Analyses and Discussions

in Action Research
Fabian C. Pontiveros, Jr.
PNU Mindanao
Introduction:
The most critical part of the Action research process is the
analyses and interpretation of data. Data analyses in Action
research is somewhat different from data analyses in an
experimental research in both the process and purpose
(intention).

A researcher who is familiar with experimental research may often

commit the mistake of generalizing his result to a larger population and
thus committing External Validity error.
How can we ensure that the analyses made from the data are VALID?

Types of Validity
1. Internal Validity.
Internal validity is the confidence that we can place in the cause and
effect relationship in a study. The key question is “Could there be an
alternative cause, or causes, that explain my observations and results?”

2. External Validity.
External validity asks the question of generalizability: “To what
populations, settings, treatment variables and measurement variables
can this effect be generalized?”
To avoid committing this common errors of data analyses in action research, let
us state the differences in both the process and intentions of data analyses.
Experimental Research Action Research
Intentions To apply the findings obtained To describe the findings as
(Purpose) from the small set (the applicable only to the group under
sample) to a larger set (the investigations. (i.e. No Claim for
Population) “Generalizabity” is invoke)

Process Data Analyses is the terminal
part of experimental research.
It follows the collection of
data and it precedes the
Conclusion.
Data Analyses is part of the planning
process during the initial stages of
the AR. It becomes the terminal
process when the objectives of the
study has been achieved.
 Comparison of Data Analyses Procedures in
Experimental and in Action Research
Problem Situation: You wanted to improve the efficiency of the Carabao sledge.
Possible Solutions: You do an experimental Research
or you do an Action Research.

Expt’l Research: Action Research:

Treatments: First Cycle:
1. Rectangular wooden You introduce the use of
tire (T1) Rectangular wooden tire
2. Square wooden tire(T2)
3. Tradition sledge (To =
Control)
 Comparison of Data Analyses Procedures(cont’d)
Problem Situation: You wanted to improve the efficiency of the Carabao sledge.
Expt’l Research Design: CRD Action Research:
1. Rectangular wooden tire (T1) First Cycle:
2. Square wooden tire(T2) ACT: You introduce the use of
3. Tradition sledge (To = Rectangular wooden tire
Control) OBSERVE: gather data
Data Analyses, you compare the REFLECT (Analyses): You determine
efficiency ratings of the three if the use of rectangular tire
treatments using Inferential improves the efficiency of the
Statistics Methods (i.e. ANOVA) sledge. You noted an improvement
Interpretation: You made a but you feel that it can still be
conclusion that the Square Tire improved.
is the best design for the Cart. PLAN (for the next cycle): Why not
make the tire SQUARE in shape.
 Comparison of Data Analyses Procedures
Problem Situation: You wanted to improve the efficiency of the Carabao sledge.

Expt’l Research Design: CRD Action Research:

1. Rectangular wooden tire (T1)
2. Square wooden tire(T2)
3. Tradition sledge (To =
Control)
Data Analyses, you compare the
efficiency ratings of the three
treatments using Inferential
Statistics Methods (i.e. ANOVA)
Interpretation: You made a
conclusion that the Square Tire
is the best design for the Cart.
2nd Cycle:
ACT: You introduce the use of
Square wooden tire
OBSERVE: gather data
REFLECT (Analyses): You noted an
improvement but you feel that it
can still be improved.
PLAN (for the next cycle): Why not
make the tire Circular in shape.
 Comparison of Data Analyses Procedures
Problem Situation: You wanted to improve the efficiency of the Carabao sledge.

Expt’l Research: Action Research:

1. Rectangular wooden tire (T1)
2. Square wooden tire(T2)
3. Tradition sledge (To = Control)
Data Analyses, you compare the
efficiency ratings of the three
treatments using Inferential
Statistics Methods (i.e. ANOVA)
Interpretation: You made a
conclusion that the Square Tire
is the best design for the Cart.
3rd Cycle:
ACT: You introduce the use of
Circular wooden tire
OBSERVE: gather data
REFLECT (Analyses): You noted
best performance.
INTERPRETATION: you have
achieved better efficiency of
the sledge/cart by using
circular shape of the tire.
Analysis of Data

Why do we analyze data?

The purpose of analyzing data is to obtain

usable and useful information
Analysis of Data

The analysis, irrespective of whether the data is

qualitative or quantitative, may:

✓ describe and summarize the data

✓ identify relationships between variables
✓ compare variables
✓ identify the difference between variables
✓ forecast outcomes
How should I analyze the data?

