Action Research Guide for

Reflective Teachers

Fabian C. Pontiveros, Jr.

 Introduction
Action research is one of those terms that we hear
quite
often in today’s educational circles. But just what
does it
What is action research?
mean?
Action research is …

a process in which participants examine their own

educational practice systematically and carefully,
using the techniques of research.
What is action research?
Action research is …

is a term which refers to a practical way of looking

at your own work to check that it is as you would
like it to be.
an approach to improving education by changing it and
learning from the consequences of changes. It develops
through a self-reflective spiral of cycles of planning, acting,
observing, reflection, and then re-planning, further
implementation, observing, and reflecting. It is
participatory; it is research through which people work
toward the improvement of own practices.
Action research is …

a disciplined inquiry done by a teacher or

practitioner with the intent that the research will
inform and change his or her practices in the
future.
What is NOT action research?
Action research is NOT what usually comes to mind when
we hear the word “research.”

Action research is NOT a library project where we learn

more about a topic that interests us.

It is NOT problem-solving in the sense of trying to find out

what is wrong, but rather a quest for knowledge about how
to improve.

Action research is NOT about doing research on or about

people, or finding all available information on a topic looking
for the correct answers. It involves people working to
improve their skills, techniques, and strategies
What is NOT action research?
Action research is NOT about learning
why we do certain things, but rather
how we can do things better. It is
about how we can change our
instruction to impact students.
Why DO an action research?
Why not do a traditional research?

Scientists and traditional researchers proceed with

their research with the assumption that “all
behaviors and events are orderly” and all events
have “discoverable causes”(Gay, Mills &
Airasian,2006,
This traditionalpp. 5-6)that natural phenomena can
belief
be explained in an orderly way using empirical
science is sometimes called Positivism.
Why DO an action research?
Why not do a traditional research?

Human beings, however, are very complicated

organisms, and compared with chemicals- mice
and for that matter- their behavior can be
disorderly and fairly unpredictable.

This presents a challenge to educational

researchers, who are concerned with gaining
insight into human behavior in educational
environments such as schools and classrooms.
Why DO an action research?
Why not do a traditional research?
The goal of traditional educational research is “to
explain, predict, and/or control educational
phenomena (Gay et al, 2006, p, 5) .
To do this, researchers try to manipulate and
control certain variables to test a hypothesis.

This process sound logical and straightforward. In

classrooms and school settings, however,
controlling all the factors that affect the outcomes
of our teaching without disrupting the natural
classroom environment can be difficult.
Why not do a traditional research?
For example, how do we know that the phonics
program is the only variable affecting the rate at
which students learn to read? Perhaps some
students are being read at home by their parents;
perhaps one teacher is more effective than another;
perhaps one group of students get to read more
exciting books than the other; perhaps some
children have difficulty concentrating on their
reading because
Action they acknowledges
researchers have not eaten their
and breakfast.
embrace
these complications rather than try to control them.
Traditional research vs Action
research?
In Action research, the practitioner is committed to
“taking action and effecting positive educational
change based on their findings, rather than being
satisfied with reporting their conclusions to others.
In addition, while educational research has
historically been done by university professors,
scholars, and graduate students on children,
teachers and school administrators, in Action
research, the practitioners (teachers & admin)
themselves participate in their own inquiry acting as
both teachers and researchers.
Traditional research vs Action
research?
In the U.S.A., action research is gaining high
popularity as a result of G. W. Bush education
agenda of “No Child Left Behind”.
As part of this legislation, states are required to test
their students, with sanctions for schools who fail to
make adequate progress.
How can teachers show that they are making a
difference with their teaching for all students?
Action research provide the teachers with the
“philosophy and practice that allow them to
systematically study the effect of their teaching on
student learning.”
Traditional research vs Action
research?
What are the types of AR?
Part of the confusion we find when we hear the
term
“action research” is that there are different types of
action research depending upon the participants
involved. A plan of research can involve
(1) a single teacher investigating an issue in his or
her classroom,
(2) a group of teachers working on a common
problem, or
(3) a team of teachers and others focusing on a
school- or district-wide issue.
Individual Teacher Research
Individual teacher research usually focuses on a
single issue in the classroom. The teacher may be
seeking solutions to problems of classroom
management, instructional strategies, use of
materials, or student learning. Teachers may have
support of their supervisor or principal, an
instructor for a course they are taking, or parents.
The problem is one that the teacher believes is
evident in his or her classroom and one that can be
addressed on an individual basis. The research may
then be such that the teacher collects data or may
involve looking at student participation.
Individual Teacher Research (cont’d)
One of the drawbacks of individual research is that it
may not be shared with others unless the teacher
chooses to present findings at a faculty meeting,
make a formal presentation at a conference, or submit
written material to a listserv, journal, or newsletter. It
is possible for several teachers to be working
concurrently on the same problem with no
knowledge of the work of others..
Collaborative Action Research

