IMPLEMENTATION OF MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

SYSTEM FOR SOLAR PANELS

BATCH 2011-12

PREPARED BY:
TOUQEER AHMED EE-037

MUHAMMAD ALI IQBAL EE-041

HAFIZA SAMIYA ANJUM EE-049

KANWAL MASOOD EE-060

INTERNAL ADVISOR
MUHAMMAD HAMMADUDDIN
(LECTURER, NEDUET)

EXTERNAL ADVISOR
MUHAMMAD1ALI1BAIG
(LECTURER, NEDUET)

DEPARTMENT1OF1ELECTRICAL1ENGINEERING
NED1UNIVERSITY1OF1ENGINEERING1AND1TECHNOLOGY
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................... V

ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... VI

CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1

CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................................................... 4

BACKGROUND THEORY ................................................................................................... 4

2.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS: ......................................................................................... 4

2.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE: ............................................................................................. 4

2.3 SOLAR CELLS AND THEIR TYPES: ...................................................................... 5

2.3.1 MONO CRYSTALLINE: ...................................................................................... 5

2.3.2 POLY CRYSTALLINE: ........................................................................................ 5

2.3.3 THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS:................................................................................ 6

2.4 MODELLING OF A PV CELL:.................................................................................. 6

2.4.1 IDEAL MODEL ..................................................................................................... 6

2.4.2 PRACTICAL MODEL........................................................................................... 8

2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING THE EFFICIENCY OF A SOLAR CELL: ........................ 9

2.5.1 EFFECT OF VARYING IRRADIANCE: ............................................................. 9

2.5.2 EFFECT OF VARYING TEMPERATURE: ......................................................... 9

2.6 I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR PANEL: ..................................................... 10

2.7 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SOLAR CELL MODELLING: .......................... 11

2.7.1 ONE DIODE MODEL: ........................................................................................ 11

2.7.2 TWO DIODE MODEL ........................................................................................ 13

II
 2.7.3 THREE DIODE MODEL..................................................................................... 14

2.8 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING(MPPT) ................................................. 16

2.8.1 WORKING OF PERTURB AND OBSERVE (P&O) ......................................... 16

2.8.2 WHY P&O IS PREFERRED TECHNIQUE? ..................................................... 18

2.8.3 ERRATIC BEHAVIOR OF P&O ........................................................................ 18

2.8.4 INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE METHOD: ............................................... 19

2.8.5 WORKING OF INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE:....................................... 20

2.9 BUCK CONVERTER ................................................................................................ 22

2.9.1 CIRCUIT OPERATION: ..................................................................................... 22

2.9.2 FUNCTION OF BUCK PARAMETERS ............................................................ 24

2.9.3 CALCULATION OF BUCK PARAMETERS .................................................... 25

2.9.4 FUNCTION OF PWM : ....................................................................................... 26

2.9.5 EFFICIENCY PARAMETERS OF BUCK CONVERTER: ............................... 26

CHAPTER 3 ......................................................................................................................... 29

SOLAR PANEL MODELLING AND SIMULATION ....................................................... 29

3.1 SOLAR PANEL MODELLING:................................................................................ 29

3.1.1 PHOTOCURRENT .............................................................................................. 30

3.1.2 REFERENCE SATURATION CURRENT (NOMINAL STURATION

CURRENT OF DIODE)................................................................................................ 30

3.1.3 SATURATION CURRENT ................................................................................. 31

3.2 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING ALGORITHMS CODING................... 34

3.2.1 PERTURB AND OBSERVE (P&O) CODING................................................... 34

3.2.2 INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE (IC) CODING .......................................... 36

CHAPTER 4 ......................................................................................................................... 40

SIMULATION RESULTS ................................................................................................... 40

III
 4.1 AT IRRADIANCE 1000W/m2 ................................................................................... 40

4.2 AT IRRADIANCE 600W/m2 ..................................................................................... 41

4.3 AT IRRADIANCE 300W/m2 ..................................................................................... 42

CHAPTER 5 ......................................................................................................................... 44

CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................... 44

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 45

IV
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

After the acknowledgement and the blessings of Almighty Allah, it is of utmost importance
to mention some names which played an important part in the completion of this project.
Firstly we would1like1to1express our sincere1thanks and gratitude to our external and
internal advisors Mr. Muhammad Ali Baig and Mr. Hammaduddin without whom this
project would not have been completed successfully.

By answering our queries and pointing out the mistakes, our internals made this project a
valuable learning experience for us. We would like to thank both of the internals for
guiding us regarding the simulation environment and the report writing which helped us to
accomplish this project. They were very cooperative and helped us by giving step by step
instructions which were necessary to achieve the goal in accordance with the university
criterion.

Finally we would like to thank our family and especially the fellow colleagues who had
lend their relentless support throughout B.E. studies and this project.

V
 ABSTRACT

Due to increase in demand of energy, photovoltaic systems have become very popular as
they are environmental friendly as compare to other sources of energy. But their low
efficiency and non- linear characteristics in variable irradiance and temperature cond itions
are the main drawbacks. However different methods have been developed to overcome
these drawbacks.
Solar panel’s efficiency can be improved and maximum power can be obtained from it in
all environmental conditions by employing a technique1called1Maximum1power1point
tracking1(MPPT). This technique tracks the maximum power point of the panel from
(Current-Voltage)1I-V1and (Power-Voltage)1P-V curves and then operates the panel at this
point.
In this project, solar panel and two MPPT techniques are implemented to observe its output
power at different irradiances and temperatures. The project comprises of three main
systems namely: Solar panel, MPPT algorithm, DC-DC converter. The solar panel is
modeled through equations to get the output voltage and current. To optimize the
performance of this panel, two MPPT0algorithms Perturb and Observe0(P&O) and
Incremental1conductance1(IC)1are1used1and1compared. Detailed methodology of these
methods with their pros and cons are discussed. DC-DC0converter is an important part of
P&O and IC methods. After adjusting the panel voltage and current to the maximum, they
output the duty cycle to the Pulse width modulator which gives a pulse to the DC-DC
converter. We have used a step down DC-DC converter due to its simple construction.

