of operator’s body.ditches,
roads, bridges, We haveand designed, constructed
buildings, to maximiseand conducted
the
experimental tests on an innovative active seat suspension system
reduction of undesired transmitted vibrations to the operator's body. We have designed, constructed for the mentioned vehicles [99].
Our strategy
and conducted to provide atests
experimental safeonandancomfortable
innovative seat
activein seat
the proposed
suspension seat suspension
system for thesystem is to apply
mentioned
vehicles [99]. Our strategy to provide a safe and comfortable seat in the proposed seat suspension force.
a rotary motor that directly connects to the seat in order to generate the required active excitation
systemIt worth noting
is to apply that use
a rotary of thethat
motor rotary motor
directly does nottoneed
connects to modify
the seat in order thetoprimary
generatestructure of the seat
the required
activesuspension. In order
excitation force. It to amplify
worth the generated
noting that use oftorque of the motor
the rotary motor, does
a gearnotreducer
needistoutilised
modifyand themakes
primary structure of the seat suspension. In order to amplify the generated torque of the motor, output
it possible to get higher torque by employing an efficient and low-rated power motor. A static a
feedback
gear reducer is is schemed
utilised andto permanently
makes it possible decrease seat vibration.
to get higher torque byItemploying
has been confirmed
an efficientthatandthis
low-sort of
rated seat
power suspension
motor. Acan obtain
static better
output ride comfort
feedback in the frequency
is schemed to permanently range decrease
of 2–6 Hzseat in comparison
vibration. Itwith a
has been confirmed that this sort of seat suspension can obtain better ride comfort in the frequencyactive
passive seat suspension. One of the main goals of our design is to achieve a more cost-efficient
rangeseat
of 2–6suspension that can bewith
Hz in comparison appropriate
a passiveforseat
heavy-duty
suspension.trucks.OneA ofseries
the of
mainexperimental
goals of our tests have been
design
done by our team and a 5-degree-of-freedom driver and seating system
is to achieve a more cost-efficient active seat suspension that can be appropriate for heavy-duty model to get the best vibration
control has been developed [101]. Recently, an innovative strategy for
trucks. A series of experimental tests have been done by our team and a 5-degree-of-freedom driver examination of the driver seating
system system
and seating parameters model from
to experimental vibration control
get the best vibration analysishas has been
been developed
designed. The parameter
[101]. Recently, sensitivity
an
investigation has been carried out regarding the arbitrary excitation
innovative strategy for examination of the driver seating system parameters from experimental frequency and system parameter
adjustment.
vibration analysis The has maximum and minimum
been designed. sensitive
The parameter system parameters
sensitivity investigationforhas thebeen
transmissibility
carried out ratio
regarding the arbitrary excitation frequency and system parameter adjustment. The maximumhave
have been classified. The most efficient Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) controllers and been
minimum sensitive system parameters for the transmissibility ratio have been classified. The most are
used to reduce the driver’s body vibration. The evolved comfort and ergonomic seating system
expected
efficient to be broadly
Proportional Integralused in different
Derivative (PID)types of earth-moving
controllers have been vehicles.
used to reduce the driver’s body
vibration. The evolved comfort and ergonomic seating system are expected to be broadly used in
6. Conclusions
different types of earth-moving vehicles.
This paper presented a review of the recent development of the different seating systems for
6. Conclusions
commercial vehicles such as trucks, buses, and earth-moving vehicles with a focus on state-of-the-art
vibration
This paper control systems.
presented Vibration
a review directly
of the recentaffects drivers’ health
development anddifferent
of the performance. Designing
seating systemsaforsafe and
comfortable seating system has become one of the main focuses of high-tech vehicle production
commercial vehicles such as trucks, buses, and earth-moving vehicles with a focus on state-of-the-art companies.
A comprehensive
vibration control discussiondirectly
systems. Vibration was done aboutdrivers’
affects the recent development
health of the novel
and performance. control systems,
Designing a
and the pros and cons of all vibration control systems were presented.
safe and comfortable seating system has become one of the main focuses of high-tech vehicle Passive vibration control
systems
production might be the most dominant control system type for seats, but they are not as effective in
companies.
reducing vibration,discussion
A comprehensive which has was
manydone
damaging
about effects on thedevelopment
the recent human body.of Therefore,
the novel recent research
control
focus has been on novel methods like active and semi-active control systems that
systems, and the pros and cons of all vibration control systems were presented. Passive vibration can directly control
vibration.
control systems These
mightmechanisms might be more
be the most dominant control complex
systemandtypeexpensive, andthey
for seats, but harder
are to
notmaintain, but they
as effective
are more efficient than traditional spring and damper systems.
in reducing vibration, which has many damaging effects on the human body. Therefore, recent
As the
research focus hasactive vibration
been on control like
novel methods approach is associated
active and semi-activewith the reverse
control systemsdynamics of the force
that can directly
actuator and the primary controller, studies about various methods of optimization of active control
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2834 16 of 20

systems—such as using motor, hydraulic and pneumatic actuators and servo motors—were reported.
Advantage and disadvantages were compared and discussed. According to the acquired results,
the integrated seat and suspension control system would provide the best performance in terms of ride
comfort in comparison to other seat suspension systems, but it needs to be optimized to find the novel
control algorithms and methods to improve the seating system performance.
The development and design of control systems in vehicle seating systems still have not overcome
many obstacles such as the low frequency of transmitted vibrations to the operator’s body because
of the multidisciplinary nature of the environment where vehicles or trucks are operating. So our
research team will try to find novel solutions to achieve a comfortable and ergonomic seating system
for commercial vehicles. In Table 1, the advantages and disadvantages of three reviewed suspension
systems are explained briefly.

Table 1. Comparison of the three seat suspension systems.

Active Semi-Active Passive

â Extensive range of force
â Compatible with any
force and velocity
Advantages
â Gaining
better performance
â More efficiency
â More power is needed
â Higher
weight-to-power ratio
Disadvantages â Higher price
â Considerable
modification should be
done before setting it
into the existing vehicle
â Less â Simple design
implementation cost and configuration
â Lower energy use â Lower price in
â Simple control comparison with
â Simple design other
â Easy to set up suspension systems
â Damper limitation
â Narrow
efficiency range
â Performance is not
â Better performance as good as active
than passive and
systems but semi-active systems
performance is not
as good as
active systems

Author Contributions: A.H. analyzed the data; Alireza Heidarian and X.W. contributed reagents/materials/analysis
tools; A.H. and X.W. wrote the paper.
Funding: This research was funded by Australian Research Council grant number LP160100132.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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