JOI CHRISTIAN T.

AGRAVANTE
MAED English Section 2
EDUC 200

This paper aims to define the following: statistics, descriptive statistics,

inferential statistics, variables and the different types of variables according to

different authors and/or sources.

DEFINING STATISTICS

In the Digital Age, much of the information we see in popular media are

based on Statistics. To understand more about Statistics, let us look at the

different definitions of Statistics below.

1. “Statistics”  as defined by the American Statistical Association (ASA) 

“is the science of learning from data, and of measuring, controlling and

communicating uncertainty (ASA Newsroom, 2021).”

2. According to Prof. Horace, “Statistics is the aggregate of facts affected to

a marked extent by the multiplicity of causes, numerically expressed,

enumerated or estimated according to reasonable standards of accuracy,

collected in a systematic manner for a pre-determined purpose and placed

in relation to each other (What is Statistics, 2019).”

3. According to Merriam-Webster (nd), “Statistics is a branch of

mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and

presentation of masses of numerical data.”

4. Many (2017) states that “Statistics is about the development of methods

for the collection and analysis of data in order to answer specific questions
 in an unbiased way, so that the conclusions depend only on the data and

not on any preconceived ideas.”

5. “Statistics are procedures that combine, organize, and summarize data to

make inferences. Scientists collect data to generate and test theories and

hypotheses, but the data are initially unorganized and ‘raw’, and statistics

allow one to organize the raw data into something condensed and more

meaningful. Statistical methods also allow one to examine and quantify

relationships among variables to uncover trends, and to determine

whether a theory or hypothesis is supported by that data (Hon, nd).”

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

There are two main branches of statistics: descriptive and inferential. Let

us understand how these two differ from each other based on the following list of

definitions below.

1. “Descriptive statistics describes data (for example, a chart or graph)

and inferential statistics allows you to make predictions (“inferences”)

from that data. With inferential statistics, you take data from samples and

make generalizations about a population (Inferential and Descriptive

Statistics, 2021).”

2. “Descriptive statistics is used to say something about a set of

information that has been collected only. Inferential statistics is used to

make predictions or comparisons about a larger group (a population)

 using information gathered about a small part of that population. Thus,

inferential statistics involves generalizing beyond the data, something that

descriptive statistics does not do (Hon, nd).”

3. “There are actually two types of statistics: descriptive statistics and

inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics are used to consolidate data

into single, representative values that can be used to describe the entire

set of data. Inferential statistics serve two purposes: First, they

statistical tests we use to analyze relationships between variables.

Second, inferential statistics allow us to make inferences and assumptions

about the data we collect relative to some larger group that was want to

know something about. That is, we cannot collect data on very large

groups, because often don’t know the size of a group, so we collect data

from smaller samples and use that data to make inferences about what we

would likely find in the larger group. This is using statistics to make

inferences; hence, inferential statistics (Fundamental Statistics, nd).”

4. “Descriptive statistics is the term given to the analysis of data that helps

describe, show or summarize data in a meaningful way such that, for

example, patterns might emerge from the data. Descriptive statistics do

not, however, allow us to make conclusions beyond the data we have

analysed or reach conclusions regarding any hypotheses we might have

made. They are simply a way to describe our data. Inferential statistics

are techniques that allow us to use these samples to make generalizations

about the populations from which the samples were drawn. It is, therefore,
 important that the sample accurately represents the population. The

process of achieving this is called sampling. Inferential statistics arise out

of the fact that sampling naturally incurs sampling error and thus a sample

is not expected to perfectly represent the population. The methods of

inferential statistics are (Understanding Inferential and Descriptive

Statistics, nd).”

5. “Descriptive statistics give information that describes the data in some

manner. For example, suppose a pet shop sells cats, dogs, birds and fish.

If 100 pets are sold, and 40 out of the 100 were dogs, then one description

of the data on the pets sold would be that 40% were dogs. Inferential

Statistics makes inferences about a large population using data drawn

from the population. Instead of using the entire population to gather the

data, the statistician will collect a sample or samples form the millions of

residents and make inferences about the entire population using the

sample (Descriptive & Inferential Statistics: Definition, Differences &

Examples, nd).”

DEFINING A VARIABLE AND ITS CLASSIFICATION

In Statistics, it is almost quite impossible to not think about variables because

variables are essential component in any statistical data. In this section, we will

identify and define several types of variables.

 According to Burnham (2015), an entity that takes on different values is

called a variable. Anything that can vary is considered to be a variable. Below is

the list of variables and its usage on a research.