VI
 CHAP TER 1
INTRODUCTION

Climatic changes across the globe has become a serious concern due to the emission of
greenhouses gases by the use of conventional energy sources such as coal, oil and gas. To
combat these climatic1changes due to global warming and other problems1associated1with
the1use1of1conventional1energy1sources (such as pollution etc) most of the countries are
moving forward to the use of renewable energy sources. Therefore, a lot of7research and
development have been done in the field of renewable energy sources and most importantly
in the field of extracting the energy from the sun as it is provided free by nature. For this
photovoltaic2system (comprised of PV2Cells) is used which utilizes the energy of the sun
and converts it into electricity.

Number of PV cells are connected together to from PV panel. These PV1panels1are further
connected together to form a PV1array. PV panels have two major problems. Firstly these
devices have low conversion0efficiency (usually around 10 to516%). [1] Secondly, there is
the problem of nonlinear characteristics between the voltage, current and power of the cell.
This non linear relation can be seen from graphs below

Voltage vs Power Voltage vs Current

60 4

800W/m2
3.5
1000W/m2
50
1200W/m2
3

40
2.5
Current
Power

30 2

1.5
20
1
800W/m2
10 1000W/m2
0.5
1200W/m2

0
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Voltage
Voltage

FIG 1.1 IV AND PV CURVES AT DIFFERENT IRRADIANCES

1
 Voltage vs Power Voltage vs Current
60 3.5
30 degrees
45 degrees
3
50 60 degrees

2.5
40

Current
Power

30
1.5

20
1
30 degrees
10 45 degrees
0.5
60 degrees

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Voltage Voltage

FIG 1.2 IV AND PV CURVES AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES

The nonlinear characteristics1of the PV1panel1depend1upon the temperature and the

irradiance level. The voltage of the panel varies inversely with the temperature where as
current of the panel varies in proportion with the irradiance. It is evident from the graphs
above that there is a unique1point1on1the IV and PV curves at which the maximum
efficiency1and the maximum1power of1the panel is obtained. This point is called the
Maximum8Power8Point (MPP). But due to the nonlinear characteristics1of the1solar1cell
and its dependency on the climatic conditions, the panel does not always operate at its
maximum1power1point. Therefore, due to the mismatch between8the operating point and
the maximum1power1point (MPP) of the PV panel, the power1available1from1the solar
panel is not fully extracted.

Thus, in order1to1extract1maximum1power from the panel a technique is needed to be

employed which is Maximum1Power1Point1Tracking1(MPPT). The MPPT8is an
algorithm that extracts maximum power1from1the solar panel and delivers it to the load.
By using intelligent MPPT algorithms such as Perturb and Observe (P&O), Incremental
Conductance (IC), Constant8Voltage (CV), Artificial8Neural8Network (ANN),
Fuzzy8Logic (FL), Constant8Current (CC), it is ensured that the PV
panel1always1operates at its maximum power point.

2
Hence, the purpose of our Final Year Project is to maximize the power obtained from the
panel in an efficient and economical way. In this way the overall efficiency of the solar
system will increase thereby giving maximum power.

3
 CHAP TER 2
BACKGROUND

2.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS:

Photovoltaic cells (solar cells) are used to1convert the1solar energy into1electrical1energy.
They are made up of semi conductor1materials such1as1Silicon.

A PV cell generates0a voltage of around00.5 to00.8 volts. Numbers of PV cells are

interconnected to0form a PV0module. To get higher values of0voltages and current,
they0are0connected in series or parallel. When they are0connected in series, voltage0is
increased0and when they are0connected in parallel, current is increased.

2.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE:

Working of a PV cell1is based on the1principle1of1photoelectric1effect which is stated as
when an ultraviolet ray falls on the surface of a PV cell, electrons are emitted if the energy
of the incident ray is greater than the band gap energy of the electron hole pair (minimum
energy required for the emission of electrons). The electric field will send the0free0electron
to the N side and0hole to the P0side. If the load is connected to the output terminal of the
solar cell by means0of an external path the current will flow1through1the1load. The flow
of electron1is the current1and the1electric field8gives the voltage. The product1of two
results in1power. That is how power is1generated by a1solar1cell.

FIG 2.1 PV C ELL

4
2.3 SOLAR CELLS AND THEIR TYPES:

The basic operation of a solar cell is to convert1the solar1energy into1electrical energy.

Solar cells are commonly made1of1Silicon. Performance of Solar7cells vary depending on
material, efficiency8and1composition. The1three1main8types of solar cells are:

 Mono7crystalline
 Poly9crystalline
 Thin8film.

Each one the category has its own advantages and disadvantages based on its construction.

2.3.1 MONO CRYSTALLINE:

It consists of a single crystal of silicon which is fabricated from highly pure molten silicon.
These solar panels are the most expensive to produce yet they are the most efficient. There
efficiency ranges from 15% to 20% [7]. Since they are made from the purest of silicon
therefore there production cost is high. One of the1major1advantages1of these types of PV
cells is there longer life span as compared to other PV cells which is about 25 years [8].
Moreover, these panels yield the highest power output among all other PV cells.