It depends on two things:

• What type of data are you dealing with, and
• What were the questions you want answered
 Levels of
Measurement
 Levels of
Measurement
Analysis of Quantitative Data
Analysis of Qualitative Data
Qualitative data analysis is a process that seeks to reduce and make sense of
vast amounts of information, often from different sources, so that impressions
that shed light on a research question can emerge. It is a process where you
take descriptive information and offer an explanation or interpretation. The
information can consist of interview transcripts, documents, blogs, surveys,
pictures, videos etc. You may have been in the situation where you have
carried out 6 focus group discussions but then are not quite sure what to do
with the 30 pages of notes you collected during the process. Do you just
highlight what seems most relevant or is there a more systematic way of
analyzing it?
Analysis of Qualitative Data
Qualitative data analysis typically revolves around the impressions and
interpretations of key researchers. However, through facilitation, study
participants can also take an active role in identifying key themes emerging from
the data. Because qualitative analysis relies on researchers’ impressions, it is
vital that qualitative analysis is systematic and that researchers report on their
impression in a structured and transparent form. This is particularly important
considering the common perception that qualitative research is not as reliable
and sound as quantitative research.
Qualitative data analysis ought to pay attention to the ‘spoken word’, context,
consistency and contradictions of views, frequency and intensity of comments,
their specificity as well as emerging themes and trends.
Analysis of Qualitative Data

Ways of Analyzing qualitative data

1.Framework analysis
2.Thematic analysis
Analysis of Qualitative Data
There are two ways of analyzing qualitative data. One approach is to examine
your findings with a pre-defined framework, which reflects your aims, objectives
and interests. This approach is relatively easy and is closely aligned with policy
and programmatic research which has pre-determined interests. This approach
allows you to focus on particular answers and abandon the rest. We refer to this
approach as ‘framework analysis’ (Pope et al 2000).
The second approach takes a more exploratory perspective, encouraging you
to consider and code all your data, allowing for new impressions to shape your
interpretation in different and unexpected directions. We refer to this approach
as thematic network analysis. More often than not, qualitative analysis draws on
a mix of both approaches.
Analysis of Qualitative Data
Whichever approach guides you, the first thing you need to do is to
familiarize yourself with your data. This involves reading and re-reading
your material (data) in its entirety.
Makes notes of thoughts that spring to mind and write summaries of each
transcript or piece of data that you will analyze. As your aim is to condense
all of this information to key themes and topics that can shed light on your
research question, you need to start coding the material. A code is a word
or a short phrase that descriptively captures the essence of elements of
your material (e.g. a quotation) and is the first step in your data reduction
and interpretation.
 Analysis of
Qualitative Data
•How would you
code the qualitative
data expressed by
the pictures?

For more information on coding qualitative data, see this You Tube link:
link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lYzhgMZii3o&t=26s
Analysis of Qualitative Data
Analysis of Qualitative Data

For more info on Grounded Theory, see this link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y6f1GHjD5JQ
Analysis of Qualitative Data

For more info on Distributed Cognition, see this link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gtz5KRmx6J0
 For more info on Activity Theory, see this link:
Analysis of Qualitative Data
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jP2v6pzhCQw
Ways to Analyze Action Research Data
Brenda Power (1996), Susan and William Stainback (1988) and Marion MacLean and Marian Mohr
(1999) recommend several ways teacher researchers can analyze the data that they have collected.
They should:
1. Triangulate. Study the research question from at least three separate pieces of
data and three points of view. For example, those three pieces of data might be the
teacher researcher’s observations in the research log, recorded comments by a
student or students (such as the tape recorded comments or quotes the teacher
researcher has noted in the research log) and examples of student work. Does the
research question still fit the data that is emerging from the study?
2. Compare constantly. Look through the data and keep comparing the data that was
collected earlier in the study with data collected later in the study. Use different bases for
comparison. For example, if the teacher researcher has compared what the students did
in October with what they did in January, the teacher researcher may try comparing the
students’ written work with their oral work.
Ways to Analyze Action Research Data
3. Categorize and sort. Set up charts, columns, outlines, and ways of counting
occurrences. The teacher researcher can make up different categories that fits
the teaching situation(s) or use categories developed by another researcher.
Watch for ways that the data develops into categories different from other
researchers and explore those differences. Coding your findings will help
categorize the data.
NVivo8 software is useful in this process since researchers can use it to access,
manage, shape and analyze qualitative data. It removes manual tasks of
qualitative analysis such as classifying, sorting, and arranging information so
researchers can concentrate on exploring trends, building and testing out
theories.
4. Order. Decide on a way to order the data findings such as data
chronologically, by importance and by frequency (how often an occurrence
occurs, for example).
Ways to Analyze Action Research Data

5. Contrast. Look for what doesn't fit the assumptions or theories of other researchers and
note what sticks out, goes against the grain.