Variable Key Characteristic

Level of Measurement
Categorical Variable
Quantitative Variable
Role Taken by the Variable
Independent Variable (IV)
A variable made up of different types or
categories of phenomena
A variable that varies in amount or degree of
a phenomenon
A variable that is presumed to cause changes
to occur in another variable- The cause

Dependent Variable (DV) A variable that changes because of another

variable, the effect or outcome variable

Mediating Variable (Intervening It comes between other variables, helps to

variable) delineate the process through which
variables affect one another
Moderator Variable A variable that delineates how a relationship
of interest changes under different conditions
or circumstances

Controlled Variable A variable that is not measured in a particular

study must be held constant,
neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they
will not have a biasing effect on the other
variables.

Extraneous Variable These variables are those factors in the

research environment which may have an
effect on the dependent variable(s) but which
are not controlled.

In addition to this, iEduNote states that “within the context of a research

investigation, concepts are generally referred to as variables. A variable is, as

the name applies, something that varies. Age, sex, export, income and

expenses, family size, country of birth, capital expenditure, class grades, blood

pressure readings, preoperative anxiety levels, eye color, and vehicle type are all

examples of variables because each of these properties varies or differs from

one individual to another (variables,nd).” The table below are the definitions of

the different types of variables and its examples.

Variables Example

A discrete variable, restricted to  The number of accidents in the twelve

certain values, usually (but not
necessarily) consists of whole
numbers, such as the family size,
number of defective items in a
box.
A continuous variable is one that
may take on an infinite number of
intermediate values along a
specified interval. 
 An Independent variable is used
to describe or measure the factor
that is assumed to cause or at
least to influence the problem or
outcome
A dependent variable that is used
to describe or measure the
problem or outcome under study
Extraneous variables are not
necessarily part of the study.
They exert a confounding effect
on the dependent-independent
relationship and thus need to be
eliminated or controlled for.
months.
 The number of mobile cards sold in a
store within seven days.
 Blood pressure reading;
 Temperature
If we hypothesize that smoking causes lung
cancer, ‘smoking’ is the independent variable
If we hypothesize that smoking causes lung
cancer, cancer is the dependent variable.
 Suppose we are interested in examining the
relationship between the work-status of
mothers and breastfeeding duration.
It is not unreasonable in this instance to
presume that the level of education of
mothers as it influences work-status might
have an impact on breastfeeding duration
too.
Education is treated here as an extraneous
variable.

An intervening variable In the work-status and breastfeeding

theoretically affects the observed relationship, we might view motivation or
 phenomena but cannot be seen,
measured, or manipulated
directly; its effects can only be
inferred from the effects of the
independent and moderating
variables on the observed
phenomena.
A moderating variable is a
variable expected to have a
significant contributory or
contingent effect on the originally
stated dependent-independent
relationship.
counseling as the intervening variable.
Suppose you are studying the impact of field-
based and classroom-based training on the
work performance of the health and family
planning workers, you consider the type of
training as the independent variable.
If you are focusing on the relationship
between the age of the trainees and work
performance, you might use ‘type of training’
as a moderating variable.

REFERENCES

Amstat.org. 2021. ASA Newsroom. Retrieved from

https://www.amstat.org/ASA/Newsroom.aspx

Bryan F.J. Manly, Jorge A. Navarro Alberto. 2017. Multivariate Statistical

Methods. Chapman and Hall/CRC

Bryan R. Burnham , 2015. Fundamental Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (v.

2.1) 

Business Statistics. 2019. What is Statistics? Retrieved from

https://benchpartner.com/what-is-statistics-definitions-meaning-

characteristics/
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https://sites.google.com/site/fundamentalstatistics/chapter1

Hon,K . Introdnction to Statistics. Retrieved from

https://www.fd.cvut.cz/department/k611/PEDAGOG/THO_A/A_soubory/at

istics_firstfive.pdf

Iedunotes.n.d. Variables. Retrieved from https://www.iedunote.com/variables

Laerd Statistics.n.d. Understanding Descriptive and Inferential Statistics.

Retrieved from https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/descriptive-

inferential-statistics.php

Merriam-Webster. n.d. Statistical mechanics. In Merriam-Webster.com

dictionary. Retrieved February 26, 2021, from https://www.merriam-

webster.com/dictionary/statistical%20mechanics

Statistics How To.nd. Inferential and Descriptive Statistics. Retrieved from

https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/statistics-

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Study.com. nd. Descriptive & Inferential Statistics: Definition, Differences &

Examples. Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/descriptive-

and-inferential-statistics.html