2.3.2 POLY CRYSTALLINE:

Poly crystalline solar PV cells are made1from1a slice1cut from a1block of silicon [9].Poly
crystalline PV cells contain multiple silicon crystals. They are slightly1less1efficient1than
mono1crystalline cells. There efficiency ranges from 13-16% because they are made from
slightly less pure silicon [8]. However, they are also less expensive to produce. One of the
drawbacks of these type of PV cells is that they have a lower heat tolerance which makes
these type of PV cells inefficient at high temperatures.

5
2.3.3 THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS:
Thin1film1solar1cells1are characterized by the manner in which various types of
semiconductor materials are layered on top of one another to create a thin film. There
efficiencies range from 7-13% [8]. These are cheaper in production therefore the ir mass
production is simpler [7]. Thin film solar cells need a lot of space to install therefore they
are not recommended for the use in residential areas. Moreover thin film solar panels tend
to degrade faster as compared to the above two types therefore there life is shorter than
other solar cells [7].

2.4 MODELLING OF A PV CELL:

2.4.1 IDEAL MODEL

An ideal solar cell is represented by a diode which represents the PN junction and the light
intensity falling on it is represented1by a1current1source in1parallel8with a diode.

Id

Iph DC Vd

FIG 2.2 D EAL MODEL OF S OLAR C ELL

When no light is falling on the cell, it has the same electrical charactersitcs as the diode. [2]

6
 FIG 2.3 IV CURVE OF A S OLAR C ELL WHEN NO LIGHT IS FALLING

Now, when the light shines on the cell, the IV curve begins to shift downwards generating
power. The greater the intensity of light(irradiance) the more the curve will shift
downwards in the fourth quadrant. But the cell is generating power therefore the convention
is to use inverted axes. [2]

The inverted graphs at different light intensities are given below,

X Y Plot IV CURVE
4 4

3.5 3.5

3 3

2.5 2.5
Current
Y Axis

2 2

1.5 1.5

1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
X Axis Voltage

FIG 2.4 IV CURVE AT IRRADIANCE = 800W/m 2 FIG 2.5 IV CURVE AT IRRADIANCE =

1000W/m2

It can be seen that as the light intensity is increased the inverted curves are moving upwards
thereby increasing the amount of power.

7
2.4.2 PRACTICAL MODEL

Practically there are some losses in the solar cell due to which the ideal model can no
longer be effective, therefore these losses have to be taken into account. For this purpose a
more accurate model of the solar cell is made by introducing shunt resista nce in parallel
and series resistances in series with the ideal model respectively.

Rs

I
Id Ish

Iph DC Vd Rsh

FIG 2.6 PRACTIC AL MODEL OF A S OLAR CELL

The series resistance (Rs) is due to the fact that a solar cell is not a perfect conductor. [3]
When the current is induced in the solar cell the flow of electrons in it causes heat losses
more commonly known as Joule's losses. [4] Therefore to represent these losses in the
practical model a series resistance is connected. Generally value of Rs is in the range of
0.38 to 3.5 ohms. [5]
In order to represent the flow of leakage currents through the solar cell we add a resistor in
parallel with the diode known as the shunt resistance (Rsh). The leakage current is that
current which flows from one terminal of the cell to the other due to the poor insulation for
example at the edges of the cell. It is undesirable flow of current through or over the surface
of an insulating material. To represent this loss we connect a shunt resistance in parallel
with the diode. [3] Generally value of Rsh is taken up to 500 kΩ. [6]

Ideally series resistance should be equal to zero and shunt resistance should be equal to
infinity.

8
 2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING THE EFFICIENCY OF A SOLAR CELL:
Besides1electrical1parameters Iph, Rs, Rsh, environmental1factors such as irradiance and
temperature1also1affect1the1performance1of a solar cell.

2.5.1 EFFECT OF VARYING IRRADIANCE:

Irradiance1greatly1affects1the working of1a solar cell. With1increase1in1irradiance, the
solar input to the1PV cell1increases, and7thus causes the output power8to be1increased.
This is1because, when8more sunlight1falls1on a1solar1cell, higher energy is1provided to
the electrons1which1increases their7mobility and thus1increases the4power. The IV and
PV curves of the solar1cell at differen1 irradiance are given below,

It is evident from the graphs that as the irradiance is increased the power generated is also
increased.
Voltage vs Power Voltage vs Current
60 4

800W/m2
3.5
1000W/m2
50
1200W/m2
3

40
2.5
Current
Power

2
30

1.5
20
1
800W/m2
1000W/m2
10 0.5
1200W/m2

0
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Voltage
Voltage

FIG 2.7 IV AND PV C URVES AT DIFFERENT IRRAD IANCES

2.5.2 EFFECT OF VARYING TEMPERATURE:

Temperature1of1a1solar1cell and power1generated by it1are inversely8proportional.
Increase in temperature7causes increase in the band gap energy of the material8and thus
more energy1is1required1by the1electrons to1cross this barrier therefore1open circuit

9
voltage is decreased. Thus1the1efficiency1of1the1solar1cell1is reduced1and1hence1the
magnitude1of power generated at high7temperature is reduced.