Collaborative action research may include as few as two

teachers or a group of several teachers and others
interested
in addressing a classroom or department issue. This
issue may involve one classroom or a common problem
shared by many classrooms. These teachers may be
supported by individuals outside of the school, such as a
university or community partner.
School-Wide Action Research

School-wide research focuses on issues common to all.

For
example, a school may have a concern about the lack of
parental involvement in activities, and is looking for a
way to reach more parents to involve them in
meaningful ways. Or, the school may be looking to
address its organizational and decision-making
structures. Teams of staff from the
school work together to narrow the question, gather and
analyze the data, and decide on a plan of action.
An example of action research for a school could be to
examine their state test scores to identify areas that
need
improvement, and then determine a plan of action to
improve student performance. Team work and
individual
contributions to the whole are very important, and it
may
be that problem points arise as the team strives to
develop
a process and make commitments to each other. When
these obstacles are overcome, there will be a sense of
ownership and accomplishment in the results that come
District-Wide Action Research
District-wide research is far more complex and utilizes
more resources, but the rewards can be great. Issues can
be organizational, community-based, performance-
based, or processes for decision-making. A district may
choose to address a problem common to several schools
or one of organizational management.
Downsides are the documentation
requirements(communication) to keep everyone in the
loop, and the ability to keep the process in motion.
Collecting data from all participants needs a
commitment from staff to do their fair share and to meet
agreed-upon deadlines for assignments.
On the positive side, real school reform and change can
take hold based on a common understanding through
inquiry. The
involvement of multiple constituent groups can lend
energy to the process and create an environment of
genuine stakeholders.
Types of Action Research
Brief History of AR
The idea of using research in a “natural” setting to
change
the way that the researcher interacts with that setting can
be traced back to Kurt Lewin, a social psychologist and
educator whose work on action research was developed
throughout
“Lewin is the 1940s inwith
credited the United States.
coining the term ‘action
research’ to describe work that did not separate the
investigation from the action needed to solve the
problem” (McFarland & Stansell, 1993, p. 14). Topics
chosen for his study related directly to the context of the
issue. His process was cyclical, involving a “non-linear
pattern of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting on
the changes in the social situations” (Noffke &
Stevenson, 1995, p. 2).
Brief History of AR (cont’d)
Stephen Corey at Teachers College at Columbia
University was among the first to use action research in
the field of education. He believed that the scientific
method in education would bring about change because
educators would be involved in both the research and the
application of information. Corey summed up much of
the thought behind this fledgling branch of inquiry.
“We are convinced that the disposition to study…the
consequences of our own teaching is more likely to
change and improve our practices than is reading
about what someone else has discovered of his
teaching.”
(Corey, 1953, p. 70)
Brief History of AR (cont’d)

Corey believed that the value of action research is in the

change that occurs in everyday practice rather than the
generalization to a broader audience. He saw the need
for
teachers and researchers to work together. However, in
the
mid 1950s, action research was attacked as unscientific,
little more than common sense, and the work of
amateurs
(McFarland & Stansell, 1993, p. 15). Interest in action
re-search waned over the next few years as experiments
with
research designs and quantitative data collection became
 Brief History of AR (cont’d)

The 1970s saw again the emergence of action research.