6. Speculate. Try out different hunches about what the data means. Make an educated
guess and then see if it’s supported by the data. Don’t stick rigidly to an assumption or
hypothesis that was originally held.
7. Restate the question. Rewrite the question many times, changing it when necessary
to fit what’s important from the data that has been collected. What is it that the teacher
researcher really wants to figure out? Sometimes the teacher researcher will want to
make the question more global, sometimes the question may become more tightly
focused
Ways to Analyze Action Research Data
8. Visualize. Create a visual representation for what you have collected. Map out your
data; draw it all on one page. Sketch the metaphors that come to mind when thinking of
the data and what it all means. Use colors and shapes to separate ideas. Use diagrams,
sketches of things, people, happenings to show different ideas and groupings. Inspiration
software (https://inspiration.en.softonic.com/) can help map your data by making
connections through webs.
9. Abstract and distill. State the essence of your findings as if you had to explain them in
50 words or less. What matters most in this data? Write the findings as an abstract such
as one that would be part of conference program.

10. Talk and validate. Talk with others about your research. Explain the data
interpretations to others; see if they can see the same things. Consider their different
interpretations and use them to clarify, broaden and otherwise validate the findings.
Ways to Analyze Action Research Data

11. Confer with students. Ask your students what they think about what you are
observing and writing about in your log. They may offer new ideas about their learning or
validate what you are finding. Students may become co-researchers but be careful of
compromising confidentiality.
12. Take a break. Sometimes it helps to step back from the research process in order to
clear your mind and give yourself a rest. Coming back to the process with a refreshed
outlook will often lead to new understandings and perspectives.

13. State your theories. You build your ideas about teaching as you try out new
strategies. Theories come from and are grounded in practice. Your research group should
help you look at your data from multiple data sources and help you interpret your
findings and draw conclusions and implications for future teaching.
Analysis of Quantitative Data
Preparing the data for Analysis
Analysis of Quantitative Data
Analysis of Quantitative Data
Data Interpretation
Data Interpretation
Data Interpretation
This is called
REFLECTION
Data Interpretation
Discuss Limitations
Discussing results and drawing conclusions

The final stage of the research process is to interpret the findings, making
conclusions and recommendations. When drawing conclusions you should
review and summarize your findings looking for explanatory patterns or
relationships that help answer your research questions.
Writing CONCLUSIONS
Questions to consider when interpreting your findings:
• Did the research methodology and data collected answer the research
question? Do the findings support our hypotheses (quantitative)?
• How do the different findings interact? Do they explain each other or
are there contradictions?
• Can we triangulate the data from number of different sources
(different stakeholders, different methodologies, external sources of
information)?
• What were the limitations of the study and how do they affect the
results?
• Are there any areas that require further research or follow up?
Writing REFLECTIONS
‘The best thing any education can bequeath is the habit of reflection
and questioning.’ (AC Grayling, The Guardian: 22.7.00)
What is reflection?
When we reflect, we consider deeply something which we might not
otherwise have given much thought to. This helps us to learn. Reflection
is concerned with consciously looking at and thinking about our
experiences, actions, feelings and responses and then interpreting or
analyzing them in order to learn from them (Boudet al., 1994; Atkins and
Murphy, 1994). Typically we do this by asking ourselves questions about
what we did, how we did it and what we learnt from doing it.
REFLECTIONS
Schön (1991) distinguishes between reflection-on-action and
reflection-in-action in the following way:

Reflection-in-action is concerned with practicing critically. So, a

physiotherapy student working with a client on an exercise
program is making decisions about the suitability of particular
exercises, which exercise to do next and judging the success of
each exercise at the same time as they are conducting the activity.
 REFLECTIONS

Reflection-on-action on the other hand, occurs after the activity

has taken place when you are thinking about what you (and
others) did, judging how successful you were and whether any
changes to what you did could have resulted in different
outcomes.
This is usually the type of reflection which you are asked to write about as
part of your studies.
REFLECTIONS

Reflecting on academic or professional practice in this way may

make your personal beliefs, expectations and biases more evident
to you. This understanding of yourself should help you to carry out
your studies more successfully as it makes you aware of the
assumptions that you might make automatically or uncritically as a
result of your view of the world.
 REFLECTIONS
Here is an example of reflection-on-action in the discipline of Social Work:

You are a social work student reflecting on a role-play which you participated in
earlier in the day. The role-play involved various professionals, including social
workers and their clients. Reflection leads you to recall the planning you did
before the role play began, the events and processes which took place during
the role play, the way you responded to other participants and your overall
contribution to the role-play. You may note interactions with which you were
either satisfied or dissatisfied and you might also have ideas for how it could
have been done differently. Reflecting on this event will also have the result of
reminding you about how the role-play made you feel: frustrated, confident
etc.
REFLECTIONS
Sample Reflection
This action research not only increased my students’ enthusiasm for
learning science, but it also rekindled my excitement for teaching.
During the pre-study period, I was extremely apprehensive and began
to question the feasibility of the study. Once I began, however, I found
myself looking forward to the hectic pace and the commotion that
resulted from eleven groups of middle school students using sound,
animation, and graphics to develop multimedia computer
presentations.
THANK YOU and KEEP SAFE