As the value of temperature increases the open circuit voltage is reduced thereby reducing
the output power which can be seen from the graphs
Voltage vs Power Voltage vs Current
60 3.5
30 degrees
45 degrees
3
50 60 degrees

2.5
40

Current
Power

30
1.5

20
1
30 degrees
10 0.5 45 degrees
60 degrees

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Voltage Voltage

FIG 2.8 IV AND PV C URVES AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES

2.6 I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR PANEL:

The1performance1of a1solar1cell1can1be1analyzed through1I-V1and1P-V1characteristic
curves. A characteristic1I-V1curve1is1shown in Figure.2.9. The important terms are:

(i) Short Circuit Current (ISC ): This1is1the1maximum1current that can1be

obtained1from1a solar1cell when it1is1short1circuited.

(ii) Open circuit Current (VOC ): This1is1the1maximum voltage that occurs8between

the terminals1of a1cell1when1there1is1no1load1connected across them.

(iii) Maximum Power Point (MPP): The1maximum1power1point (MPP) is the spot

the1I-V curve. It1is the1point1where7maximum power is achieved. Maximum
voltage and current at MPP are marked as Vm and Im.

10
 FIG 2.9 CHARACTERS TICS OF SOLAR PAN EL

When1the1solar1cell1is1open1circuited, short1circuit1current1flows1through the diode

and1produces1an1open1circuit1voltage Voc. When1solar1cell is short circuited, then1no
current1flows1through1the8diode, and1flows1through the short circuit.

2.7 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SOLAR CELL MODELLING:

There are three different circuit models of a PV cell, depending on the number of diodes
they have. These are one1diode1model, two diode1model and three1diode model. Each
model has its own characteristics, advantages and disadvantages.

2.7.1 ONE DIODE MODEL:

One diode model is the most common model of a PV cell. It consists of five unknown
parameters which are:

Iph = Photocurrent
Id = Saturation current of diode
Rsh = Shunt resistance which is used to compensate the internal losses and voltage drop due
to the flow of current.

11
Rs = Series resistance which is included for the leakage current of the diode when it is in
the reversed biased region.
n = ideality factor of diode
Equivalent circuit of one diode model is shown in the figure below.

Rs

I
Id Ish

Iph DC Vd Rsh

FIG 2.10 ONE D IODE MODEL

One diode model is the simplest model of a PV cell. It has less number of equations and
less number of unknown parameters as well. Thus mathematical calculations become easy
which saves the simulation time too that's why mostly single diode model is preferred.

Besides these, one of the drawback of single diode model is that it generates inaccurate IV
and PV curves as it does not include the losses due to the recombination process
(combination of electron hole pair) occurring in the depletion1region of1the diode. This
problem can be solved by two diode model in which recombination process is modeled by
another diode. The equation of current of one diode model is given as,

Where,

Vt = Thermal Voltage of the PV cell

12
2.7.2 TWO DIODE MODEL
It is the modified and more accurate model of the solar cell. The basic diagram of the two
diode model is given below

Rs

Id1 Id2 Ish I

Iph DC Vd1 Vd2 Rsh

FIG 2.11 TWO DIODE MODEL

The two diode model has seven unknown parameters which are
Iph = Photocurrent
Id1 = Saturation current of first diode
Id2 = Saturation current of second diode
Rsh = Shunt resistance which is used to compensate the internal losses and voltage drop due
to the flow of current.
Rs = Series resistance which is included for the leakage current of the diode when it is in
the reversed biased region.
n1 = ideality factor of first diode
n2 = ideality factor of second diode

The most important feature of two diode modeling is that it takes into account the
recombination effect of the diode. [10] The current which flows through the diode in the
forward biased region is due to the recombination of electrons and holes. This
recombination can occur either at the surface(bulk region) of the diode or in the junction
region.
In a typical single diode model the ideality factor of the only diode1is considered to be one.
In reality the ideality1factor of the1diode is the function of the voltage across the diode. At

13
high voltages the recombination process in the diode is dominated at the bulk regions and
the single diode model works fine. But when the voltage is low i.e. when irradiance level is
lower the recombination process in the diode is dominated in the junctio n region which is
not accounted in the single diode model and for that a two diode model is used.
For this reason at lower values of temperatures and irradiance, the two diode model gives
much more accurate IV and PV curves as compared to the one diode model.

Since there are two diodes present which means there are seven unknown parameters in the
model therefore mathematical work and computations regarding the calculation of
parameters is much more complex and tedious. Moreover, despite the accuracy of the two
diode model it is slower as compared to one diode model therefore we move towards much
more simpler and faster model in analysis which is the single diode model. The equation of
current of the two diode model is given as,

2.7.3 THREE DIODE MODEL

The three diode model is a more accurate version of diode modeling as compared to the two
diode model. In two diode model, diode currents due to recombination in bulk region and
recombination in space charge region (depletion region) are represented by a same diode.
But in three diode model, diode currents due to recombination in these regions are
represented by a separate diode. The third diode represents the diode current due to
recombination in defect (a region where holes and electrons are trapped in a PN junction
which leads to recombination) [11] region. Separate modeling of the diode currents helps in
the study of the IV characteristics of the cell more accurately.

As the number of diodes increase in the modeling the number of parameters of the diode
which are to be calculated are also increased resulting in complex calculations but the
results and curves of this model are much more accurate and precise under varying weather
conditions. The current equation of three diode model is,

14
 Rs

Id1 Id2 Id3 Ish I

Rsh
Iph DC Vd1 Vd2 Vd3

FIG 2.12 THREE D IODE MODEL

The accuracy of the solar cell can be further increased by adding up to 'n' diodes in parallel
but it would increase the number of unknown parameters which would eventually lead to
increase in the computational complexity in determining the parameters of the model. As
the number of diodes increases the mathematical computation becomes more complex.