Education practitioners questioned the applicability of
scientific research designs and methodologies as a means to
solve education issues. The results of many of these federally
funded projects were seen as theoretical, not grounded in
practice.
The practice of action research is again visible and seen to
hold great value. Over time, the definition has taken on many
meanings. It is now often seen as a tool for professional
development, bringing a greater focus on the teacher than
before (Noffke & Stevenson, 1995). It is increasingly
becoming a tool for school reform, as its very individual
focus allows for a new engagement in educational change..
Action research emphasizes the involvement of
teachers in problems in their own classrooms and
has as its primary goal the in-service training and
development of the teacher rather than the
acquisition of general knowledge in the field of
education.
(Borg, 1965, p. 313)
How do I do action research?
Steps in Doing Action Research

1. Identify the problem Study the problem

2. Gather data
Plan for action
3. Interpret data

4. Act on Evidence Take action

5. Evaluate Results Reflect

5a. If OK, Document it

5a. If NOT OK, Repeat the cycle

The Action Research Cycle
1. Identify
the
Next cycle Problem

Not OK

5. Evaluate OK
2. Gather
Result Document data

4. Act on 3. Interpret
evidence data

The Action Research Cycle

The Action Research Cycle (alternative version)
The Action Research Cycle (Lewin’s version)
The Action Research Cycle (alternative version)
Problem Identification
 The first step to conceptualize an action
research is to identify a problem within
one’s control: classroom or school. It is
a bothering or pestering problem that a
teacher naturally observes within the
day-to day school activities.
Problem Identification
There are several criteria to consider
before investing the time and effort in
“researching” a problem. The question
should:
be a higher-order question—not a
yes/no
be stated in common language,
avoiding jargon
be concise
be meaningful
not already have an answer
Problem Identification
 Focus on school issue, problem, or area of
collective interest
 What can I investigate through action
research?
Action research can be used to investigate practical,
everyday issues:
 Action research investigates everyday problems
experienced by teachers’ (Elliott, 1981).
 All you need is a general idea that something might
be improved’ (Kemmis and McTaggart , 1982).
 I experience a problem when some of my
educational values are negated in my practice’
(Whitehead 1985).
Problem Identification
Starting points might be of the following kinds:
 I want to get better at my science teaching…
 I’m not sure why my students don’t engage in
discussion…
 I have to implement the speaking and listening
guidelines, but I’m not sure what is the best
way…
 How can we make staff meetings more
productive?….
 I’ve seen something working well in school X; I
wonder if it would work for me?…
Problem Identification
Golden rules for selecting a topic
 Keep it manageable
 It should be interesting to you
 It should be workable
 It is not too disruptive of normal
routines.
Examples:
 A high school English teacher
examined the compositions of her
students and found that they are
unable to spell correctly, punctuate
conventionally, compose
grammatical sentences and develop
unified paragraphs. The
predicament then is how students
could be taught to write passable
prose.
Examples:
 A grade four teacher in a certain school
noted that most of her pupils got low
scores in a problem test she gave. Only
5 out of 35 pupils or 14% could solve
five or more of the problem in the test.
Her problem is how pupils’ ability to
solve word problems be improved.
 Examples:
 A classroom teacher in the primary
grade found that in her class there
are slow learners who have
difficulties in adjusting to the
curriculum because of the slight
inferior learning abilities of pupils.
This situation is carried over to
pupils’ performance in recitations
and tests. The problem then is how
to handle the slow learners to
develop the inherent and natural
abilities.
Examples:
 Whenever a high school teacher give assignment
in English, she most often found that only one-
fourth of the students effectively accomplished
them. The trouble therefore is to find out why
students could not accomplish their assignments
well.
Problem Identification
Recognizing Weak Action Research
Questions
Questions that can be answered by
reading the literature.
Questions that can be answered yes
or no.
Questions with known answers
where the goal is to "prove" it to
others.
Workshop 1
1. Group yourself by area (interest or discipline).
2. Identify and list on a manila paper at least
3 most prevailing problems in your school,
whether subject specific or generic.
3. Decide within your group which problem
you want to tackle in an action research.
4. Encircle the number of the problem you
will choose.
5. Draft at least 3 titles of your proposed
action research.
6. Write down your proposed titles on a
manila paper. Presentation and critiquing will
follow.
Elements of a Title of an Action
Research

a. The Problem
b. Purpose of the Research
c. Strategy to Address the
Problem
d. The Subjects/ Recipients
Example:

ENHANCING THE PERFORMANCE OF THE

FOURTH YEAR STUDENTS IN ARALING
PANLIPUNAN BY USING OF STRATEGIC
INTERVENTION MATERIALS (SIMS)
Writing the
Action
Research
Suggested Format