Rs

Id1 I
Idn Ish

Iph DC Vd1 Vdn Rsh

FIG 2.13 MULTI DIODE S OLAR MODEL

We have chosen single diode model in our simulation because of its simplicity and easier
implementation. Due to lesser number of equations and lesser unknown parameters in a
single diode model, the computational complexity is reduced as compared to other solar
models . As a result the implementation becomes easier.

15
2.8 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING(MPPT)
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is a technique to extract maximum power from a
solar panel by using the algorithms like Perturb and Observe (P&O) and Incremental
Conductance (IC). The point1at1which1maximum1power1is obtained from a1solar1panel
is called “maximum power1point”.

Maximum1power1point1tracking1is1based on the Maximum1power1transfer1theorem

which1states1that: “The powe r1output of a circuit is maximum1when the
source2impedance matches with the load1impedance”.

2.8.1 WORKING OF PERTURB AND OBSERVE (P&O)

Perturb1and1observe (P&O) changes2the operating voltage of the PV1array until
maximum power is achieved from it. If1the voltage is increased due to which1if the power
is also increased then P&O1considers that2it is near to MPP and thus1it further increases
the voltage by adding a suitable step size to it to reach the maximum power point. Similarly
if the voltage is decreased due to which if the power is also decreased then the step size is
subtracted in1order1to get to the maximum1power1point.

FIG 2.14 TRACKING OF MPP BY P&O

It can be explained by the flow chart of the algorithm given below

16
 START

Measure Vpv(t1), Ipv(t1)

P(t1)=Vpv(t1)*Ipv(t1)

Measure Vpv(t2), Ipv(t2)

P(t2)=Vpv(t2)*Ipv(t2)

∆P=P(t2)-P(t1)

∆V=V(t2)-V(t1)

∆P>0
NO YES

∆V<0
∆V>0
YES NO NO YES

D=D+∆D D=D-∆D D=D-∆D D=D+∆D

FIG 2.15 FLOW CHART OF PERTURB AND OBS ERVE ALGORITHM

P (t1) = previous power

P (t2) =current power

17
2.8.2 WHY P&O IS PREFERRED TECHNIQUE?
Although there are several algorithms for MPPT but we are selecting P&O because of the
following reasons

 This is the simplest method for maximum1power1point1tracking as it avoids the use

of PI controller to adjust the duty1cycle1of1the1converter to acquire the desired
output. The duty cycle is changed7automatically through this algorithm.

 By just measuring the voltage and current, it calculates power and takes decision by
comparing the current power value to the previous one and avoids any complex
calculation.

 This algorithm can be executed with low cost since only one voltage and current
sensor is required. This algorithm can be implemented easily b y using digital circuits
which makes it cost effective.

 P&O algorithm can be programmed easily by just using 'if' and 'else' statements
which reduces the complexity of the code.

Because of these prominent advantages, Perturb and observe has become the most
commonly used method for tracking maximum power in PV systems.

2.8.3 ERRATIC BEHAVIOR OF P&O

Despite of all the benefits one gets from the Perturb1and1Observe (P&O) algorithm it has a
problem7that in case of rapidly1changing atmospheric1conditions , the P&O1MPPT
algorithm may1actually1deviate1the1operating1point1from the peak power point (MPP)
momentarily. [12]

This can be explained as initially suppose we have the irradiation of 1000W/m2 and the
P&O algorithm starts to track down the maximum power point, just as it was about to track

18
the MPP, irradiation increases so as the amount of power. In this case the P&O takes this
increase of power as a result of its perturbation and doesn't identifies the increase in
irradiation which actually causes the increase in power. Due to this the P&O algorithm
moves on to increase the perturbation to the right side of the PV curve due to increase in
power but the actual maximum power point (MPP) is shift towards the left due to increase
in irradiation, as a result the operating point and the peak power point start to deviate from
one another which can cause power loss in the PV panel as can be seen from the PV curves
at increasing irradiation the peak power point shifts towards the left.

FIG 2.16 PV C URVES AT DIFFERENT IRRAD IATION

It is evident that there is some power1loss1due to this1perturbation due to which P&O fails
to track the power under fast changing1atmospheric1conditions. Still, this1algorithm1is
very popular because of its simplicity and easy implementation.

2.8.4 INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE METHOD:

In incremental conductance (IC) method, variation in conductance (dI/dV) is compared
with instantaneous1conductance (I/V) to decide in which direction, perturbation should be
done. It actually observes the sign of slope of power versus voltage (dP/dV). Duty cycle of
the converter1is1varied1until the maximum power is not achieved.

19
If dP/ dV = 0, at MPP

If dP/ dV > 0, at left of MPP

If dP/ dV < 0, at right of MPP

In terms of conductance, the above relations can be written as:

ΔI/ ΔV = -I/V, at MPP

ΔI/ ΔV > -I/V, at left of MPP

ΔI/ ΔV < -I/V, at right of MPP

2.8.5 WORKING OF INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE:

Incremental1conductance1method measures the voltage and current at instant (t1) .At next
instant (t2), it1measures1the1voltage1and1current again and computes the difference of
current values at both instants which is (dI) and voltage values which is dV. It then
calculates the ratio of variation in conductance1 (dI/dV) and instantaneous1conductance
(I/V). If (dI/dV > -I/V) or (dP/dV > 0), it assumes that it is near to MPP (left of MPP), and
increases the duty cycle of converter to increase the voltage. If (dI/dV < -I/V) or (dP/dV <
0), it considers that it is away from MPP (right of MPP), and decreases the duty cycle of
converter1to1decrease1the voltage. When (dI/dV = -I/V) or (dP/ dV = 0), the perturbation
is stopped, and it will oscillate around MPP.

One of the biggest advantage of IC method is that it performs the tracking very efficiently
and is of high precision. But it becomes slow and inaccurate in case of variable solar
radiation like Perturb and observe. [13]

As compared to perturb and observe, this method is complex as it has to compute sums,
difference and ratios of the voltage and current values to find the direction of next
perturbation. Whereas in perturb and observe, only previous powers and voltages are

20
compared. Due to this reason, incremental conductance also requires a lot of time for
computation.

Moreover hardware implementation of this method is very costly since it uses highly
sensitive current and voltage sensors.

START

Measure V(t1), I(t1)

Measure V(t2), I(t2)

∆I=I(t2)-I(t1)
∆V=V(t2)-V(t1)

YES
∆V=0

NO YES
∆I=0
YES
∆I/∆V=-I/V
NO

NO
∆I>0

∆I/∆V>-I/V

NO YES
YES NO

D=D+∆D D=D-∆D D=D-∆D D=D+∆D

FIG 2.17 FLOW CHART OF INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE

21
2.9 BUCK CONVERTER
Buck converter is a DC-DC step down converter which always gives a lesser voltage at the
output as compared to the input. Buck converter consist of a switching device (MOSFET,
IGBT, BJT), a diode, an inductor and a capacitor. Here, buck converter has been used
because of its simplicity.

L
Vout
Vin

CONTROL
DC BLOCK D1 Cout Load

FIG 2.18 BUCK CONVERTER

2.9.1 CIRCUIT OPERATION:

The working of the buck converter can be explained with the help of the diagram below.
There are two working operations of buck converter which are when the switch (S) is open
and when the switch (S) is closed.

iin iL iout iout

+ + + +
L L
+ VL - + VL -
Vin C Vout Vin C Vout
ID

- - - -
SWITCH S CLOSED SWITCH S OPEN
FIG 2.18 BUCK WORKING

22
When switch is closed:

When switch S closes current flows through the inductor so that it gets charged and reaches
the desired output voltage.

When switch is opened:

When output voltage reaches the desired value, switch is opened as shown in the figure
above and the diode becomes short circuited (closed) therefore the inductor starts
discharging through the diode i.e. the current continuously flows through the inductor.
Before the inductor completely discharges, S is closed and this process is repeated again
and again to get a smooth desired output voltage.

Ratio of the1output1voltage Vout to the input1voltage Vin can be changed by varying the
duty1cycle1of the1switch S. Duty1cycle is the ON time of the switch S. The longer the ON
time of S, the greater will be the Vout.

Where, D1is1the1converter’s1duty1cycle.

23
2.9.2 FUNCTION OF BUCK PARAMETERS

2.9.2.1 INDUCTOR:
The function of inductor is to store the energy. During the ON state, the inductor charges to
a desired value and the desired value can be set by giving the proper duty cycle. During
OFF state inductor discharges through diode, since this buck converter is working in a
continuous conduction mode so during the OFF state the inductor does not discharges
completely and hence provides a continuous supply to the load.

The inductor value is1proportional to the time that the switch S is ON2which implies that it
is inversely proportional1to the switching frequency. And it is inversely2proportional to the
ripple current which implies1that it is inversely proportional to the2load current. So as the
switching frequency or the load current increases low value inductor will be required. [14]

2.9.2.2 CAPACITOR:
The capacitor is used here as a low pass filter. Its purpose is to reduce the ripples and
overshoot across the output. As the value of the capacitance is increased, the ripple voltage
and output voltage overshoots are reduced. Therefore the greater the value of capacitance
the smooth the output voltage will be.

But practically capacitors contain an equivalent series resistance (ESR). This resistance
effects the output voltage ripple in direct proportion and the overall efficiency of the
converter(due to voltage drop across ESR). Hence an optimum value of the capacitor must
be chosen. [15]

24
2.9.3 CALCULATION OF BUCK PARAMETERS
Firstly we calculate the value of inductance by the formula shown below:

Where

D= Duty cycle

Vin = Input voltage

Vout = Output voltage

Iripple= Ripple current = normally taken 30% of the output current. [16]

Fs = Switching frequency

From the standard 1000 W/m2 irradiation following are the values found

Vin = 9.368v

Vout = 9.335v

Assuming switching frequency (Fs ) to be 100 KHz.

Iout = 3.241A

Iripple= 0.3x3.241= 0.9723A

Duty cycle is given as,

Now, putting the above values in eq. 1

25
For capacitance,

Where

∆V= ripple voltage which is normally 1% of the output voltage. [16]

∆V= 0.01x9.335= 0.09335v

2.9.4 FUNCTION OF PWM :

A pulse width modulator (PWM) is a device which takes the input of the duty cycle and outputs a
pulse to the electronic switch (which can be a MOSFET, BJT) of a DC-DC converter. Since the
switches normally take input in the form of pulses therefore PWM is used here.