Format 1

Format 2

Format 2 PNU AC

Format 4 DepED
Writing the Action Research
I. The Situation
 refers to the
descriptive background
of the problem. It is an
account of the local
setting where the
problem occurred.
 The researcher may talk about her classroom to
provide a clear picture of the problem and the
context from which it occurs. The written
observation slowly unfolds the problem, how it
crops up and what conditions surround it. The
data to back up the claim are presented and
these will justify the need for a research. The
strength of the justification may rely heavily on
the data presented.
Sample Title:
ENHANCING THE PERFORMANCE OF THE
FOURTH YEAR STUDENTS IN ARALING
PANLIPUNAN BY USING STRATEGIC
INTERVENTION MATERIALS (SIMS)
SAMPLE

I. The Situation
This action research specifies the
approach being tested to enhance
Students’ performance in Araling
Panlipunan. The situation should
discuss the rationale for the selection
of the approach. In the given
situation, the data released by NETRC
provided the reason for the
conduct of the study.
SAMPLE

I. SITUATION:
Based on the report of National
Education Testing and Research Center for
the school year 2004-2005 in Central
Luzon Region, there are competencies in
different subjects which were not mastered.
These are as follows: In Araling Panlipunan
I-42%, Araling Panlipunan II- 53%, Araling
Panlipunan III-26%, and Araling
Panlipunan IV- 36 %.
SAMPLE

Based on the result, it was shown that

mastery learning in Araling Panlipunan in
all levels was low.
Mastery of the lessons is very important. It
is the indicator that students are learning
their lessons. Failure to attain mastery
affects the performance of the students
especially if they are graduating students.
They will soon be entering college and with
little knowledge learned, they will be adding
to the unqualified students who will be
moving to college.
II. The Problem
specifies the core of the
difficulty or crisis. This is the
main problem. In this portion
the main problem is
broken down into
specific sub problems.
Example:
The problem in Araling Panlipunan is on the
enhancement of students' performance..

Possible Causes based on an initial study:

 Low mastery learning in Araling Panlipunan
because of lack of meaningful strategy to teach
the subject.
Possible Causes based on
an initial study:
 Low retention rate as an
offshoot of the lack of
meaningful experiences due to
the traditional approach in
teaching the subject.
Possible Causes based on an initial
study:
Lack of concrete
conceptualization of lessons
brought about by the
uninteresting mode of
instruction.
Inadequate and
inappropriate teaching aids.
III. GENERATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS

 This portion brings about the possible

approaches to solve the problem. It must give
good reason for the use of such alternative
actions.
 GENERATION OF ALTERNATIVE
SOLUTIONS
Alternative approaches can be drawn from
the list of innovative methodologies that
the DepEd endorses for use in the
Elementary and High School levels. For
instance, in the teaching of science, a
teacher may explore the effectiveness of
any or combination of the following
strategies: Predict-observe-explain
approach, process approach, practical
work approach or cooperative learning.
Sample Generation of Alternative Solutions:

In a meaningful deliberation of a lesson in a

teaching-learning situation, materials are used as
aid to facilitate learning.. Materials like
workbooks, modules, visual aids, pictures, graphs,
and flipchart greatly help the teachers and
students for a meaningful outcome.
 Strategic Intervention Materials (SIMs) are self
learning kits (SLKs) similar to modules. They are
used for individualized instruction. SIMs are
made attractive not to look like books which
seem less interesting to students. Instead, SIMs
are attractive and colorful activity cards placed
in envelopes that may pass as games to the
students. The SIMs are modules disguised as
activity cards to eliminate the stereotyped
behavior of students on books.
They are better than modules or SLKs
because of their unique features such as
being focused on the desired skills, being
organized based on the sequence of the
focus skills (in the Guide Card); they have
clear directions; provide examples to
concretize the concepts, particularly those
drawn from real-life experience.; students
can complete independently, in pairs or in
small groups; allow students to make
discoveries and formulate ideas on their
own; guides and challenges students
thinking and learning ( Activity Card).….
 Writing the Action Research
IV. Plan of Action
Presents series of actions
that the researcher shall
pursue to solve the
problems identified.
IV. THE PLAN OF ACTION

 THE PLAN OF ACTION is divided into sub-

components, namely: the objectives, time
frame, target subjects and activities to be
undertaken.
 IV. PLAN OF ACTION
a. The Objectives
are the goals towards which all
efforts are directed. Under the
DepEd format, these are the
targets set by the research that
should be achieved at the end.
 Sample:
Objectives:

1. To use the SIMs to improve the mastery

learning of 4th year Students in Araling
Panlipunan;
2. To boost retention rate by the clear explanation
and meaningful presentation of concepts via SIMs.
3. To increase conceptualization and assimilation due
to SIMs features.
IV. Plan of Action
b. Time Frame
specifies the period or
duration of the study, the
beginning up to the ending.
Example:
This study was conducted for two quarters
during the school year 2005-06.
 IV. Plan of Action
c. Target Subjects
are the focus of the activity. They compose those
who were observed to possess the problem
characteristic, thus, corrective measures will be
addressing their need or problem.
Example:
Target Students for the study were the 4th
year students of Sacata High School, Sta.
Ignacia, Tarlac during the academic year 2005-
06.
 IV. Plan of Action
d. Activities to be undertaken
are the things to be done to
achieve the objectives of the study.
Step-by-step enumeration on
what are to be accomplished to
achieve the objectives specified in
the research. The activities must
be parallel to the objectives of the
study.
 Example:
Activities undertaken

Target Teachers Activities Expected

Students results
Involved

Maria Use of SIMs in teaching 4th *Enhanced

4th Year Year students using the mastery
Clara following procedure: learning
Students
Prepare the class by * High
orienting the retention
students on rate
lesson/topic studied. *Increased
Use the SIMs in Araling conceptualiz
Panlipunan. ation and
Activities Continued

 Determine the mastery learning by the

quarterly examination.
 Determine retention rate by delayed retention
technique (retest of quarterly exam).
 Analyze rate of learning by concepts.
 Determine the effectiveness of SIMs by
comparing the pre and posttest results.
Writing the Action Research
e. Proposed Evaluation
 shows the process by which the
success of the project may be
gauged. It shall indicate the
criterion by which the researcher
declares the success of the project.
The criterion benchmarks the
level by which measurement
should go beyond.
Evaluation:
Example:

 The results of the research shall be considered a

success after the attainment of a 70% mastery
Index, otherwise other strategies shall be
explored.
Writing the Action Research

f. Research Design
Summarizes the research activities into sub-
components: the subjects, the research
activities, the data to be collected and the
statistical analysis needed to answer the
objectives specified in the study.
 Example:
Activities Data to be statistical
collected treatment
*Use of SIMs using the Pretest/ Percentage
following procedure
*Prepare the class by posttest for
orienting the students two quarters
on lesson/topic to be
learned.
*Use SIMs to teach the
lesson.
Test results
*After the SIMs the
teacher wraps up the /sessions
 It can be observed that the whole table
contains all possible data that will be covered
by the activities which are also parallel to the
objectives. The activities directly answer the
objectives, while the data that would be
derived from the activities are also shown per
activity. How these data will be treated are
also shown in the last column.
The action research proposal covers Part I
(situation) up to Part IV (Research design). It is
submitted for the approval of DepEd authorities
or the approving body who may verify,
question, or modify it. All tenses must still be in
the future tense since it is still a proposal
 Conclusions
This is the part that recapitulates all that is
done, in the study and presented in neatly
packed statements. The conclusion
summarizes in clear thoughts and ideas what
the findings are, and what these findings
mean. This is in preparation to the
succeeding statements with probable
implications and the necessary
recommendations in answer to the problems
raised at the beginning of the study.
Guidelines in Writing the Conclusions:

The researcher’s grasp of the significant findings that

would suggest new ways of doing things and new
implications should be reflected in the conclusions.
Conclusions must be offshoots of the findings. No
new and unfounded generalizations should be made.
As always, every statement should be supported by
the findings which are earlier presented.
 Conclusions, which are short summative statements
or summarized concepts borne out of the analysis
made in the study, are supported to tie-up loose
ends and to bring the study to an end in neatly
wrapped up arguments.
 Conclusions must be stated positively without any
hint of uncertainties.
Conclusions which are stated as
inferences, deductions, generalizations
and abstractions must always be stated
briefly but substantially. All that is
supposed to be known in answer to the
specific problem raised must be found in
the conclusions.
Example
1. The low scores in the pretest were
indicative of the inadequate entry
knowledge prior to the start of the lesson.
These were recalled from past lessons
related to the new topic to be discussed.
The high posttest scores for both Grades V
and VI could be accounted from the TV
assisted instruction, the strategy used for
teaching the subject.
These were based on the findings:

 The mean performance scores in Araling Panlipunan

reflected the knowledge of the students before and
after the use of the SIMs. The low scores in the pretest
were indicative of the inadequate entry knowledge
prior to the start of the lesson.
The amount of knowledge in the
pretest was recalled from past lessons
related to the new topic discussed. The
high posttest scores could be
accounted by the SIMs, the strategy
used for teaching the subject.
The mastery indices in all concepts in
both grades indicated high
performances.
Recommendations
Treaties, appeals, and entities which are perceived to
solve the problems and help establish new systems to
ease out present problems and make better existing
situations, form part of the recommendation.
This portion is the researcher’s way of capping up the
study with doable and implementable programs and
activities.
The recommendation states plans for ready
implementation or those that have far reaching effects
that could solve the present problems. As always,
recommendations are the direct results of the findings
and the conclusions reached.
 The recommendations should follow
the order in which the problems are
presented. As much as possible, each
identified problem should have one
recommendation each.
If there are one or two more
recommendations for a particular
problem, these recommendations
should come one after the other. The
doable or the best possible
recommendation comes first,
followed by the second best and so
on.
 The recommendations should follow
sequential and logical ordering for
easier and better adoption by any
beneficiary/implementor.
 Only the doable, practicable and
probable recommendations should
be given. The suggested plans of
action must be within realistic
boundaries.
 Sample RECOMMENDATIONS
 Based on the findings of the study, it is highly
recommended that the plan of actions stipulated in
this study be used by the high schools to improve the
performance of students not only in Araling
Panlipunan but in all subjects.
 The study also recommends further conduct of the
same strategies in other subjects to validate the results
of this study.
REFLECTIONS
‘The best thing any education can bequeath is
the habit of reflection and questioning.’ (AC
Grayling, The Guardian: 22.7.00)
What is reflection?
When we reflect, we consider deeply something which
we might not otherwise have given much thought to.
This helps us to learn.Reflection is concerned with
consciously looking at and thinking about our
experiences, actions, feelings and responses and then
interpreting or analyzing them in order to learn from
them (Boudet al., 1994; Atkins and Murphy, 1994).
Typically we do this by asking ourselves questions about
what we did, how we did it and what we learnt from
REFLECTIONS
Schön (1991) distinguishes between reflection-on-action and
reflection-in-action in the following way:

Reflection-in-action is concerned with practicing

critically. So, a physiotherapy student working
with a client on an exercise program is making
decisions about the suitability of particular
exercises, which exercise to do next and judging
the success of each exercise at the same time as
they are conducting the activity.
REFLECTIONS
Reflection-on-action on the other hand, occurs
after the activity has taken place when you are
thinking about what you (and others) did,
judging how successful you were and whether
any changes to what you did could have
resulted in different outcomes.
This is usually the type of reflection which you are
asked to write about as part of your studies.
REFLECTIONS
Here is an example of reflection-on-action in the
discipline of Social Work:

You are a social work student reflecting on a role-play which you participated in
earlier in the day. The role-play involved various professionals, including social
workers and their clients. Reflection leads you to recall the planning you did
before the role play began, the events and processes which took place during
the role play, the way you responded to other participants and your overall
contribution to the role-play. You may note interactions with which you were
either satisfied or dissatisfied and you might also have ideas for how it could
have been done differently. Reflecting on this event will also have the result of
reminding you about how the role-play made you feel: frustrated, confident
etc.
REFLECTIONS
Sample Reflection

This action research not only increased my students’

enthusiasm for learning science, but it also rekindled my
excitement for teaching. During the pre-study period, I was
extremely apprehensive and began to question the feasibility
of the study. Once I began, however, I found myself looking
forward to the hectic pace and the commotion that resulted
from eleven groups of middle school students using sound,
animation, and graphics to develop multimedia computer
presentations.
REFLECTIONS
Reflecting on academic or professional practice in this
way may make your personal beliefs, expectations and
biases more evident to you. This understanding of yourself
should help you to carry out your studies more
successfully as it makes you aware of the assumptions
that you might make automatically or uncritically as a
result of your view of the world.