2.9.5 EFFICIENCY PARAMETERS OF BUCK CONVERTER:

The major parameters on which the efficiency of buck converter depends upon are given below:

 Switching frequency (Fs )

 MOSFET
 Inductor power loss

26
2.9.5.1 SWITCHING FREQUENCY (Fs ):
The switching frequency of the buck parameter should be as high as possible so that smaller value
of inductance can be used. The another advantage is that by using high frequency the delay from
input to output created by the switching time (1/fs) becomes smaller. The switching frequency of
buck converter is typically in the range of 10s to 100s of KHz. [14]

2.9.5.2 MOSFET:
The total losses in any MOSFET occurred due to conduction and due to switching of the MOSFET
are given as

Where,

is the Drain to source resistance

is the Drain to source current

As these losses are increased in the MOSFET the efficiency of the buck converter is greatly
reduced.

Here, we have chosen MOSFET as a switching device because it switching is much faster as
compared to other devices. Moreover MOSFET have very small internal losses. [17]

2.9.5.3 INDUCTOR LOSSES:

In buck converter, at high load currents the equivalent series resistance (ESR) of the winding of an
inductor will be high enough to make its impact on the efficiency of the converter. [17] The losses
in the inductor due to ESR can be found by the formula shown below:

Where,

Iout is the load current connected at the output of the buck.

27
P inductor is the power loss across the inductor.

ESR is the inductor’s equivalent series resistance

2.9.5.4 CAPACITOR:
Similar to the inductor, the capacitor also contains equivalent series resistance (ESR) which effects
the overall efficiency of the buck1converter 6due to voltage drop across the resistance. [15]

28
 CHAP TER 3
SOLAR PANEL MODELLING AND SIMULATION

The whole1system to1extract1maximum1power from1the solar panel is comprised of three

sub-systems namely
 SOLAR1PANEL
 MPPT 1(P&O AND INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE ALGORITHM)
 DC-DC CONVERTER

3.1 SOLAR PANEL MODELLING:

The solar1panel is made through modeling its2equations in order to get voltage and1current
from the panel. [18] The solar panel which we used has the following parameters.

TABLE 3.1 S OLAR PAN EL PARAMETERS

PARAMETERS VALUES
Power 47 W
VOC 19.9 V
ISC 3.27 A
Ns1 (series cells) 33
Np1 (parallel cells) 1
Boltzman1Constant(K) 1.38e-23 J/K
Electron1charge 1.6e-19 C
Gn (Reference Irradiance) 1000 W/m2
Ideality factor (a) (assuming mono-crystalline silicon
1.3
panel)
Material Band Gap Energy (Eg) (assuming mono-
1.12 eV
crystalline silicon panel)
Temperature Coefficient (μ SC) 0.0032 0 C-1
Series1resistance (Rs ) 0.45 Ω
Shunt1Resistance (Rp ) 100 Ω
Tn 298 K

29
Solar panel modeling divides into following blocks of equations.

3.1.1 PHOTOCURRENT

Where
IPV = Photocurrent
G = Irradiance
Gn = 1000 W/m2 = reference irradiance
IPV,n = ISC,ref = 3.27 A
KI = Temperature Coefficient = 0.0032 0 C-1
∆T=T-Tn

FIG 3.1 PHOTOCURRENT

3.1.2 REFERENCE SATURATION CURRENT (NOMINAL STURATION

CURRENT OF DIODE)

30
 Where
Vt,n = thermal voltage = kT/q
VOC,n = Nominal Open circuit Voltage = 19.9 V

FIG 3.2 REFERENCE S ATURATION CURRENT

It is actually the leakage current of the diode.

3.1.3 SATURATION CURRENT

31
 FIG 3.3 S ATURATION CURRENT

The input to the controlled current source is actually the difference between the
photocurrent generated and the diode current after which the two resistances namely series
and shunt1resistances are connected in order1to get the practical IV1and PV curves. That is
why diode is not represented in the model because it has been included in the equation. The
IV and PV curves at different irradiation are shown below.

where

32
 Voltage vs Power
60
Irr=1000W/m2 T=30degrees
Irr=600W/m2 T=30degrees
50 Irr=300W/m2 T=30degrees
Irr=1000W/m2 T=60degrees
Irr=600W/m2 T=60degrees
40 Irr=300W/m2 T=60degrees
Power

30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Voltage

Voltage vs Current
5.5
Irr=1000W/m2 T=30degrees
5 Irr=600W/m2 T=30degrees
4.5 Irr=300W/m2 T=30degrees
Irr=1000W/m2 T=60degrees
4 Irr=600W/m2 T=60degrees
Irr=300W/m2 T=60degrees
3.5

3
Current

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Voltage

FIG 3.4 IV AND PV CURVES AT DIFFERENT IRRADIANCES AND TEMPERATURES

33
 FIG 3.5 FIN AL PANEL C URRENT

3.2 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING ALGORITHMS

CODING

3.2.1 PERTURB AND OBSERVE (P&O) CODING

function1D = PandO(Param, V, I)
% MPPT controller based on the Perturb1&1Observe algorithm.
% D output = Duty cycle1of the boost converter (value between 0 and 1)
% V input = PV1array terminal voltage (V)
% I input = PV1array current (A)
% Param2input:
Dinit = Param(1); %Initial1value for D output
Dmax = Param(2); %Maximum1value for D
Dmin = Param(3); %Minimum1value for D

34
deltaD = Param(4); %Increment1value1used1to1increase/decrease the duty cycle D
% ( increasing1D = decreasing1Vref )
persistent Vold1Pold1Dold;
if isempty(Vold)
Vold=0; 1
Pold=0; 1
Dold=Dinit; 1
end1
P= V*I; 1
dV= V - Vold; 1
dP= P - Pold; 1
if dP ~= 011
if dP < 01
if dV < 01
D = Dold - deltaD; 1
else1
D = Dold + deltaD; 1
end1
else1
if dV < 01
D = Dold + deltaD; 1
else1
D = Dold - deltaD; 1
end1
end1
else D=Dold; 1
end1
if D >= Dmax || D<= Dmin1
D=Dold; 1
end1
Dold=D; 1
35
Vold=V; 1
Pold=P; 1
end1

FIG 3.6 P&O IMPLEMENTED WITH BUCK CONVERTER

3.2.2 INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE (IC) CODING

function D = InCon(Param, V, I)

% MPPT controller based on the IncrementalConductance algorithm.

% D output = Duty cycle of the boost converter (value between 0 and 1)

% V input = PV1array1terminal1voltage (V)

% I input = PV1array current (A)

% Param input:

36
Dinit = Param(1); %Initial1value for D output
Dmax = Param(2); %Maximum1value for D
Dmin = Param(3); %Minimum1value for D
deltaD = Param(4); %Increment1value used to increase/decrease the duty cycle D

% Define constants
E = 0.002; % Maximum1dI/dV error

persistent Vold Iold Dold ; 1

if isempty(Vold) 1
Vold=0; 1
Iold=0; 1
Dold=Dinit; 1
end1
dV= V - Vold; 1
dI= I - Iold; 1

if dV == 01
if dI == 01
D=Dold; % No change1
elseif dI > 01
D = Dold - deltaD; 1% Increase Vref
else1
D = Dold + deltaD; 1% Decrease Vref1
end1
else1
if abs(dI/dV + I/V) <= E1
D=Dold; % No change1
else1
if dI/dV > -I/V + E
37
D = Dold - deltaD; 1 % Increase Vref
else1
D = Dold + deltaD; 1 % Decrease Vref
end1
end1
end1

if D >= Dmax || D<= Dmin1

D=Dold; 1
end1

Dold=D; 1
Vold=V; 1
Iold=I; 1
end1

The implementation of the system with incremental conductance along with DC-DC buck
converter is given as

38
 FIG 3.7 INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE IMPLEMENTED WITH BUCK CONVERTER

The values of the parameters of the buck converter are given below

TABLE 3.2 BUCK CONVERTER PARAMETER VALUES

PARAMETERS VALUE

Inductor (L) 3.38e-07 H

Capacitor (C) 1.301e-05 farad

Rload (Power) 50 W

39
 CHAP TER 4
SIMULATION RESULTS

The simulation results of both the algorithms at different irradiances are shown below in
order to compare their performance. It is evident from the graphs that both the algorithms
are pretty similar in terms of their performances and efficiencies at different irradiances.

4.1 AT IRRADIANCE 1000W/m2

FIG 4.1 IRRADIANCE AT 1000 W/m2 WITH P&O

40
 FIG 4.2 IRRADIANCE AT 1000 W/m2 WITH IC

4.2 AT IRRADIANCE 600W/m2

FIG 4.3 IRRADIANCE AT 600 W/m2 WITH P&O

41
 FIG 4.3 IRRADIANCE AT 600 W/m2 WITH IC

4.3 AT IRRADIANCE 300W/m2

FIG 4.4 IRRADIANCE AT 300 W/m2 WITH P&O

42
FIG 4.5 IRRADIANCE AT 300 W/m2 WITH IC

43
 CHAP TER 5
CONCLUSION
A detailed analysis and study of both the algorithms have been done and their performance
at different irradiances is provided in the table below

TABLE 5.1 COMPARIS ION OF MAXIMUM PO WER POINTS OF P&O AND IC ALGORITHMS

IRRADIANCE (W/m2 ) P&O (MPP) IC (MPP)

1000 29.02 Watts 29.04 Watts
600 10.45 Watts 10.46 Watts
300 2.616 Watts 2.616 Watts

The graphs at different irradiances suggest that the efficiencies of both Perturb and Observe
and Incremental1Conductance can be quite1high but the easier implementation of the P&O
algorithm1outweighs any sort of advantage that is offered by the IC algorithm. The P&O
algorithm can be easily implemented with analog2hardware where as in case of incremental
conductance, it requires more complex circuitry because it involves relatively1complex
decision1making process in its algorithm. [13]

As a result the computational complexity of IC algorithm increases which in turn increases

the cost of the overall system associated with it. However, under rapidly changing
atmospheric conditions IC2tracks the maximum2power point better as compared to the
Perturb and Observe algorithm.

Thus, it is solely based on the purpose of application to choose the optimum algorithm. In
small applications and areas where the solar energy is abundantly available it is best to use
P&O algorithm as it will reduce the cost of the system and will make the number of
computations less. Where as in the case of those areas where weather conditions are
changing frequently and on large PV systems, accuracy and efficiency of MPPT is of
utmost importance. Therefore Incremental Conductance algorithm in these cases is the most
favorable.

44
 REFERENCES

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INTELLIGENT DC/DC CONVERTER TO TRACK MAXIMUM POWER POINT
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[2] S. B. Christiana Honsberg, "PV Education," [Online]. Available:

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[5] H. R. MARTIN WOLF, "SERIES RESISTANCE EFFECTS ON SOLAR CELL,"

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45
[13] M. E. R. D. P. Hohm, "Comparative Study of Maximum Power Point Tracking
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[14] B. Dildine, "Buck Converter Basics," 2013.

[15] "LC Selection Guide for the DC-DC Synchronous Buck Converter," 2013.

[16] Y. K. D. S. P. Mahesh Gowda N M, "Modelling of Buck DC-DC Converter Using

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[17] J. Depew, "Microchip," [Online]. Available:

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46
47